AN ACCOUNT of THE KINGDOM OF BOKHARA.
~Limits and extent of the kingdom.~
Samarcand and Bokhara have afforded a theme for glowing description to
the historians, and poets of all ages. The country in which they lie
forms a portion of Toorkistan, or the land of the Toorks, and is so
denominated by the people themselves. Bokhara is an isolated kingdom,
of small extent, surrounded by a desert. It is an open champaign
country, of unequal fertility. In the vicinity of its few rivers the
soil is rich; beyond, barren and unproductive. It owes its importance
to its central position, since it is placed between Europe and the
richest regions of Asia. On the north, it is bounded by the Sea of
Aral, the Sir or Jaxartes of the ancients, and the country of Kokan
or Ferghana. On the east, it extends to the mountains which branch
from the high lands of Pamere. On the south it has the Oxus, which
it however crosses on the south-eastern limit, and holds a supremacy
over Balkh and the cantons of Andkho and Maimuna. On the west it
is separated from Orgunje or Khiva by the desert of Kharasm, which
commences within a march of the city of Bokhara. In this enumeration I
have assigned the widest limits to the kingdom; for there are provinces
within this boundary which owe but a doubtful allegiance. The great
feature of the country is the Oxus, which bisects the desert, and
renders it inhabitable. The river of Samarcand, in its lower course,
flows at right angles to it, but expends its water before paying its
tribute to the greater stream. Another rivulet below that of Samarcand
shares a like fate, after it has watered the province of Kurshee. On
the banks of these different streams lies the whole cultivable soil of
the kingdom. The entire country is comprised between the parallels of
36° and 45° of north latitude, and the meridians of 61° and 67° east
longitude. A very small portion of this extensive tract is peopled.
From Eljeek on the Oxus, and on the western frontier, to Juzzak on the
east, which is the line of cultivation across the country, the distance
is 240 miles. From Balkh to Bokhara it is but 260, almost altogether
waste; and the desert commences about fifteen miles beyond the capital.
~Natural and political divisions.~
The natural and political divisions of the kingdom, according to the
natives, are as follows:--1. Karakool; 2. Bokhara, and seven _tomuns_
or districts around; 3. Kermina; 4. Meeankal, or Kutta Koorghan; 5.
Samarcand, which has five _tomuns_; 6. Juzzak; 7. Kurshee; 8. Lubiab,
or banks of the Oxus; and, 9. Balkh, and the provinces south of that
river. The first six of these divisions occupy the valley of the
river of Samarcand, known by the name of Kohik and _Zurufshan_, the
gold-shedding river. This is the ancient valley of the Sogd, which
has elicited the praises of all ages, from the time of Alexander. It
was considered a paradise on earth by the Arabian conquerors; but
much of its fame must be attributed to the surrounding desolation,
its beauty captivating the eyes of those who had long travelled in
oceans of sand. It is, however, a beautiful valley. Kurshee, which
lies sixty miles to the south of Samarcand, is an oasis, formed by a
river from the neighbouring province of Shuhr Subz, which exhausts
itself in fertilising the district. The territory on the banks of the
Oxus is also highly favoured by nature; but the strip of cultivation
is narrow, and much of it lies neglected. Balkh, and the countries
south of the Oxus, likewise owe their fertility to the abundant supply
of water, which was once divided among a multiplicity of villages;
but rapine has desolated this fruitful land. These cantons, though
considered tributary to Bokhara, render but nominal allegiance; which
consists in sending a few horses yearly to the king. Their names are
as follows:--Akchu, Shibbergaum, Andkhoee, Maimuna, and Sirepool; all,
except the last, to the north of the mountains.
~Physical geography.~
The geological structure and general conformation of an extended
plain is not less interesting than the features of a lofty range
of mountains; but we have here fewer opportunities to observe and
describe. The great plain of Toorkistan has an elevation of 2000 feet,
and gradually declines westward from Balkh, as the slope and direction
of the rivers testify, till it meets the Sea of Aral and the Caspian.
With the country north of the Oxus, and from the base of the mountains
to Bokhara, I am best acquainted. We have a succession of low rounded
ridges of limestone, oolite, and gravel, thinly overgrown with verdure,
alternating with vast and hardened plains of argillaceous clay, which
offer in this dry climate the finest roads to the heaviest artillery.
