Preface

Important events and changes occur during the four years included

in the scope of this volume. The Audiencia is suppressed, and in

its place is sent a royal governor; the instructions given to him

embody many of the reforms demanded by the people through their

envoy Sánchez. Extensive and dangerous conspiracies among the natives

against the Spaniards are discovered, and severely punished. Trade

between Nueva España and China is beginning, and seems to menace the

welfare of the Philippine colony. A large immigration of Chinese to

the islands has set in, and is already seriously affecting economic

interests there. The city of Manila, recently destroyed by fire, is

being rebuilt, this time mainly with brick and stone. As usual, there

is much friction between the ecclesiastical and secular authorities,

largely concerning the collection of tributes from the Indians;

the most prominent figure in these contentions is the aged but fiery

bishop, Salazar.

Shortly after the Jesuit Sánchez had gone to Spain as envoy of the

Philippine colonists, a document was prepared (December 31, 1586),

by order of the Manila cabildo, to be sent to him for use at the

Spanish court. As this was lost on the "Santa Ana," and as Bishop

Salazar regards the supply of missionaries in the islands as very

inadequate, he applies (June 3, 1588) to the cabildo for another copy

of such part of this document as relates to the religious needs of the

natives. This he sends (June 25) to the royal Council of the Indias,

with considerable additions regarding certain islands not mentioned

in the cabildo's memorial. This document gives much interesting

information, not only on religious matters, but on the social and

economic conditions of both Spaniards and natives in the islands. In

each island or province are enumerated the population, both native

and Spanish; the number of Spanish troops, also of encomiendas and

tributarios; the number of convents and their inmates; the religious

and ecclesiastics, not only those resident, but those needed among

the natives; the officials employed by the government; the Chinese

immigrants and their occupations; the articles for sale in the public

market; and the imports and exports at Manila. The writer relates many

things of interest regarding the natural resources and products of the

country, the mode of life of both Spaniards and natives, the means of

defense possessed by the colony, the Indians who are not as yet under

Spanish rule. All this affords a valuable and curiously interesting

picture of the colony and its life; but Salazar, in presenting it,

is mainly concerned with the great need of more religious instruction

for the natives, and earnestly entreats the king to send more friars

and ecclesiastics for the purpose.

A letter from Santiago de Vera to the king (dated June 26, 1588)

gives his report for the past year. He recounts the exploits of the

English adventurer Candish against Spanish commerce. Hereafter the

ships which carry goods from the Philippines will be armed with cannon

and other means of defense. Vera asks for more artillery with which

to defend the islands, which are menaced by great dangers in their

present weak condition. He has built some galleys, but would prefer

some light ships for navigation among the islands. The new fort at

Manila is described; it will, when completed, be sufficient defense

for the city. The governor also enumerates the artillery which he

has, and asks that more be provided by the home government. He has

punished the royal officials for engaging in trade. Vera advises

that the sale of certain public offices be deferred for some years,

until the colony shall be more prosperous.

