Fish moving on dry land

SKETCHES

OF THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF CEYLON

WITH

NARRATIVES AND ANECDOTES

Illustrative of the Habits and Instincts of the

MAMMALIA, BIRDS, REPTILES, FISHES, INSECTS, &c.

INCLUDING A MONOGRAPH OF

THE ELEPHANT

AND A DESCRIPTION OF THE MODES OF CAPTURING AND TRAINING IT

WITH ENGRAVINGS FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS

BY

SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S. LL.D. &c.

1861

[Illustration]

INTRODUCTION.

* * * * *

A considerable portion of the contents of the present volume formed the

zoological section of a much more comprehensive work recently published,

on the history and present condition of Ceylon.[1] But its inclusion

there was a matter of difficulty; for to have altogether omitted the

chapters on Natural History would have impaired the completeness of the

plan on which I had attempted to describe the island; whilst to insert

them as they here appear, without curtailment, would have encroached

unduly on the space required for other essential topics. In this

dilemma, I was obliged to adopt the alternative of so condensing the

matter as to bring the whole within the prescribed proportions.

But this operation necessarily diminished the general interest of the

subjects treated, as well by the omission of incidents which would

otherwise have been retained, as by the exclusion of anecdotes

calculated to illustrate the habits and instincts of the animals

described.

[Footnote 1: _Ceylon: An Account of the Island, Physical, Historical,

and Typographical; with Notices of its Natural History, Antiquities, and

Productions._ By Sir JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S., LL.D., &c.

Illustrated by Maps. Plans, and Drawings. 2 vols. 8vo. Longman and Co.,

1859.]

A suggestion to re-publish these sections in an independent form has

afforded an opportunity for repairing some of these defects by revising

the entire, restoring omitted passages, and introducing fresh materials

collected in Ceylon; the additional matter occupying a very large

portion of the present volume.

I have been enabled, at the same time, to avail myself of the

corrections and communications of scientific friends; and thus to

compensate, in some degree for what is still incomplete, by increased

accuracy in minute particulars.

In the Introduction to the First Edition of the original work I alluded,

in the following terms, to that portion of it which is now reproduced in

an extended form:--

"Regarding the _fauna_ of Ceylon, little has been published in any

collective form, with the exception of a volume by Dr. KELAART entitled

_Prodromus Faunæ Zeilanicæ_; several valuable papers by Mr. EDGAR L.

LAYARD in the _Annals and Magazine of Natural History_ for 1852 and

1853; and some very imperfect lists appended to PRIDHAM'S compiled

account of the island.[1] KNOX, in the charming narrative of his

captivity, published in the feign of Charles II., has devoted a chapter

to the animals of Ceylon, and Dr. DAVY has described some of the

reptiles: but with these exceptions the subject is almost untouched in

works relating to the colony. Yet a more than ordinary interest attaches

to the inquiry, since Ceylon, instead of presenting, as is generally

assumed, an identity between its _fauna_ and that of Southern India,

exhibits a remarkable diversity, taken in connection with the limited

area over which the animals included in it are distributed. The island,

in fact, may be regarded as the centre of a geographical circle,

possessing within itself forms, whose allied species radiate far into

the temperate regions of the north, as well as in to Africa, Australia,

and the isles of the Eastern Archipelago.

[Footnote 1: _An Historical, Political, and Statistical Account of

Ceylon and its Dependencies_, by C. PRIDHAM, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo., London,

1849.]

"In the chapters that I have devoted to its elucidation, I have

endeavoured to interest others in the subject, by describing my own

observations and impressions, with fidelity, and with as much accuracy

as may be expected from a person possessing, as I do, no greater

knowledge of zoology and the other physical sciences than is ordinarily

possessed by any educated gentleman. It was my good fortune, however, in

my journeys to have the companionship of friends familiar with many

branches of natural science: the late Dr. GARDNER, Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD,

an accomplished zoologist, Dr. TEMPLETON, and others; and I was thus

enabled to collect on the spot many interesting facts relative to the

structure and habits of the numerous tribes. These, chastened by the

corrections of my fellow-travellers, and established by the examination

of collections made in the colony, and by subsequent comparison with

specimens contained in museums at home, I have ventured to submit as

faithful outlines of the _fauna_ of Ceylon.

"The sections descriptive of the several classes are accompanied by

lists, prepared with the assistance of scientific friends, showing the

extent to which each particular branch had been investigated by

naturalists, up to the period of my departure from Ceylon at the close

of 1849. These, besides their inherent interest, will, I trust,

stimulate others to engage in the same pursuit, by exhibiting chasms,

which it remains for future industry and research to fill up;--and the

study of the zoology of Ceylon may thus serve as a preparative for that

of Continental India, embracing, as the former does, much that is common

to both, as well as possessing a _fauna_ peculiar to the island, that in

itself will amply repay more extended scrutiny.

"From these lists have been excluded all species regarding the

authenticity of which reasonable doubts could be entertained[1], and of

some of them, a very few have been printed in _italics_, in order to

denote the desirability of more minute comparison with well-determined

specimens in the great national depositories before finally

incorporating them with the Singhalese catalogues.

[Footnote 1: An exception occurs in the list of shells, prepared by Mr.

SYLVANUS HANLEY, in which some whose localities are doubtful have been

admitted for reasons adduced. (See p. 387.)]

"In the labour of collecting and verifying the facts embodied in these

sections, I cannot too warmly express my thanks for the aid I have

received from gentlemen interested in similar studies in Ceylon: from

Dr. KELAART[1] and Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD, as well as from officers of the

Ceylon Civil Service; the Hon. GERALD C. TALBOT, Mr. C.R. BULLER, Mr.

MERCER, Mr. MORRIS, Mr. WHITING, Major SKINNER, and Mr. MITFORD.