On these there occur some fields of sand-hills, of no great extent,
but sufficient to absorb the waters of all the rivulets flowing towards
the Oxus. They seem to extend in a narrow line parallel to that river;
and between it and Karakool have their greatest breadth, which is about
twelve miles. Further to the eastward, they do not exceed half that
width; and there are only a few scattered hillocks between Kurshee
and the Oxus. Westward of Bokhara, the sand-hills increase in volume,
and approach close on either side of the river of Kohik, leaving but
a small space for cultivation; they then run north and west into the
deserts of Kipchak and Kharasm. On their extent and continuance south
of the Oxus I have spoken in my narrative, as well as in a subsequent
chapter on Toorkmania. These sand-hills are based on the firmest land;
and it can at once be discerned that they have been blown by the wind
from some other soil. In the valleys there occasionally occur deposits
of salt and saline rivulets; and nearly all the wells of this tract are
either bitter or brackish. The depth of these never exceeds thirty-six
feet, and many of them have water at half that distance from the
surface. Between Bokhara and the Oxus the water exudes through sand,
and in August had a temperature of 60°, while the air exceeded that of
100°. It was as grateful to the palate as if cooled in ice. In the cold
season, these wells are described as warm; so it is evident that they
retain an equality of temperature during the year. The tract north of
the Oxus is thinly peopled by pastoral tribes, and uncultivated; but
the remains of aqueducts and buildings, in particular between Kurshee
and Bokhara, denote a more prosperous age in these now neglected lands.
~Climate and phenomena.~
The climate of Bokhara is salubrious and pleasant; it is dry, and in
the winter very cold, as is usual in sandy countries. Nothing proves
this so satisfactorily as the freezing of the Oxus. In summer, the
thermometer seldom rises much above 90°, and the nights are always
cool. But this only applies to the city of Bokhara; for, in approaching
it by the desert in June, the heat exceeded 100° of Fahrenheit. The
exuberance of vegetation near the city must lower the temperature; and
will account for the difference between the scorching heat around,
and its milder climate. Bokhara has an elevation of about 1200 feet
above the sea. There is a constant serenity in its atmosphere, and a
clearness in the sky. The heavens are a bright azure blue, generally
without a cloud. At night, the stars have uncommon lustre, and the
milky way shines gloriously in the firmament. Even in moonlight, a
star is visible on the verge of the horizon at an elevation of but
three or four degrees. There is also a never-ceasing display of the
most brilliant meteors, which dart like rockets in the sky: ten or
twelve of these are sometimes seen in an hour, assuming almost every
colour; fiery red, blue, pale and faint. It is a noble country for
astronomical science, and great must have been the advantages enjoyed
by the famed observatory of Samarcand. In the middle of July, after
some days of greater than usual heat, we experienced a violent tornado
of dust, accompanied by a hot wind. It approached from the N.W., and
could be seen advancing. It passed off in a few hours, and left the
air clear and cool; nor did the heat again return. I encountered a
similar phenomenon at Mooltan, on the Indus, about the same time in the
preceding year. These clouds of dust appear only to occur near deserts;
but then every strong breeze should raise a similar cloud, which it
does not. In winter, the snow lies for three months at Bokhara; and the
spring rains are often heavy, but the climate is arid. The evaporation
of water is so rapid, that after rain the roads dry immediately. I
should judge the climate to be congenial to the human frame, from the
great age of many of the inhabitants. I have been now speaking of
Bokhara and the countries north of the Oxus. In Balkh, the heat is
oppressive; and the climate is very unhealthy, which is attributed to
the bad quality of the water. It is of a whitish colour, mixed up with
earth like pipe-clay: nor can it be the abundance of it which causes
marshes, for most of the canals are choked; and the country, when dry,
continues equally unhealthy. In Balkh, the harvest is about fifty days
later than at Peshawur; the wheat is cut in the middle of June, and at
Bokhara it is a fortnight later.
~Rivers.~
In Bokhara, the rivers possess the highest importance, since they
render a portion of these inhospitable lands habitable to man. There
are five of them in Bokhara; the Amoo or Oxus, the Sir or Jaxartes, the
Kohik, and the rivers of Kurshee and Balkh. I have devoted the next
chapter to a description of the Oxus. The river Sir is hardly to be
included in the dominions of Bokhara: it rises in the same mountains
as the Oxus; and passing through the country of Kokan and Khojend, and
traversing a desert, falls into the Aral, about the 46th degree of
north latitude. It is a much smaller river than the Oxus, but is said
to be more rapid. In summer it is fordable; and in winter it is covered
with ice, sometimes two yards thick, over which the caravans pass.