On the next day (June 27) Salazar writes to the king. He defends

himself against the royal reprimand for his dissensions with the

Audiencia. Further information is given regarding the capture of

Spanish ships by Candish. The resulting losses of citizens in the

islands are very great, and still more serious is the loss of Spanish

prestige in the archipelago. In Mindanao, Moslem missionaries are

conducting an extensive propaganda. The bishop complains that in

his diocese the churches, as well as their furniture, are often so

wretched and inadequate that they are a disgrace to religion, and are

"not fit to be entered by horses." This arises from the penuriousness

or the poverty of the encomenderos; nothing can be expected from

the natives, who are "so harassed and afflicted with public and

private undertakings that they are not able to take breath." The

bishop regards the calamities that have befallen the Spaniards as

punishments inflicted on them by God for their evil treatment of the

Indians. He recommends that many religious be sent to the islands,

who will be protectors of the natives; also that a governor be sent

who is not ruled by selfish or family interests. Salazar complains

of the harshness and severity shown by the viceroy of Nueva España,

especially as the latter will not allow certain Dominican friars to go

to the Philippines; and as he has injured the commerce of the islands

by his restrictive measures--especially by selling the vessel "Saint

Martin" to a Mexican merchant to be used in the Chinese trade. The

wreck of that ship at sea he regards as a punishment from heaven. He

urges that trade from Mexico to China be stopped, and that the viceroy

of Nueva España be ordered to send aid to the Philippines, especially

of troops and military supplies, and not to meddle with the decisions

of the Audiencia there regarding customs duties, etc. Salazar objects

to the presence of so many Chinamen in the islands.

An extract from a letter of the viceroy of India to the king (April 3,

1589) complains that some of his officers have violated the prohibition

of intercourse with China and the Philippines. He has sent officials

to Macao to quell disturbances there, and order has been given that

all Castilians there shall be sent away. He is greatly opposed to

the trade which has begun between Mexico and China, and thinks that

rigorous measures should be taken against it.

Vera writes (July 13) to the king imploring reenforcements and

supplies for the islands. Three Spaniards, among them a Franciscan

friar, have been treacherously slain by the Borneans. This proves to

be the outcome of a general conspiracy among the Filipinos, Borneans,

and other peoples to attack and drive out the Spaniards. The plotters

are detected and severely punished. Certain public offices have been

sold, account for which is rendered by the governor. He is endeavoring

to secure a small fleet of trading ships, but is obliged to ask

aid for this from the royal treasury. Not only ships, but sailors

and carpenters are needed, who should be paid in the same way. More

artillery is needed, also to be furnished by royal aid. The Chinese

trade is continually increasing. The city of Manila is being fast

rebuilt, and in stone. But the land is unhealthful and the soldiers

die fast, so that the islands have few men for their defense; and

again the king is earnestly entreated to order that men and supplies

be sent at once from Nueva España. The new fort has been injured by

earthquakes, but Vera is building it more strongly. He complains that

the friars have neglected his commands to learn the Chinese language

and instruct the Chinese who live on the islands. The Dominicans alone

have entered this field; they have achieved great results, and have

now among the Chinese "a village of Christians." Many more would be

converted, if it were not for the bishop's order that the long hair

of the converts should be cut off; accordingly the king orders that

a conference of religious and learned persons be held, who shall

take suitable action in regard to this and other matters concerning

the conversion of the Chinese. Vera complains of the arrogance,

obstinacy, and high temper of the bishop, and asks that the king

restrain him. There is no physician in Manila, and one is urgently

needed in the royal hospital. This document is followed by the notarial

record of proceedings in the trial of various Indians for conspiracy,

which is mentioned in Vera's letter. The punishments inflicted upon

them are specified: in each case, appeal was made to the Audiencia,

which in some cases modified the penalty, but otherwise affirmed the

former decision.