[Footnote 1: It is with deep regret that I have to record the death of

this accomplished gentleman, which occurred in 1860.]

"Before venturing to commit these chapters of my work to the press, I

have had the advantage of having portions of them read by Professor

HUXLEY, Mr. MOORE, of the East India House Museum; Mr. R. PATTERSON,

F.R.S., author of the _Introduction to Zoology_; and by Mr. ADAM WHITE,

of the British Museum; to each of whom I am exceedingly indebted for the

care they have bestowed. In an especial degree I have to acknowledge the

kindness of Dr. J.E. GRAY, F.R.S., for valuable additions and

corrections in the list of the Ceylon Reptilia; and to Professor FARADAY

for some notes on the nature and qualities of the "Serpent Stone,"[2]

submitted to him.

[Footnote 2: See p. 312.]

"The extent to which my observations on _the Elephant_ have been

carried, requires some explanation. The existing notices of this noble

creature are chiefly devoted to its habits and capabilities _in

captivity_; and very few works, with which I am acquainted, contain

illustrations of its instincts and functions when wild in its native

woods. Opportunities for observing the latter, and for collecting facts

in connection with them, are abundant in Ceylon; and from the moment of

my arrival, I profited by every occasion afforded to me for observing

the elephant in a state of nature, and obtaining from hunters and

natives correct information as to its oeconomy and disposition.

Anecdotes in connection with this subject, I received from some of the

most experienced residents in the island; amongst others, from Major

SKINNER, Captain PHILIP PAYNE GALLWEY, Mr. FAIRHOLME, Mr. CRIPPS, and

Mr. MORRIS. Nor can I omit to express my acknowledgments to Professor

OWEN, of the British Museum, to whom this portion of my manuscript was

submitted previous to its committal to the press."

To the foregoing observations I have little to add beyond my

acknowledgment to Dr. ALBERT GÜNTHER, of the British Museum, for the

communication of important facts in illustration of the ichthyology of

Ceylon, as well as of the reptiles of the island.

Mr. BLYTH, of the Calcutta Museum, has carefully revised the Catalogue

of Birds, and supplied me with much useful information in regard to

their geographical distribution. To his experienced scrutiny is due the

perfected state in which the list is now presented. It will be seen,

however, from the italicised names still retained, that inquiry is far

from being exhausted.

Mr. THWAITES, the able Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at

Peradenia, near Kandy, has forwarded to me many valuable observations,

not only in connection with the botany, but the zoology of the mountain

region. The latter I have here embodied in their appropriate places, and

those relating to plants and vegetation will appear in a future edition

of my large work.

To M. NIETNER, of Colombo, I am likewise indebted for many particulars

regarding Singhalese Entomology, a department to which his attention has

been given, with equal earnestness and success.

Through the Hon. RICHARD MORGAN, acting Senior Puisne Judge of the

Supreme Court at Colombo, I have received from his Interpreter, M.D. DE

SILVA GOONERATNE MODLIAR, a Singhalese gentleman of learning and

observation, many important notes, of which I have largely availed

myself, in relation to the wild animals, and the folk-lore and

superstitions of the natives in connection with them.

Of the latter I have inserted numerous examples; in the conviction that,

notwithstanding their obvious errors in many instances, these popular

legends and traditions occasionally embody traces of actual observation,

and may contain hints and materials deserving of minuter inquiry.

I wish distinctly to disclaim offering the present volume as a

compendium of the Natural History of Ceylon. I present it merely as a

"mémoire pour servir," materials to assist some future inquirer in the

formation of a more detailed and systematic account of the _fauna_ of

the island. My design has been to point out to others the extreme

richness and variety of the field, the facility of exploring it, and the

charms and attractions of the undertaking. I am eager to show how much

remains to do by exhibiting the little that has as yet been done.

The departments of _Mammalia_ and _Birds_ are the only two which can be

said to have as yet undergone tolerably close investigation; although

even in these it is probable that large additions still remain to be

made to the ascertained species. But, independently of forms and

specific characteristics, the more interesting inquiry into habits and

instincts is still open for observation and remark; and for the

investigation of these no country can possibly afford more inviting

opportunities than Ceylon.

Concerning the _Reptilia_ a considerable amount of information has been

amassed. The Batrachians and smaller Lizards have, I apprehend, been

imperfectly investigated; but the Tortoises are well known, and the

Serpents, from the fearful interest attaching to the race, and

stimulating their destruction, have been so vigilantly pursued, that

there is reason to believe that few, if any, varieties exist which have

not been carefully examined. In a very large collection, made by Mr.

CHARLES REGINALD BULLER during many years' residence in Kandy, and

recently submitted by him to Dr. Günther, only one single specimen

proved to be new or previously unknown to belong to the island.

Of the _Ichthyology_ of Ceylon I am obliged to speak ill very different

terms; for although the materials are abundant almost to profusion,

little has yet been done to bring them under thoroughly scientific

scrutiny. In the following pages I have alluded to the large collection

of examples of Fishes sent home by officers of the Medical Staff, and

which still remain unopened, in the Fort Pitt Museum at Chatham; but I

am not without hope that these may shortly undergo comparison with the

drawings which exist of each, and that this branch of the island _fauna_

may at last attract the attention to which its richness so eminently

entitles it.

In the department of Entomology much has already been achieved; but an

extended area still invites future explorers; and one which the Notes of

Mr. Walker prefixed to the List of Insects in this volume, show to be of

extraordinary interest, from the unexpected convergence in Ceylon of

characteristics heretofore supposed to have been kept distinct by the

broad lines of geographical distribution.

Relative to the inferior classes of _Invertebrata_ very little has as

yet been ascertained. The Mollusca, especially the lacustrine and

fluviatile, have been most imperfectly investigated; and of the

land-shells, a large proportion have yet to be submitted to scientific

examination.