Next in importance to the Sir is the Kohik, or Zurufshan. It rises in
the high lands east of Samarcand, and passing north of that city and
Bokhara, forms a lake in the province of Karakool, instead of falling
in the Oxus, as has been represented in our maps. In the upper parts
of its course it fertilises the rich province of Samarcand; below that
city, in Meeankal, its waters are diverted for the purposes of rice
cultivation; for three or four months in the year, its bed is perfectly
dry at Bokhara; and that city, and the country below it, suffer great
inconvenience, since they depend on the river for a supply of water.
It is a curious propensity in the people to raise in any portion of
so dry a country a grain like rice, which requires such an exuberance
of water. The lake into which the Kohik flows is familiarly known by
the name of “Dengiz,” or sea, and is about twenty-five miles long, and
surrounded on all sides by sand-hills. It is very deep; nor, from the
accounts of the people, does it appear ever to decrease in size at any
season of the year. When the snow melts in summer, the water flows as
steadily into it, as it does in winter. Its water is salt, though its
only feeder be a fresh river; but this is in accordance with the laws
of nature, since it has no outlet of any kind. The next river is that
of Kurshee, which rises in the same high lands as the Kohik, and passes
through Shuhr Subz and Kurshee, below which it is lost in the desert.
The blessings of water are most apparent in the neighbourhood of this
river. The fields of Shuhr Subz yield rich crops of rice; and Kurshee
is a sheet of gardens and orchards. For six miles on one side, and
sixteen on the other, the waters of this rivulet are distributed by
canals: when these cease, we have again a sterile desert to contrast
with its green and beautiful herbage. The river of Kurshee is fed by
the melted snow; and such is the command over its waters, that the
chief of Shuhr Subz can at any time cut off the supply of the lower
districts. In both this river and the Kohik it is usual to let the
water run for a limited time in certain canals, which gives to each
village the benefit of the stream once in ten days; such is the value
of water, and such is the care of the husbandman in this country. The
last river of the country is that of Balkh, which rises south of Hindoo
Koosh, about twenty miles from Bameean, near the “Bund i Burbur,” a
celebrated dam ascribed to a miracle of Ali, and which appears to be
an avalanche of earth that has fallen in upon a ravine. The river then
flows north among the mountains, and enters the plains of Toorkistan,
about six miles south of Balkh. Here it is divided into numerous canals
(which are said to be eighteen in number), and conducted to the city,
as also to Mazar and Akhchu on either side. Akhchu is about fifty
miles from Balkh; but none of the other canals extend so far, though
some of their water trickles half way to the Oxus, and affords that
necessary of life to the roving Toorkmuns. It is impossible to give
any delineation of the canals of Balkh, since they intersect the whole
country, and traces of them meet the eye every where. The gentle slope
of the land towards the Oxus affords great facilities for irrigating
the lands of Balkh; the soil is rich and productive; which will account
for the great population, and vast fertility that was once to be found
in this country.
~Mountains.~
The mountains of Bokhara lie on its frontiers. On the east and south
they form its boundaries; but the interior of the country is free
from them, with the exception of some low-lying ridges near Shuhr
Subz and Samarcand. The northern line of Hindoo Koosh, near Balkh, is
incorrectly laid down; since that city stands on the plain six miles
distant, and clear of the range which stretches to the westward, and
never reaches so high a parallel. In our maps, Balkh stands upon
it[20], and the range is even continued north-eastward to the Oxus. I
have given a separate notice of this great belt of mountains, of which
those near Balkh are but outlyers. Snow is procured from the valleys
about twenty miles from Balkh, in the middle of summer. On approaching
Kurshee we descried a lofty range of snow-clad mountains, running
apparently north and south. The natives called them the mountains of
Baeetoon, from a village of that name; and assured me they were six
days’ journey, or about a distance of 150 miles, from Kurshee. In
June they were entirely enveloped in snow, which would assign to them
an elevation of at least 18,000 feet, judging by Hindoo Koosh. There
were no remarkable peaks in sight, and the mountains ran in connected
chain like a trap formation. There were many lesser and outward ridges
between them and our view; but they towered far above all others, and
gave an impression of great altitude. We saw them again at sunrise, but
lost the splendid prospect as we travelled westward of Kurshee. I am
at a loss for the correct designation of this range: the Emperor Baber
speaks of the Kara Tagh, or Black Mountains, in Karatageen; but that
name is unknown in these days. They appear to terminate the highlands
of Pameer. They run at right angles to Hindoo Koosh, and very nearly
in the same meridian, giving cover to an opinion that they are but a
branch of that range. North of the Oxus, the mountains first rise in
the independent province of Hissar, and these which I have described
appear as a prolongation. In Hissar, however, they have no snow but in
winter; and they have an elevation beyond what was to be looked for
in this part of Asia. The country at their base is inhabited by the
Kongrad Uzbeks.