Gaspar de Ayala, royal fiscal in the islands, makes his report to

the king (July 15). He advises that ships for the royal service be

built in the islands; also that the gold used as currency there be

exchanged in Nueva España for Spanish coin--both of which measures

will be of profit to the royal treasury. He renders account of the

recent sale of offices in the islands, and gives advice regarding

this method of aiding the royal exchequer. Certain encomiendas

becoming vacant, Ayala, as fiscal, undertakes to secure them for

the crown; in this he has difficulties with the governor, who also

is trying to make trouble for Ayala with the soldiers. The latter

asks to be relieved from his post in the Philippines, and sent to

some other. The Chinese trade is meager this year, owing to war and

pestilence in China; and there are rumors that it is being diverted

to Peru or Nueva España. If this be true, the Philippine colony will

be ruined. A second plot against the Spaniards has been revealed,

this time in Cebú; but the leaders have been captured. The Indians

of Cagayán have also revolted, and troops have been sent against

them. Ayala adds, "I am ready to certify that there are few places

in these islands where the natives are not disaffected." The Spanish

colony is in great danger, and imperatively needs reenforcements to

save it from destruction. The galleys at Manila, now useless, should

be replaced by light sailing-vessels. A further levy of tribute has

been made on the Indians for the new fortress at Manila: this is an

oppressive burden for them. Ayala relates at length the dissensions

between the bishop and the secular authorities; the king is implored

to settle the question at issue. The bishop has also offended the

Augustinians, by sending Dominican friars into their field among the

Chinese residents: The king is asked to send more friars, to instruct

the natives. The Manila hospital for Indians has no income save of

alms: Ayala recommends that the Franciscans in charge be allowed to

sell a certain amount of pepper in Nueva España. The members of the

Audiencia, and the magistrates and officials appointed during the

current year are enumerated by name. A fierce tempest has occurred

at Manila, causing great damage, and destroying all the vessels in

the harbor except one small one. The expedition sent to Cagayán has

returned without accomplishing anything except the destruction of the

crops belonging to the hostile Indians, which will only irritate them

and incite them to revenge.

A royal decree (dated August 9, 1589) orders the newly appointed

governor of the Philippines, Gomez Perez Dasmariñas, to repeal the

import duties levied at Manila on provisions and military supplies,

also to suppress the retail trade conducted there by the Chinese.

As a result of Sanchez's embassy to Spain, the king and his counselors

decide to institute many reforms in the Philippines, and to send

thither a royal governor in place of the Audiencia. For this dignity

is selected Gomez Perez Dasmariñas, and the king's instructions to

him (dated August 9, 1589) embody the changes to be made in the

government and life of the colony. The cathedral at Manila is to

be built, for which purpose the king appropriates the sum of twelve

thousand ducados. Similar aid is to be granted to the two hospitals

at Manila. More religious are to be sent to the islands. The rate of

tribute from the Indians shall be increased from eight reals to ten;

this increase shall be used for tithes and the support of troops in

the islands; and the encomenderos must support religious instruction

among the natives, and pay tithes. A grant of money for six years

is made to the city of Manila; but the king declines to abolish

the customs duties--setting aside their proceeds, however, for the

payment of the soldiers stationed in the islands--except those on

food and military supplies. Appointments and encomiendas must be

given to old citizens, or to soldiers who have done actual service;

and a list of persons who are to be rewarded for their services is

furnished to the new governor. Workmen are to be paid at Manila,

not, as heretofore, at Mexico. Trade with Mexico is restricted to the

inhabitants of the Philippines. The question whether the Chinese and

other foreign merchants are to be allowed to sell goods at retail at

the ports is left to the discretion of Dasmariñas. Only Christian

Chinese may remain in the islands. Agricultural colonists shall be

sent thither from Spain, for whom various provisions are made; and it

is expected that from them the Indians will learn the Spanish methods

of farming. Cattle and horses are to be sent to the islands; and the

farmers sent out shall be ordered to tame and breed the wild buffaloes

found there. Agriculture shall be encouraged in all ways. A convent for

girls should be established, and its inmates provided with husbands;