The same may be said of the _Arachnida_ and _Crustacea_. The jungle is

frequented by spiders, _phalangia_[1], and acarids, of which nothing is

known with certainty; and the sea-shore and sands have been equally

overlooked, so far as concerns the infinite variety of lobsters,

crayfish, crabs, and all their minor congeners. The _polypi, echini,

asterias_, and other _radiata_ of the coast, as well as the _acalephæ_

of the deeper waters, have shared the same neglect: and literally

nothing has been done to collect and classify the infusoriæ and minuter

zoophytes, the labours of Dr. Kelaart amongst the Diatomaceæ being the

solitary exception.

[Footnote 1: Commonly called "harvest-men."]

Nothing is so likely to act as a stimulant to future research as an

accurate conception of what has already been achieved. With equal

terseness and truth Dr. Johnson has observed that the traveller who

would bring back knowledge from any country must carry knowledge with

him at setting out: and I am not without hope that the demonstration I

now venture to offer, of the little that has already been done for

zoology in Ceylon, may serve to inspire others with a desire to resume

and complete the inquiry.

J. EMERSON TENNENT

London: November 1st, 1861.

CONTENTS.

* * * * *

CHAPTER I.

MAMMALIA.

Neglect of zoology in Ceylon

Labours of Dr. Davy

Followed by Dr. Templeton and others

Dr. Kelaart and Mr. E.L. Layard

Monkeys

The Rilawa, _Macacus pileatus_

Wanderoos

Knox's account of them

Error regarding the _Silenus Veter (note)_

Presbytes Cephalopterus

Fond of eating flowers

A white monkey

Method of the flight of monkeys

P. Ursinus in the Hills

P. Thersites in the Wanny

P. Priamus, Jaffna and Trincomalie

No dead monkey ever found

Loris

Bats

Flying Fox, _Pteropus Edwardsii_

Their numbers at Peradenia

Singularity of their attitudes

Food and mode of eating

Horse-shoe bat, _Rhinolophus_

Faculty of smell in bat

A tiny bat, _Scotophilus foromandelicus_

Extraordinary parasite of the bat, the _Nycteribia_

_Carnivora_.--Bears

Their ferocity

Singhalese belief in the efficacy of charms (_note_)

Leopards

Erroneously confounded with the Indian _cheetah_

Curious belief

Anecdotes of leopards

Their attraction by the smallpox

Native superstition

Encounter with a leopard

Monkeys killed by leopards

Alleged peculiarity of the claws

Palm-cat

Civet

Dogs

Cruel mode of destroying dogs

Their republican instincts

Jackal

Cunning, anecdotes of

The horn of the jackal

Mungoos

Its fights with serpents

Theory of its antidote

Squirrels

Flying squirrel

Tree-rat

Story of a rat and a snake

Coffee-rat

Bandicoot

Porcupine

Pengolin

Its habits and gentleness

Its skeleton

_Ruminantia_.--The Gaur

Oxen

Humped cattle

Encounter of a cow and a leopard

Draft oxen

Their treatment

A _Tavalam_

Attempt to introduce the camel (note)

Buffaloes

Sporting buffaloes

Peculiar structure of the foot

Deer

Meminna

Elk

Wild-boar

Elephants

Recent discovery of a new species

Geological speculations as to the island of Ceylon

Ancient tradition

Opinion of Professor Ansted

Peculiarities in Ceylon mammalia

The same in Ceylon birds and insects

Temminck's discovery of a new species of elephant in Sumatra

Points of distinction between it and the elephant of India

Professor Schlegel's description

_Cetacea_

Whales

The Dugong

Origin of the fable of the mermaid

Credulity of the Portuguese

Belief of the Dutch

Testimony of Valentyn

List of Ceylon mammalia

CHAP. II

THE ELEPHANT

* * * * *

_Its Structure_.

Vast numbers in Ceylon

Derivation of the word "elephant" (note)

Antiquity of the trade in elephants

Numbers now diminishing

Mischief done by them to crops

Ivory scarce in Ceylon

Conjectures as to the absence of tusks

Elephant a harmless animal

Alleged antipathies to other animals

Fights with each other

The foot its chief weapon

Use of the tusks in a wild state doubtful

Anecdote of sagacity in an elephant at Kandy

Difference between African and Indian species

Native ideas of perfection in an elephant

Blotches on the skin

White elephants not unknown in Ceylon

CHAP. III.

THE ELEPHANT

* * * * *

_Its Habits_.

Water, but not heat, essential to elephants

Sight limited

Smell acute

Caution

Hearing, good

Cries of the elephant

Trumpeting

Booming noise

Height, exaggerated

Facility of stealthy motion

Ancient delusion as to the joints of the leg

Its exposure by Sir Thos. Browne

Its perpetuation by poets and others

Position of the elephant in sleep

An elephant killed on its feet

Mode of lying down

Its gait a shuffle

Power of climbing mountains

Facilitated by the joint of the knee

Mode of descending declivities

A "herd" is a family

Attachment to their young

Suckled indifferently by the females

A "rogue" elephant

Their cunning and vice

Injuries done by them

The leader of a herd a tusker

Bathing and nocturnal gambols, description of a scene by Major Skinner

Method of swimming

Internal anatomy imperfectly known

Faculty of storing water

Peculiarity of the stomach

The food of the elephant

Sagacity in search of it

Unexplained dread of fences

Its spirit of inquisitiveness

Anecdotes illustrative of its curiosity

Estimate of sagacity

Singular conduct of a herd during thunder

An elephant feigning death

_Appendix_.--Narratives of natives, as to encounters with rogue

elephants

CHAP. IV.