~Mineral productions.~
When we speak of the mineral productions of Bokhara, our recollection
is carried back to the ill-fated expeditions of Russia into these
countries in quest of gold. The river of Bokhara, I have observed,
has the designation of “Zurufshan,” or the gold-yielding stream. The
result of Prince Bekevitch’s expedition is well known; he and his
three thousand men perished. There are no gold mines in the kingdom
of Bokhara, but that precious metal is found among the sands of the
Oxus in greater abundance, perhaps, than in any of the other rivers
which flow from Hindoo Koosh. From its source to the lake of Aral, the
inhabitants wash the sand after the floods with great profit, and find
grains or particles of gold larger than those in the Indus. A piece
of virgin gold, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, was picked up last
year on the banks of the Oxus, and is now in possession of a merchant
in Khooloom. In the vicinity of Durwaz, the sands are most productive.
The lapis lazuli cliffs, which overhang the river in Budukhshan, are
also said to be interveined with gold; but, from the specimens which I
have seen, it appears to be mica. All the other metals, such as silver,
iron, and copper, are imported from Russia. Sal ammoniac (_nouchadur_)
is found in its native state among the hills near Juzzak. I know of
no other mineral productions in the kingdom but the salt deposits.
In Hissar, salt is found in hills, not unlike the formations in the
salt range of the Punjab. On the plains it is dug out in masses, and,
when washed, is ready for the market. There is a bed of salt, about
five miles in circumference, called Khwaju Hunfee, two miles from the
Oxus, below Charjooee, on the right bank of the river. The salt is
imperfectly crystallised, black, and very inferior; a camel load of
500lbs. sells for a quarter of a tilla in Bokhara.[21]
~Vegetable kingdom.~
The vegetable productions of this country are more abundant. The
different trees will be best known by the names of the fruit after
noticed. The wood used for house-building is the poplar, which grows
every where. The cotton plant is extensively cultivated, and exported
both in a raw and manufactured state. Hemp is reared, but the people
are ignorant of its use in manufactures. They extract oil from the
seeds of the plant, as also the intoxicating drug called “bang,” and
give the stalks to cattle. I have been informed that the tea plant
thrives between Samarcand and Kokan; but I doubt the information,
which was never properly confirmed. There is a small yellow flower,
called “esbaruk,” growing in the low hills near Kurshee and Balkh,
which is used as a dye, and produces a better colour than the rind of
the pomegranate. Madder, called “bayak,” is also produced; its roots
are permitted to remain eighteen months in the ground; but a dye
equally good and serviceable is found in the creeping roots of the
vine, which yield a colour that is dark red. Neither indigo nor sugar
cane grow in Bokhara. They are the great imports from India, and might
be acclimated. There is a curious and common substitute for sugar,
called “turunjubeen.” It is a saccharine gum, which exudes from the
well-known shrub called the camel’s thorn, or the “_khari-shootur_.”
Towards the end of August, when this shrub is in flower, it may be seen
in the morning covered with drops like dew, which are shaken into a
cloth placed beneath the bush, and form what is called “turunjubeen.”
Some hundred maunds are collected annually, and the whole sweetmeats
and confections used in the country are prepared from it; it is also
exported. Though the “_khari-shootur_” be a plant common to most of
the countries in Asia, it does not always, as in Bokhara, produce
“turunjubeen.” The gum is unknown in India and Cabool, and not found
westward of Bokhara, or near that capital; though in great plenty to
the eastward, near Kurshee and Samarcand. It appears to be peculiar
to certain soils; abounding in dry deserts; and is probably the rich
sap of the shrub, which exudes and hardens into small grains. The
inhabitants entertain an absurd opinion, that it is really dew; but
I never heard that it was made by an insect, as has been asserted.
It cannot be doubted that sugar could be manufactured from it,--a
discovery that would be invaluable, since they now use syrup of grapes
and mulberries on account of the expense of that article. Sugar
might also be extracted from juwaree, beet root, and melons. There
is another valuable jungle shrub, called “_usl-soos_,” and “_achick
booee_,” by the Uzbeks, which appears to be a bastard indigo, and
grows most luxuriantly on the banks of the Oxus and the other rivers
of the country. The roots of this plant extend deep into the soil, and
at certain seasons of the year have a small globular worm attached
to them: this creature produces a purple dye, like that of cochineal
(kirmiz), and some of the merchants applied for my advice regarding it:
the insect, when exposed to the sun, comes to life; when destroyed in
an oven, it shrivels up, but still produces a dye, only inferior to
cochineal. I compared it with American cochineal, and they appeared to
me similar, only that the native preparation was softer. Should this
insect yield cochineal, the discovery would be highly important in a
silk country; nor is it to be doubted that its vivifying power might
be destroyed by steam. An ingenious native of Cashmere had tried to
bake it in bread, but without better success than when placed loose in
the oven. The different grains of the country are rice, wheat, barley,
juwaree, here called “jougan,” “sesamum,” “urjun,” Indian corn, gram,
moong, and beans. It is an astonishing fact, that, in the provinces
south of the Oxus, the wheat yields a crop for three successive years.