and Indian women should be enabled to marry poor Spaniards. Encomiendas

must be granted with great care, and must be provided with adequate

religious instruction. Dasmariñas is advised to settle lawsuits

amicably out of court, when possible. In disaffected encomiendas,

only part of the tributes should be collected. Suitable instruction

for the natives must be provided, and those who are dispersed should

be gathered into settlements where they can be taught the Christian

faith. The king appoints Bishop Salazar the official protector of

the Indians; and the governor is instructed to cultivate friendly

relations with him. A force of four hundred paid soldiers shall be

maintained in the islands, and various provisions are made for their

discipline and welfare. The minimum age for military service is fixed

at fifteen years, and the enlistment of mestizos is discouraged. The

city of Manila shall be fortified and garrisoned; and the governor is

instructed to be on his guard against various enemies, "chiefly of

the Lutheran English pirates who infest those coasts," and to build

forts and galleys for the defense of the islands. He is expected

to continue the conquests begun there by the Spaniards, but only in

accordance with instructions furnished him. He must do all in his power

to pacify the Indians in the disaffected provinces. In attempting any

military expedition, the governor must consult with the most learned

and experienced men of the community; he may contract with captains or

encomenderos for the exploration or pacification of hitherto unsubdued

regions. Provision is made for the instruction of the natives; and

extortion and oppression of the natives in collecting the tributes

must be checked. All Indians enslaved by the Spaniards shall be

immediately set free. All lawsuits concerning the Indians shall be

settled as promptly and simply as possible. Religious persons sent to

the islands must remain there, except by permission of the authorities.

Of especial value are two relations (1589) by the Franciscan missionary

Juan de Plasencia, on the customs of the Tagalogs. He describes their

social organization, which was originally patriarchal; and rights of

property, which are partly individual and partly communistic. There

are three classes among the people--nobles, commoners and slaves. The

status and rights of each are carefully defined, and the causes and

kinds of slavery. A somewhat elaborate system of regulations concerning

inheritances is described, also the status of children by adoption,

which usage is widely prevalent among the Tagalogs. Marriage,

dowries, and divorce are fully treated. In the second of these

relations Plasencia describes their modes of burial and worship,

and the religious beliefs and superstitions current among that

people. They have no buildings set aside as temples, although they

sometimes celebrate, in a temporary edifice, a sort of worship. Their

chief idol is Badhala, but they also worship the sun and the moon,

and various minor divinities. They believe in omens, and practice

divination. A detailed account is given of the various classes of

priests, sorcerers, witches, etc., in which the natives believed;

also of the burial rites of both Tagalogs and Negritos.

A letter to the king from Portugal (written early in 1590) gives him

information which he had requested from Portuguese officials in India,

regarding the character and results of the trade between the Spanish

colonies and those established by the Portuguese in India and the

Eastern archipelago, and China. The continuance of this trade would,

they think, ruin the prosperity of the settlements in India, and

greatly injure the commerce of Spain, and deplete that country and her

colonies of their coin. At Salazar's petition, he receives from the

king (April 12, 1590) a grant of money toward the payment of debts

incurred by him in procuring the rebuilding of Manila in stone. On

June 20 of the same year, the members of the Audiencia, suppressed

by order of the king and replaced by Dasmariñas, notify the king that

they have surrendered their posts, and ask him for various favors.

Bishop Salazar writes to the king (June 24) a special communication

regarding the Chinese (or Sangleys) at Manila. He apologizes for

having formerly given, under a mistake as to their character,

a wrong impression of that people; and relates various instances

of their humane treatment of foreigners in their land. He blames

the Portuguese for having spread in China false reports about the

Spaniards, and thinks that by this means the devil is trying to hinder

the entrance of the gospel into that land. The bishop urges that no

hostile demonstration be made against the Chinese; for they are most

favorably inclined to the Christian religion, and many conversions may

be made among them. Most of Salazar's letter is devoted to the Chinese

residents of Manila, and their quarters there, which is called the

Parián. He narrates the gradual increase of the Chinese immigration

to the islands, their relations with the Spaniards, the establishment

of the Parián, and his efforts for their conversion. These last are

ineffectual until the coming of the Dominican friars in 1587; they

assume the charge of converting the Chinese, and build their convent

next the Parián, which brings the friars into constant and friendly

relations with the Chinese. An interesting description of the Parián

and its inhabitants is given; all trades are represented therein, and

the people carry on the manufactures to which they were accustomed

in China, but with a better finish, which they have learned to use

from the Spaniards. Salazar makes the enthusiastic statement that

"the Parián has so adorned the city [Manila] that I do not hesitate

to affirm to your Majesty that no other known city in España, or

in these regions, possesses anything so well worth seeing as this;

for in it can be found the whole trade of China, with all kinds of

goods and curious things which come from that country." Especially

interesting are the economic effects of their residence there;