THE ELEPHANT

* * * * *

_Elephant Shooting_.

Vast numbers shot in Ceylon

Revolting details of elephant killing in Africa

Fatal spots at which to aim

Structure of the bones of the head

Wounds which are certain to kill

Attitudes when surprised

Peculiar movements when reposing

Habits when attacked

Sagacity of native trackers

Courage and agility of the elephants in escape

Worthlessness of the carcass

Singular recovery from a wound

CHAP. V.

THE ELEPHANT.

* * * * *

_An Elephant Corral_.

Early method of catching elephants

Capture in pit-falls

By means of decoys

Panickeas--their courage and address

Their sagacity in following the elephant

Mode of capture by the noose

Mode of taming

Method of leading the elephants to the coast

Process of embarking them at Manaar

Method of capturing a whole herd

The "keddah" in Bengal described

Process of enclosing a herd

Process of capture in Ceylon

An elephant corral and its construction

An elephant hunt in Ceylon, 1847

The town and district of Kornegalle

The rock of Ætagalla

Forced labour of the corral in former times

Now given voluntarily

Form of the enclosure

Method of securing a wild herd

Scene when driving them into the corral

A failure

An elephant drove by night

Singular scene in the corral

Excitement of the tame elephants

CHAP. VI.

THE ELEPHANT.

* * * * *

_The Captives_.

A night scene

Morning in the corral

Preparations for securing the captives

The "cooroowe," or noosers

The tame decoys

First captive tied up

Singular conduct of the wild elephants

Furious attempts of the herd to escape

Courageous conduct of the natives

Variety of disposition exhibited by the herd

Extraordinary contortions of the captives

Water withdrawn from the stomach

Instinct of the decoys

Conduct of the noosers

The young ones and their actions

Noosing a "rogue." and his death

Instinct of flies in search of carrion (_note_)

Strange scene

A second herd captured

Their treatment of a solitary elephant

A magnificent female elephant

Her extraordinary attitudes

Wonderful contortions

Taking the captives out of the corral

Their subsequent treatment and training

Grandeur of the scene

Story of young pet elephant

CHAP. VII.

THE ELEPHANT.

* * * * *

_Conduct in Captivity_.

Alleged superiority of the Indian to the African elephant--not true

Ditto of Ceylon elephant to Indian

Process of training in Ceylon

Allowed to bathe

Difference of disposition

Sudden death of "broken heart"

First employment treading clay

Drawing a waggon

Dragging timber

Sagacity in labour

Mode of raising stones

Strength in throwing down trees exaggerated

Piling timber

Not uniform in habits of work

Lazy if not watched

Obedience to keeper from affection, not fear

Change of keeper--story of child

Ear for sounds and music

_Hurra! (note)_

Endurance of pain

Docility

Working elephants, delicate

Deaths in government stud

Diseases

Subject to tooth-ache

Question of the value of labour of an elephant

Food in captivity, and cost

Breed in captivity

Age

Theory of M. Fleurens

No dead elephants found

Sindbad's story

Passage from Ælian

CHAP. VIII.

BIRDS.

Their numbers

Songsters

Hornbills, the "bird with two heads"

Pea fowl

Sea birds, their number

I. _Accipitres_.--Eagles

Falcons and hawks

Owls--the devil bird

II. _Passeres_.--Swallows

Kingfishers--sunbirds

The cotton-thief

Bul-bul--tailor bird--and weaver

The mountain jay

Crows, anecdotes of

III. _Scansores_.--Parroquets

IV. _Columbidæ_.--Pigeons

V. _Gallinæ_.--Jungle-fowl

VI. _Grallæ_.--Ibis, stork, &c.

VII. _Anseres_.--Flamingoes

Pelicans

Strange scene

Game--Partridges, &c.

List of Ceylon birds

List of birds peculiar to Ceylon

CHAP. IX.

REPTILES.

_Lizards_.--Iguana

Kabara-goya, barbarous custom in preparing the kabara-tel poison

Blood-suckers

The green calotes

The lyre-headed lizard

Chameleon

Ceratophora

Geckoes,--their power of reproducing limbs

Crocodiles

Their sensitiveness to tickling

Anecdotes of crocodiles

Their power of burying themselves in the mud

_Tortoises_.--Curious parasite

Terrapins

Edible turtle

Cruel mode of cutting it up alive

Huge Indian tortoises (_note_)

Hawk's-bill turtle, barbarous mode of stripping it of the tortoise-shell

_Serpents_.--Venomous species rare

Tic polonga and carawala

Cobra de capello

Tame snakes (_note_)

Anecdotes of the cobra de capello

Legends concerning it

Instance of land snakes found at sea

Singular tradition regarding the robra de capello

Uropeltidæ.--New species discovered in Ceylon

Buddhist veneration for the cobra de capello

The Python

Tree snakes

Water snakes

Sea snakes

Snake stones

Analysis of one

Cæcilia

Frogs

Tree frogs

List of Ceylon reptiles

CHAP. X.

FISHES.

Ichthyology of Ceylon, little known

Fish for table, seir fish

Sardines, poisonous?

Sharks

Saw-fish

Fish of brilliant colours

The ray

The sword-fish

Curious fish described by Ælian

_Salarias alticus_

Beautifully coloured fishes

Fresh-water fish, little known,--not much eaten

Fresh-water fish in Colombo Lake

Perches

Eels

Immense profusion of fish in the rivers and lakes

Their re-appearance after rain

Mode of fishing in the ponds

Showers of fish

Conjecture that the ova are preserved, not tenable

Fish moving on dry land

Ancient authorities, Greek and Roman

Aristotle and Theophrastus

Athenæus and Polybius

Livy, Pompomus, Mela, and Juvenal

Seneca and Pliny

Georgius Agricola, Gesner, &c.