When the harvest is finished, the cattle are turned in upon the stubble
fields, and in the ensuing year the same stalks grow up and ear. The
second crop is good, the next more scanty; but it is reaped a third
time. In Bokhara Proper, the soil has not such fecundity, for the crops
of Karakool do not yield more than sevenfold. Trefoil is cultivated,
and may be out seven or eight times in the year. Lucerne requires too
much water. The tobacco of Kurshee is superior. The wild rhubarb, or
“rhuwash,” as found in Cabool, likewise grows in the hillocks of this
district. Vegetables abound; there are turnips, carrots, onions,
radishes, brinjals, and a variety of greens, with most extensive fields
of beet-root. The potatoe has not been introduced. Though Bokhara is
so celebrated for its fertility, the necessaries of life bear a high
price, which in the city itself may be attributed to the density of
population. The following table will furnish more correct data on this
subject:--
51 lbs. of wheat sell for one sicca rupee, value about 2_s._
75-1/2 lbs. of barley for the same price.
18-1/2 lbs. of best rice.
22-1/2 lbs. of coarse rice.
36-1/2 lbs. of wheat flour.
64 lbs. of juwaree.
48 lbs. of moong.
36-1/2 lbs. of gram.
43 lbs. of beans.
16 lbs. of mutton.
24 lbs. of beef.
8 lbs. of oil.
140 lbs. of salt.
1 lb. of sugar.
4-2/3 lbs. of ghee.
~Fruits and wines.~
The fruits of Bokhara have attained a great celebrity; but it is more
from quantity than quality. They consist of the peach, plum, apricot,
cherry, sour cherry, apple, pear, quince, walnut, fig, pomegranate,
mulberry, and grape; also the melon, pumpkin, and cucumber. Most of the
stone fruit is inferior to that of Persia, only excepting the apricots
of Balkh, which are highly flavoured, and nearly as large as apples.
They are called “Bakur khanee;” and 2000 of them may be purchased for
a rupee. There are many kinds of grapes; the best are the Sabibee and
Hooseinee: the first is a purple grape, the other yellow, and of a
long shape; and both have a flavour truly luscious. The vines are not
pruned as in Europe. The raisins prepared from the Bokhara grapes stand
unrivalled in size and flavour: the best are dipped in hot water, and
then dried, from which they have the name of “ab-josh,” which means
water boiled: they are soft and beautifully transparent. The wines of
Bokhara are unpalatable to European taste, with little flavour; some
of them might even be mistaken for beer. They cannot be preserved for
more than a year; which evinces some defect in their manufacture. The
mulberries are delicious: they are dried like raisins; and a syrup
called “sheeru” is also extracted from them and grapes. The apples are
indifferent. The plum of Bokhara, which is so well known in India, is
not exported from the country itself, but grows at Ghuzni in Cabool: it
is highly esteemed. The melon is the choicest fruit of Bokhara. The
Emperor Baber tells us that he shed tears over a melon of Toorkistan,
which he cut up in India after his conquest: its flavour brought his
native country and other dear associations to memory. There are two
distinct species of melons, which the people class into hot and cold;
the first ripens in June, and is the common musk or scented melon of
India, and not superior in flavour; the other ripens in July, and is
the true melon of Toorkistan; In appearance it is not unlike a water
melon, and comes to maturity after being seven months in the ground. It
is much larger than the common sort, and generally of an oval shape,
exceeding two and three feet in circumference. Some are much larger;
and those which ripen in the autumn have exceeded four feet. One has a
notion that what is large cannot be delicate or high flavoured; but no
fruit can be more luscious than the melon of Bokhara. I always looked
upon the melon as an inferior fruit till I went to that country: nor do
I believe their flavour will be credited by any one who has not tasted
them. The melons of India, Cabool, and even Persia, bear no comparison
with them: not even the celebrated fruit of Isfahan itself. The pulp is
rather hard, about two inches thick, and is sweet to the very skin;
which, with the inhabitants, is the great proof of superiority. A kind
of molasses is extracted from these melons, which might be easily
converted into sugar. There are various kinds of melons: the best is
named “Kokechu,” and has a green and yellow coloured skin; another is
called “Ak nubat,” which means white sugar candy: it is yellow, and
exceedingly rich. The winter melon is of a dark green colour, called
“Kara koobuk,” and said to surpass all the others. Bokhara appears to
be the native country of the melon, having a dry climate, sandy soil,
and great facilities for irrigation. Melons may be purchased in Bokhara
throughout the year, and are preserved by merely hanging them up apart
from one another; for which those of the winter crop are best suited.