"the handicrafts pursued by Spaniards have all died out, because

people all buy their clothes and shoes from the Sangleys, who are

very good craftsmen in Spanish fashion, and make everything at very

low cost." Salazar admires their cleverness and dexterity in all

kinds of handiwork especially as they have learned, in less than

ten years, both painting and sculpture; "I think that nothing more

perfect could be produced than some of their marble statues of the

Child Jesus which I have seen." The churches are thus being furnished

with images. A book-binder from Mexico had come to Manila, and his

trade has been quickly taken from him by his Chinese apprentice,

who has set up his own bindery, and excels his master. Many other

instances of the cleverness, ability, and industry of the Chinese

are related; and the city is almost entirely dependent on them for

its food supplies. Not the least of the benefits received from them

by the city is their work as stone-masons, and makers of bricks and

lime; they are so industrious, and work so cheaply, that Manila is

rapidly being rebuilt with substantial and elegant houses, churches,

and convents, of stone and brick. The day's wage of a Chinaman is one

real (equal to five cents of American money). So many Chinese are

coming to Manila that another Parián is being built to accommodate

them. Nearly seven thousand of them reside there, and in the vicinity

of Manila, and four Dominican friars labor among them. Salazar reports

the condition and progress of the missions conducted by that order

in the islands. Those who minister to the Chinese are securing some

converts, but many who are otherwise inclined to the Christian faith

are unwilling thus to exile themselves from their own land. After due

deliberation, the Dominicans conclude to open a mission in China, and

in that case to relax the rule compelling converts to cut off their

hair and foresake their native land. This purpose they are enabled to

accomplish, after encountering many difficulties, through the aid of

some Chinese Christians in Manila; and two friars are sent to China,

Miguel de Benavides and Juan Castro. The Dominicans have also built a

hospital for the Chinese; it is supported by alms, partly contributed

by "Sangley" infidels; and its physician is a converted Chinese

who devotes himself to its service. This institution has won much

renown and commendation in China. Salazar asks that the king grant

it some aid, and that he confirm a reward given by the governor to

the two Christian Chinese who aided the mission to China. Another

letter from Salazar bearing the same date (June 24) recounts many

things concerning affairs in the islands. He protests against the

royal orders to increase the rate of tribute paid by the Indians,

saying that the king has been misinformed regarding their ability

to pay. He makes comments on the several royal decrees which have

come in this year's mail. One commands that the conquerors make

restitution for the damages inflicted by them upon the natives; but

they or their heirs are tardy in paying the amounts levied for this

purpose, and meanwhile the Indians live in great poverty and want. The

bishop's heart and conscience are harassed not only by this, but by

the inability of the Spaniards to pay the full amount which is due

the Indians as restitution; he therefore asks the king to settle this

matter by remitting part of the amounts thus required. Salazar defends

himself for having encouraged the Indian slaves (who had been freed

by royal decree) to leave their Spanish masters; and for obliging the

Chinese converts to cut off their hair. He also explains, as being

greatly exaggerated, the accusations brought against his clergy of

engaging in traffic; and promises to do all in his power to check

them. One of the decrees settles the question of precedence between

him and the Audiencia; but, as that tribunal has been suppressed,

it is now useless. Salazar takes this opportunity to defend himself

against the aspersions cast upon him in this matter, and in regard

to certain legal proceedings wherein the Audiencia had claimed that

he defied its authority. He declares that he always complied with

its decisions or commands except in a few cases, which he explains in

detail; and complains that the Audiencia has at various times usurped

his jurisdiction, of which he relates instances.