Instances in Guiana (_note_)

_Perca Scandens_, ascends trees

Doubts as to the story of Daldorf

Fishes burying themselves daring the dry season

The _protopterus_ of the Gambia

Instances in the fish of the Nile

Instances in the fish of South America

Living fish dug out of the ground in the dry tanks in Ceylon

Molluscs that bury themselves

The animals that so bury themselves in India

Analogous case of

Theory of æstivation and hybernation

Fish in hot water in Ceylon

List of Ceylon fishes

Instances of fishes falling from the clouds

_Note_ on Ceylon fishes by Professor Huxley

Comparative note by Dr. Gray, Brit. Mus.

_Note_ on the Bora-chung

CHAP. XI.

MOLLUSCA, RADIATA, AND ACALEPHÆ.

I. _Conchology_.--General character of Ceylon shells

Confusion regarding them in scientific works and collections

Ancient export of shells from Ceylon

Special forms confined to particular localities

The pearl fishery of Aripo

Frequent suspensions of

Experiment to create beds of the pearl oyster

Process of diving for pearls

Danger from sharks

The transparent pearl oyster (_Placuna placenta_)

The "musical fish" at Ballicaloa

A similar phenomenon at other places

Faculty of uttering sounds in fishes

Instance in the _Tritonia arborescens_

Difficulty in forming a list of Ceylon shells

List of Ceylon shells

II. _Radiata_.--Star fish

Sea slugs

Parasitic worms

Planaria

III. _Acalephæ_, abundant

The Portuguese man-of-war

Red infusoria

_Note_ on the _Tritonia arborescens_

CHAP. XII.

INSECTS.

Profusion of insects in Ceylon

Imperfect knowledge of

I. _Coleoptera_.--Beetles

Scavenger beetles

Coco-nut beetles

Tortoise beetles

II. _Orthoptera_.--Mantis and leaf-insects

Stick-insects

III. _Neuroptera_.--Dragon flies

Ant-lion

White ants

Anecdotes of their instinct and ravages

IV. _Hymenoptera_.--Mason wasps

Wasps

Bees

Carpenter Bee

Ants

Burrowing ants

V. _Lepidoptera_.--Butterflies

The spectre

Lycænidæ

Moths

Silk worms

Stinging caterpillars

Wood-carrying moths

Pterophorus

VI. _Homoptera_

Cicada

VII. _Hemiptera_

Bugs

VIII. _Aphaniptera_

IX. _Diptera_.--Mosquitoes

Mosquitoes the "plague of flies"

The coffee bug

General character of Ceylon insects

List of insects in Ceylon

CHAP. XIII.

ARACHNIDÆ, MYRIOPODA, CRUSTACÆ, ETC.

Spiders

Strange nets of the wood spiders

The mygale

Birds killed by it

_Olios Taprobanius_

The galeodes

Gregarious spiders

Ticks

Mites.--_Trombidium tinctorum_

_Myriapods_.--Centipedes

Cermatia

Scolopendra crassa

S. pollippes

The fish insect

_Millipeds_.--Julus

_Crustacæ_

Calling crabs

Sand crabs

Painted crabs

Paddling crabs

_Annelidæ_, Leeches.--The land leech

Medicinal leech

Cattle leech

List of Articulata, &c.

_Note_.--On the revivification of the Rotifera and Paste-eels

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page

View of an Elephant Corral Frontispiece

Group of Ceylon Monkeys to face 5

The Loris (_Loris gracilis_) 12

Group of Flying Foxes (_Pteropus Edwardsii_) to face 14

Head of the Horse-shoe Bat (_Rhynulophus_) 19

Nycteribia 21

Indian Bear (_Prochylus labiatus_) 23

Ceylon Leopard and Indian Cheetah 26

Jackal's Skull and "Horn" 36

Mongoos of Neura-ellia (_Herpestes vitticollis_) 38

Flying Squirrel (_Pteromys oral_) 41

Coffee Rat (_Golunda Elliotti_) 44

Bandicoot Rat (_Mus bandicota_) 45

Pengolin (_Manis pentadactylus_) 47

Skeleton of the Pengolin 48

Moose-deer (_Moschus meminna_) 55

The Dugong (_Halicore dugung_) 69

The Mermaid, from Valentyn 72

Brain of the Elephant 95

Bones of the Fore-leg 108

Elephant descending a Hill 111

Elephant's Well 122

Elephant's Stomach, showing the Water-cells 125

Elephant's Trachea 126

Water-cells in the Stomach of the Camel 128

Section of the Elephant's Skull 145

Fence and Ground-plan of a Corral 172

Mode of tying an Elephant 184

His Struggles for Freedom 185

Impotent Fury 188

Obstinate Resistance 189

Attitude for Defence 203

Singular Contortions of an Elephant 204

Figures of the African and Indian Elephants on Greek and

Roman Coins 208

Medal of Numidia 212

Modern "Hendoo" ib.

The Horn-bill (_Buceros pica_) 243

The "Devil-bird" (_Syrnium Indranec_) 247

The "Cotton-thief" (_Tchitrea paradisi_) 250

Layard Mountain Jay (_Cissa puella_) 252

The "Double-spur" (_Gallo-perdix bicalcaratus_) 260

The Flamingo (_Phoenicopterus roseus_) 261

The Kabara-goya Lizard (_Hydrosaurus salvator_) 273

The Green Calotes (_Calotes ophiomachus_) 276

Tongue of the Chameleon 278

_Ceratophora_ _to face_ 280

Skulls of the Crocodile and Alligator 283

Terrapin (_Emys trijuga_) 290

Shield-tailed Serpent (_Uropeltis grandis_) 302

Tree Snake (_Passerita fusca_) _to face_ 307

Sea Snake (_Hydrophis subloevisis_) _to face_ 311

Saw of the Saw-fish (_Pristis antiquorum_) _to face_ 326

Ray (_Aëtobates narinari_) 327

Sword-fish (_Histiophorus immaculatus_) 330

Cheironectes 331

_Pterois volitans_ 334

_Scarus harid_ 335

Perch (_Therapon quadrilineatus_) 337

Eel (_Mastacembelus armatus_) 338

Mode of Fishing, after Rain 340

Plan of a Fish Decoy 342

The Anabas of the dry Tanks 354

The Violet Ianthina and its Shell 370

_Bullia vittata_ ib.