The water melons of Bokhara are good, and attain also an enormous bulk:
twenty people may partake of one; and two of them, it is said, form
sometimes a load for donkey. The cucumbers are likewise superior.[22]
~Domestic animals.~
~Sheep.~
~Goats.~
~Camels.~
In the animal kingdom, the sheep and goats of Bokhara claim the first
notice, since the one yields the celebrated skins, and the other a
description of shawl-wool, only inferior to that used in Cashmere.
These flocks graze on furze and dry grass; and their flesh is sweet
and well-flavoured. All the sheep are of the doombu kind, with large
tails; some of which yield in season so much as fifteen pounds of
tallow. The animal looks deformed from its size; and straddles along
with evident uneasiness. The description of sheep which produces the
jet-black curly fleece, that is made into caps in Persia, and so much
esteemed everywhere, is peculiar to Karakool, a small canton between
Bokhara and the Oxus. The animal will thrive in no other place, and
has been transported to Persia and other countries without success;
when removed, it loses the peculiarity in its fleece, and becomes
like any other sheep. The people attribute this curly fleece to the
nature of the pasture; and assert that the grass called “boyak,” and
by the Persians “ronass,” which is a long kind of bent, changes the
nature of the animal. If a Karakool sheep even strays to the banks
of the Oxus, where that plant grows, it ceases, it is said, to have
the curly wool. The skins of the male lambs are most highly prized:
they are killed five or six days after birth; never later than a
fortnight; but the popular belief of their being cut out of the womb
is erroneous: a very few are procured from premature births in the
ewes; and the skins of such are as fine as velvet, but not curled.
These are called “kirpuk,” and exported to Constantinople, where they
bear a very high price, as the supply is limited. The other kind is
called “danudar,” or curled, and exported to Persia, Turkey, and China.
They are of different fineness, according to the age at which the lambs
are killed: some are exquisitely curled, others more coarse. Those
which have the smallest curls are most prized; and in Persia, ten or
fifteen skins will sometimes be cut up to make a single cap; which
is the cause of their being so expensive. In Bokhara, a single skin
never bears a higher price than three or four sicca rupees. The annual
export of skins amounts to about two hundred thousand; the coarser
ones being sent to Orgunje. They are cured by being rubbed with barley
flour, and salt. The goats of Bokhara, which are to be found among
the wandering Kirgizzes, yield the wool to which I have alluded: but
these people were quite ignorant of its value till a late period; and
yet manufacture it into ropes to bind their horses and cattle. For
some years past it has been exported to Cabool and India. The stuffs
prepared from it are good, but far surpassed by those of Cashmere,
manufactured from the wool of Tibet. This wool is of a grey colour,
and produced next the skin of the animal, from which it is combed
out; if not removed, it makes its appearance in clotted lumps among
the hair. The goat is about the common size, of a dark colour, and
differing from that of Tibet, which is a small and beautiful animal.
I am not aware if the goats of every country yield wool; but, in this
respect, there is a resemblance between those of Toorkistan and Tibet.