In still another letter (of the same date) the bishop thanks his

sovereign for recent kindness shown him, and for decrees favorable to

the Philippine colony. The money which the king ordered to be given

for building the cathedral at Manila has not yet been paid, as the

royal treasury there is so poor. Salazar comments on certain recent

decrees by the king: that the friars should not leave the islands

without permission from the authorities; that tithes be remitted for

twenty years to new settlers in the islands; and that the processes

of justice be simplified, and pecuniary fines abrogated. The bishop

reiterates his complaint against the cruelty and injustice with which

the Spaniards collect the tributes from the natives, and the dearth

of religious instruction for the latter; he feels responsible for this

instruction, yet cannot provide it for lack of religious teachers. If

more priests can be sent, great results can be achieved. The spiritual

destitution of that region is so great that "of the ten divisions of

this bishopric, eight have no instruction; and some provinces have

been paying tribute to your Majesty for more than twenty years, but

without receiving on account of that any greater advantage than to be

tormented by the tribute, and afterward to go to hell." If religious

teachers are supplied, it will be comparatively easy to complete

the pacification of the Indians who are now hostile; then the royal

treasury will receive, from the increase in the tributes, far more than

it would now expend in sending out the missionaries. The bishop asks

that, as he is now appointed by the king the protector of the Indians,

he may have also funds for the expenses and assistants necessary for

this office; also that the same protection may be extended toward

the Chinese, who need it even more than the Indians. A royal decree

(July 23, 1590) orders that the trade with China shall be confined

for six years to the inhabitants of the islands.

Next follows a long document, a collection of papers (bearing

various dates in 1591) relating to the collection of tributes in

the islands. The first is a memorandum of the resources and needs

of the hospital at Manila; the former are so small, and the latter

so great, that the institution is badly crippled. A short letter

by Bishop Salazar (dated January 12) classifies the encomiendas

according to the amount of religious instruction given therein,

and lays down the conditions which ought to govern the collection

of tributes. He declares that the encomendero has not fulfilled his

obligations to the Indians under him by merely reserving a fourth

of the tributes for building churches; and advises that the small

encomiendas be combined to form larger ones. This letter is followed by

twenty-five "conclusions" (dated January 18) relating to this subject,

which express the opinions of bishop and clergy on the collection of

tributes from the Indians. These define the purposes for which this

tax should be collected, the restrictions under which collections

shall be permitted, and the respective duties in this matter of the

encomenderos, ministers of religion, and governors, They declare that

restitution should be made for all tribute unjustly collected from

the natives--which includes all that is taken from pagans who have

not been instructed, or from any Indian by force. Another letter

by the bishop (dated January 25) accompanies this document. He

states that he does not desire to forbid the encomenderos from

personally collecting the tributes. He advises that the amount of

such collections should be reduced, and that the Spaniards should not

be too heavily mulcted for the restitutions which should be made to

the Indians. The governor replies to these communications, expressing

much interest in the Indians and desire to lighten their burdens. The

collections should be uniform in rate everywhere, and of moderate

amount. Certain requirements should be made from the encomenderos,

especially in regard to the administration of justice; but they must

be enabled to retain their holdings. The governor wishes to adopt

some temporary regulations which shall be in force until the king can

provide suitable measures. On February 15 the city officials and the

encomenderos present a petition to the governor. They complain of the

pressure exerted upon them by the clergy and the friars to prevent

the collection of the tributes; and entreat the governor to interpose

his authority, and to secure a royal mandate, in order that they may

collect the tributes without ecclesiastical interference, or else

to permit them to return to Spain. Salazar answers (February 8) the

previous letter of Dasmariñas; this reply, and the opinions furnished

by the religious orders, we synopsize in our text, as being somewhat

too verbose for the edification of our readers. Salazar answers the

objections made to his earlier statements, and assures the governor

that the encomenderos can live on one-third of the tributes, that

there is no danger of their abandoning their holdings, and that the

chief obstacle to the conversion of the pagans is the cruelty of the

Spaniards. He urges the governor to reform the abuses practiced by

them, and to do justice to the poor Indians; and says that the clergy

will cooperate with him in this. The heads of the religious orders

(except the Dominicans) send written opinions on this subject to

the governor; and the Jesuits discuss certain measures proposed by

the bishop, with some of which they disagree. The remainder of the

document on tributes will be presented in _Vol_. VIII.

_The Editors_

September, 1903.