Pearl Oysters, in various Stages of Growth _to face_ 380

Pearl Oyster, full grown _to face_ 381

_Cerithium palustre_ ib.

The Portuguese Man-of-war (_Physalus urticulus_) 399

Longicorn Beetle (_Batocera rubus_) 406

Leaf Insects, &c 409

Eggs of the Leaf Insect (_Phyllium siccifolium_) 410

The Carpenter Bee (_Xylocapa tenniscapa_) 419

Wood-carrying Moths 431

The "Knife, grinder" (_Cicada_) 432

Flata (_Elidiptera Emersoniana and Poeciloptera Tennentii_) 433

The "Coffee-bug" (_Lecanium caffeæ_) _to face_ 436

Spider (_Mygate fasciata_) _to face_ 465

Cermatia 473

The Calling Crab (_Gelusimus_) 477

Eyes and Teeth of the Leech 480

Land Leeches preparing to attack 481

Medicinal Leech of Ceylon 483

CHAPTER I.

MAMMALIA.

With the exception of the Mammalia and Birds, the fauna of Ceylon has,

up to the present, failed to receive that systematic attention to

which its richness and variety most amply entitle it. The Singhalese

themselves, habitually indolent, and singularly unobservant of nature

and her operations, are at the same time restrained from the study of

natural history by the tenet of their religion which forbids the

taking of life under any circumstances. From the nature of their

avocations, the majority of the European residents, engaged in

planting and commerce, are discouraged by want of leisure from

cultivating the taste; and it is to be regretted that, with few

exceptions, the civil servants of the government, whose position and

duties would have afforded them influence and extended opportunities

for successful investigation, have never seen the importance of

encouraging such studies.

The first effective impulse to the cultivation of natural science in

Ceylon, was communicated by Dr. Davy when connected with the medical

staff[1] of the army from 1816 to 1820, and his example stimulated

some of the assistant-surgeons of Her Majesty's forces to make collections

in illustration of the productions of the colony. Of these the late

Dr. Kinnis was one of the most energetic and successful. He was

seconded by Dr. Templeton of the Royal Artillery, who engaged

assiduously in the investigation of various orders, and commenced an

interchange of specimens with Mr. Blyth[2], the distinguished

naturalist and curator of the Calcutta Museum. The birds and rarer

vertebrata of the island were thus compared with their peninsular

congeners, and a tolerable knowledge of those belonging to the island,

so far as regards the higher classes of animals, has been the result.

The example so set was perseveringly followed by Mr. E.L. Layard and

the late Dr. Kelaart, and infinite credit is due to Mr. Blyth for the

zealous and untiring energy with which he has devoted his attention

and leisure to the identification of the specimens forwarded from

Ceylon, and to their description in the Calcutta Journal. To him, and

to the gentlemen I have named, we are mainly indebted for whatever

accurate knowledge we now possess of the zoology of the colony.

[Footnote 1: Dr. DAVY, brother to the illustrious Sir Humphry Davy,

published, in 1821, his _Account of the Interior of Ceylon and its

Inhabitants_, which contains the earliest notice of the Natural

History of the island, and especially of its ophidian reptiles.]

[Footnote 2: _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xv. p. 280, 314.]

The mammalia, birds, and reptiles received their first scientific

description in an able work published in 1852 by Dr. Kelaart of the army

medical staff[1], which is by far the most valuable that has yet

appeared on the Singhalese fauna. Co-operating with him, Mr. Layard has

supplied a fund of information especially in ornithology and conchology.

The zoophytes and Crustacea have I believe been partially investigated

by Professor Harvey, who visited Ceylon in 1852, and more recently by

Professor Schmarda, of the University of Prague. From the united labours

of these gentlemen and others interested in the same pursuits, we may

hope at an early day to obtain such a knowledge of the zoology of Ceylon

as will to some extent compensate for the long indifference of the

government officers.

[Footnote 1: _Prodromus Faunæ Zeylanicæ; being Contributions to the

Zoology of Ceylon_, by F. KELAART, Esq., M.D., F.L.S., &c. &c. 2

vols. Colombo and London, 1852.]

[Illustration: CEYLON MONKEYS.

1. _Presbytes cephalopterus._

2. _P. thersites_

3. _P. Priamus_

4. _Macacus pileatus_]

I. QUADRUMANA. 1. _Monkeys_.--To a stranger in the tropics, among

the most attractive creatures in the forests are the troops of

_monkeys_ that career in ceaseless chase among the loftiest

trees. In Ceylon there are five species, four of which belong to one

group, the Wanderoos, and the other is the little graceful grimacing

_rilawa_[1], which is the universal pet and favourite of both

natives and Europeans. The Tamil conjurors teach it to dance, and in

their wanderings carry it from village to village, clad in a grotesque

dress, to exhibit its lively performances. It does not object to smoke

tobacco. The Wanderoo is too grave and melancholy to be trained to

these drolleries.