I am assured that the dogs of the latter country even yield wool from
which a few shawls are annually manufactured in Cashmere. The curs
of Bokhara yield nothing so valuable. In a country, surrounded by
deserts, the camel is an animal of the first importance: they are very
numerous; and the whole traffic of Bokhara is carried on by means of
them. They bear a high price; a good one cannot be purchased under
sixty or seventy rupees. The condition and appearance of the camel here
differ from what is seen in India and Cabool, where they are often
covered with eruptions, and almost destitute of hair. At Bokhara, on
the other hand, they have a sleek coat, as fine as that of a horse,
and shed their hair in summer; from which a fine water-proof cloth of
close and rather heavy texture is manufactured. It is called “oormuk,”
and retains the natural colour of the camel. I imagine that these
camels owe their superiority to the climate, and the congenial thorny
food, which is so abundant. This animal always thrives best in a dry
country, and is very impatient under heat. They will travel with ease
for fourteen successive hours; but their keepers never march during the
day if it can be avoided. It is erroneous to believe that the camel
can subsist for any great number of days without water. In summer they
suffer much after the second day; and in winter they will only travel
without it for double the time. The food of the camel is most cleanly;
but nothing can be more offensive than the effluvia which proceeds from
its stomach. The journeys performed, even with our caravan, bespeak the
great hardihood of these animals. In one instance we travelled seventy
miles in forty-four consecutive hours, including every halt. Our usual
marches were thirty miles: and the camel scarcely ever travels more
than two miles in the hour. The Bactrian camel, which has two humps,
abounds in Toorkistan: they are bred by the Kuzzaks of the desert
north of Bokhara. They have a fringe of long black hair under their
neck, with a clump of it on both thighs, and are really pretty for a
camel. In stature they are lower than the common camel or dromedary,
yet they bear greater burdens by 140 pounds: the one carrying 640, and
the other but 500 pounds English. I am assured that a most strong and
useful breed of camels is reared by a cross between the two. The issue
of these have but one hump. I reserve my remarks on the horses of the
country for a separate chapter. Among the domestic animals of Bokhara
none are more useful than the ass: the breed is large and sturdy, and
they are much used both for saddle and burden. There is no objection
to riding them, as in India. There are no mules, from a religious
prejudice against them. The horned cattle of Bokhara are well sized,
though far inferior to those of England. There are no buffaloes.
~Wild animals. Birds. Insects. Fishes.~
The wild animals of the country are few. Tigers of a diminutive species
are found in the valley of the Oxus; also wild hogs, herds of deer,
antelope, and the wild ass, roam on the plains; there are also foxes,
wolves, jackals, and cats. There are bears in the Eastern mountains;
rats, tortoises, and lizards are found in the desert. The scorpion is
common; but its sting has little of its usual virulence: I speak from
experience. It is said that there are no snakes (and we certainly did
not meet with any) north of the Oxus. Locusts sometimes infest the
country, particularly about Balkh. The eagle and hawk are found; all
kinds of game are scarce. The plover and wild pigeon are common. Water
fowl are numerous in certain seasons. The crane, or “lug lugu,” as it
is called, builds its nest on the mosques of the cities: it is a bird
of passage, and reckoned sacred. The fish of the Oxus do not differ
from what are found in most Asiatic rivers. There is a species of the
dog-fish called “lukha,” which has no scales, and is frequently caught
of the weight of 600 lbs. English: the Uzbeks eat it. In the lake of
Karakool the fish have as good a flavour as those of the sea. There are
no monsters in the Oxus. We neither saw not heard of alligators. There
are few insects in a dry country. I observed a peculiarity in the food
of the bees and wasps which was new to me: they attacked a shoulder of
mutton, and ate very large holes in it; in winter they are sometimes
fed with flesh instead of sugar. The meat which I saw them devouring
was fresh, not putrid. They also attacked dried fish.
~Silk-worms. Silk.~
The most valuable insect is the silk-worm, which is reared in all parts
of the kingdom where there is water. Every stream or rivulet is lined
with the mulberry; and the most extensive operations are carried on
along the banks of the Oxus, where the whole of the wandering tribes
are engaged in rearing the insect. The silk of the “Lub i ab,” or banks
of the river, as it is termed, is the most valuable, both from the
softness and fineness of its thread. The trees put forth their leaves
about the vernal equinox, when the worm is brought out, the whole stage
of its existence has terminated with the month of June. The worm is
killed in the cocoon by immersion in hot water; and the silk is then
reeled off on a wheel by an end or thread being taken from a number
of cocoons which lie clotted together. This silk is exported to India
and Cabool, and, from its abundance, may be purchased at a very cheap
rate. Silk is likewise produced in the neighbouring country of Kokan;
but it is more abundant than good. The raw silk is dyed by cochineal
and the productions already named, madder and “esbaruk.” A black colour
is produced by mixing iron filings with water in which rice has been
boiled, and allowing it to stand for a month.