[Footnote 1: _Macacus pileatus_, Shaw and Desmarest. The

"bonneted Macaque" is common in the south and west; it is replaced on

the neighbouring coast of the Peninsula of India by the Toque, _M.

radiatus_, which closely resembles it in size, habit, and form, and

in the peculiar appearance occasioned by the hairs radiating from the

crown of the head. A spectacled monkey is _said_ to inhabit the

low country near to Bintenne; but I have never seen one brought

thence. A paper by Dr. TEMPLETON, in the _Mag. Nat. Hist._ n. s.

xiv. p. 361, contains some interesting facts relative to the Rilawa of

Ceylon.]

KNOX, in his captivating account of the island, gives an accurate

description of both; the Rilawas, with "no beards, white faces, and long

hair on the top of their heads, which parteth and hangeth down like a

man's, and which do a deal of mischief to the corn, and are so impudent

that they will come into their gardens and eat such fruit as grows

there. And the Wanderoos, some as large as our English spaniel dogs, of

a darkish grey colour, and black faces with great white beards round

from ear to ear, which makes them show just like old men. This sort does

but little mischief, keeping in the woods, eating only leaves and buds

of trees, but when they are catched they will eat anything."[1]

[Footnote 1: KNOX, _Historical Relation of Ceylon, an Island in the

East Indies_.--P. i. ch. vi. p. 25. Fol. Lond. 1681. See an account

of his captivity in SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT'S _Ceylon_, etc., Vol.

II. p. 66 n.]

KNOX, whose experience during his long captivity was confined almost

exclusively to the hill country around Kandy, spoke in all probability

of one large and comparatively powerful species, _Presbytes ursinus_,

which inhabits the lofty forests, and which, as well as another of the

same group, _P. Thersites_, was, till recently, unknown to European

naturalists. The Singhalese word _Ouandura_ has a generic sense, and

being in every respect the equivalent fur our own term of "monkey" it

necessarily comprehends the low country species, as well as those which

inhabit other parts of the island. In point of fact, there are no less

than four animals in the island, each of which is entitled to the name

of "wanderoo."[1] Each separate species has appropriated to itself a

different district of the wooded country, and seldom encroaches on the

domain of its neighbours.

[Footnote 1: Down to a very late period, a large and somewhat

repulsive-looking monkey, common to the Malabar coast, the Silenus

veter, _Linn._, was, from the circumstance of his possessing a

"great white beard," incorrectly assumed to be the "wanderoo" of

Ceylon, described by KNOX; and under that usurped name it has figured

in every author from Buffon to the present time. Specimens of the true

Singhalese species were, however, received in Europe; but in the

absence of information in this country as to their actual habitat,

they were described, first by Zimmerman, on the continent, under the

name of, _Leucoprymnus cephalopterus_, and subsequently by Mr. E.

Bennett, under that of _Semnopithecus Nestor_ (_Proc. Zool.

Soc._ pt. i. p. 67: 1833); the generic and specific characters

being on this occasion most carefully pointed out by that eminent

naturalist. Eleven years later Dr. Templeton forwarded to the

Zoological Society a description, accompanied by drawings, of the

wanderoo of the western maritime districts of Ceylon, and noticed the

fact that the wanderoo of authors (_S. veter_) was not to be

found in the island except as an introduced species in the custody of

the Arab horse-dealers, who visit the port of Colombo at stated

periods. Mr. Waterhouse, at the meeting (_Proc. Zool. Soc._ p. 1:

1844) at which this communication was read, recognised the identity of

the subject of Dr. Templeton's description with that already laid

before them by Mr. Bennett; and from this period the species in

question was believed to truly represent the wanderoo of Knox. The

later discovery, however, of the _P. ursinus_ by Dr. Kelaart, in

the mountains amongst which we are assured that Knox spent so many

years of captivity, reopens the question, but at the same time appears

to me clearly to demonstrate that in this latter we have in reality

the animal to which his narrative refers.]

1. Of the four species found in Ceylon, the most numerous in the

island, and the one best known in Europe, is the Wanderoo of the low

country, the _P. cephalopterus_ of Zimmerman.[1] Although common

in the southern and western provinces, it is never found at a higher

elevation than 1300 feet. It is an active and intelligent creature,

little larger than the common bonneted Macaque, and far from being so

mischievous as others of the monkeys in the island. In captivity it is

remarkable for the gravity of its demeanour and for an air of

melancholy in its expression and movements which are completely in

character with its snowy beard and venerable aspect. In disposition it

is gentle and confiding, sensible in the highest degree of kindness,

and eager for endearing attention, uttering a low plaintive cry when

its sympathies are excited. It is particularly cleanly in its habits

when domesticated, and spends much of its time in trimming its fur,

and carefully divesting its hair of particles of dust.

[Footnote 1: Leucoprymnus Nestor, _Bennett_.]

Those which I kept at my house near Colombo were chiefly fed upon

plantains and bananas, but for nothing did they evince a greater

partiality than the rose-coloured flowers of the red hibiscus (H.

_rosa-sinensis_).

These they devoured with unequivocal gusto; they likewise relished the

leaves of many other trees, and even the bark of a few of the more

succulent ones. A hint might possibly be taken from this circumstance

for improving the regimen of monkeys in menageries, by the occasional

admixture of a few fresh leaves and flowers with their solid and

substantial dietary.

A white monkey, taken between Ambepusse and Kornegalle, where they are

said to be numerous, was brought to me to Colombo. Except in colour,

it had all the characteristics of _Presbytes cephalopterus_. So

striking was its whiteness that it might have been conjectured to be

an albino, but for the circumstance that its eyes and face were black.

I have heard that white monkeys have been seen near the Ridi-galle

Wihara in Seven Korles and also at Tangalle; but I never saw another

specimen. The natives say they are not uncommon, and KNOX that they

are "milk-white both in body and face; but of this sort there is not

such plenty."[1] The Rev. R. SPENCE HARDY mentions, in his learned

work on _Eastern Monachism_, that on the occasion of his visit to

the great temple of Dambool, he encountered a troop of white monkeys

on the rock in which it is situated--which were, doubtless, a variety

of the Wanderoo.[2] PLINY was aware of the fact that white monkeys are

occasionally found in India.[3]

[Footnote 1: KNOX, pt. i.e. vi. p. 25.]

[Footnote 2: _Eastern Monachism_. c: xix; p. 204.]

[Footnote 3: PLINY, Nat. Hist. I. viii. c. xxxii.]

When observed in their native wilds, a party of twenty or thirty of

these creatures is generally busily engaged in the search for berries

and buds. They are seldom to be seen on the ground, except when

they may have descended to recover seeds or fruit which have fallen at

the foot of their favourite trees. When disturbed, their leaps are

prodigious: but, generally speaking, their progress is made not so

much by _leaping_ as by swinging from branch to branch, using

their powerful arms alternately; and when baffled by distance,

flinging themselves obliquely so as to catch the lower boughs of an

opposite tree, the momentum acquired by their descent being sufficient

to cause a rebound of the branch, that carries them upwards again,

till they can grasp a higher and more distant one, and thus continue

their headlong flight. In these perilous achievements, wonder is

excited less by the surpassing agility of these little creatures,

frequently encumbered as they are by their young, which cling to them

in their career, than by the quickness of their eye and the unerring

accuracy with which they seem almost to calculate the angle at which a

descent will enable them to cover a given distance, and the recoil to

attain a higher altitude.

2. The low country Wanderoo is replaced in the hills by the larger

species, _P. ursinus_, which inhabits the mountain zone. The natives,

who designate the latter the _Maha_ or Great Wanderoo, to distinguish it

from the _Kaloo_, or black one, with which they are familiar, describe

it as much wilder, and more powerful than its congener of the lowland

forests. It is rarely seen by Europeans, this portion of the country

having till very recently been but partially opened; and even now it is

difficult to observe its habits, as it seldom approaches the few roads

which wind through these deep solitudes. At early morning, ere the day

begins to dawn, its loud and peculiar howl, which consists of a quick

repetition of the sounds _how how!_ maybe frequently heard in the

mountain jungles, and forms one of the characteristic noises of these

lofty situations. It was first captured by Dr. Kelaart in the woods near

Nuera-ellia, and from its peculiar appearance it has been named _P.

ursinus_ by Mr. Blyth.[1]

[Footnote 1: Mr. Blyth quotes as authority for this trivial name a

passage from MAJOR FORBES' _Eleven Years in Ceylon;_ and I can

vouch for the graphic accuracy of the remark.--"A species of very

large monkey, that passed some distance before me, when resting on all

fours, looked so like a Ceylon bear, that I nearly took him for one."]

3. The _P. Thersites_, which is chiefly distinguished from the

others by wanting the head tuft, is so rare that it was for some time

doubtful whether the single specimen procured by Dr. Templeton from

the Nuera-kalawa, west of Trincomalie, and on which Mr. Blyth

conferred this new name, was in reality native; but the occurrence of

a second, since identified by Dr. Kelaart, has established its

existence as a separate species. Like the common wanderoo, the one

obtained by Dr. Templeton was partial to fresh vegetables, plantains,

and fruit; but he ate freely boiled rice, beans, and gram. He was fond

of being noticed and petted, stretching out his limbs in succession to

be scratched, drawing himself up so that his ribs might be reached by

the finger, closing his eyes during the operation, and evincing his

satisfaction by grimaces irresistibly ludicrous.

4. The _P. Priamus_ inhabits the northern and eastern provinces, and the

wooded hills which occur in these portions of the island. In appearance

it differs both in size and in colour from the common wanderoo, being

larger and more inclined to grey; and in habits it is much less

reserved. At Jaffna, and in other parts of the island where the

population is comparatively numerous, these monkeys become so

familiarised with the presence of man as to exhibit the utmost daring

and indifference. A flock of them will take possession of a Palmyra

palm; and so effectually can they crouch and conceal themselves among

the leaves that, on the slightest alarm, the whole party becomes

invisible in an instant. The presence of a dog, however, excites such an

irrepressible curiosity that, in order to watch his movements, they

never fail to betray themselves. They may be frequently seen congregated

on the roof of a native hut: and, some years ago, the child of a

European clergyman stationed near Jaffna having been left on the ground

by the nurse, was so teased and bitten by them as to cause its death.

The Singhalese have the impression that the remains of a monkey are

never to be found in the forest; a belief which they have embodied in

the proverb that "he who has seen a white crow, the nest of a paddi

bird, a straight coco-nut tree, or a dead monkey, is certain to live

for ever." This piece of folk-lore has evidently reached Ceylon from

India, where it is believed that persons dwelling on the spot where a

hanumân monkey, _Semnopithecus entellus_, has been killed, will

die, that even its bones are unlucky, and that no house erected where

they are hid under ground can prosper. Hence when a dwelling is to be

built, it is one of the employments of the Jyotish philosophers to

ascertain by their science that none such are concealed; and Buchanan

observes that "it is, perhaps, owing to this fear of ill-luck that no

native will acknowledge his having seen a dead hanumân."[1]

[Footnote 1: BUCHANAN'S _Survey of Bhagulpoor_, p. 142. At

Gibraltar it is believed that the body of a _dead monkey_ has

never been found on the rock.]

The only other quadrumanous animal found in Ceylon is the little

loris[1], which, from its sluggish movements, nocturnal habits, and

consequent inaction during the day, has acquired the name of the

"Ceylon Sloth."

[Footnote 1: Loris græilis, _Geof_.]

[Illustration: THE LORIS.]