~Diseases. Guinea-worm.~
~Kolee, a kind of leprosy.~
~Cholera.~
Among the diseases of Bokhara, the most distressing is the guinea-worm,
or Dracunculus, here called “rishtu:” it is confined to the city. The
inhabitants believe that the disease arises from drinking the water
of the cisterns in summer, when they become fetid and infested with
animalculæ. Travellers suffer as much as the inhabitants; but the
disease does not show itself till the year following that on which they
have drank the water. Many of the Afghans are attacked after returning
to Cabool; and, whatever be the cause, it assuredly originates from
something peculiar to Bokhara, since all other parts of the country are
free from it. It is supposed that one fourth of the whole population
of Bokhara are annually attacked with guinea-worm. This prevalence of
the complaint has given the natives a dexterity of extracting them
quite unknown in other countries. So soon as it is discovered that
one has formed, and before any swelling has taken place, they pass a
needle under the middle of the worm, and, rubbing the part, draw it
out at once. They are generally successful; but if the worm breaks,
the wound festers, the pain is excessive, and few recover under three
months. If the animal be coiled in one place, the extraction is simple;
if deep in the flesh, more difficult. If the swelling has commenced,
they do not attempt the operation, but allow it to take its course, and
endeavour to draw it out by degrees, as in India. These worms vary in
length from three to four spans. It is said that guinea-worm is most
common among people of a cold temperament; but it does not attack any
particular class. The better orders of people, attributing it to the
water, send to the river for their supply, and never drink that of the
cisterns till it is boiled. It is not to be supposed that I can give
any solution of the cause of this disease: the doctors of Toorkistan
believe it to be a worm generated from the causes above-mentioned. Nor
can I credit its arising from the animalculæ of the water. Another
disease of the country is the “mukkom,” or “kolee,” a kind of leprosy.
Those afflicted with it are considered unclean: it does not cover the
body with spots, as in common leprosy, but the skin becomes dry and
shrivelled; the hair of the body falls off, the nails and teeth tumble
out, and the whole body assumes a horrible and unseemly appearance. The
disease is believed to be hereditary, and to originate from food: it is
fearfully prevalent in the districts of Samarcand and Meeankal; also in
the neighbouring states of Shuhr Subz and Hissar; all of which are rice
countries. Some state it to be caused by the use of the intoxicating
spirit called “boozu,” which is distilled from black barley; but that
liquor and mares’ milk are not used in Bokhara. The disease affects the
general health, and is incurable. The most humane people will tell you
that it is a curse from God, and drive the unfortunate sufferer from
them. A separate quarter of the city is assigned for the residence of
those who are afflicted, as was the case among the Jews. That scourge,
the cholera morbus, has been felt in all these countries. It appears
to have taken the route of the caravans, and advanced from India step
by step into eastern Europe. It raged for a year in Cabool; it then
crossed Hindoo Koosh on the following season, and desolated Balkh and
Koondooz. For a year it fluctuated between the valley of the Oxus and
Herat; it then attacked Bokhara, Kokan, and the other Uzbek states;
and, after devastating the country, passed on to Khiva, Orenburg, and
Astrakhan. The faculty have discovered no remedy for the cholera morbus.
~Other diseases.~
The inhabitants of Toorkistan are subject to a constant dryness of
the skin: many of them lose their eyelashes and eyebrows, and their
skin becomes wrinkled and tawny. Whether the diet, or dryness of the
climate, causes these appearances, I know not. The Uzbeks seldom
eat horse-flesh; though it is believed that they live upon it. It
is considered heating food, and is, besides, expensive. Mutton is
preferred, and none but the lower orders eat beef. A sheep is killed,
and the entire tail, however large and fat, is melted up with the meat,
and cooked in a single boiler. They are fond of every thing oily,
and also use much cheese and sour milk. Ophthalmia is a very common
complaint in Toorkistan. Fevers are rare; in Balkh rheumatism is
prevalent. In the city of Bokhara rickets are common; and the children
have generally a puny and unhealthy appearance, which is not observable
in the grown-up people of the country. Among their medicines, I heard
of an oil extracted from the dung of sheep; which is considered a
specific for the sprains, bruises, and hurts of cattle: it is very
pungent, and the flies shun the parts rubbed with it. I have been
assured of the bone spavins of a horse being reduced by an application
of this oil. They procure it by a distilling process.
~Cities and towns. Population of the kingdom.~
There are no large towns in the kingdom of Bokhara, but the capital.
It contains a population of about 150,000 souls. The ancient cities
of Samarcand and Balkh have long since dwindled into the obscurity
of provincial towns: they are both surpassed by Kurshee, which has
not a population of 10,000 souls. These are the only towns in the
country. There are some large villages, such as Jizzak, Kermina, and
Kutkoorghan; but none of them contain above 2500 people. The villages
are also few, and widely separated from one another; they amount to
about four hundred: nor can I estimate the whole population of the
kingdom of Bokhara at a million of human beings: and one half of
this population is made up of the nomade tribes that wander in its
deserts. The villages are fortified by mud walls, which are necessary
for their protection. In the cultivated parts, single habitations,
called “robats,” are scattered over the face of the country; and these
are invariably surrounded by walls; I need not enter upon any farther
account of the cities of Bokhara and Balkh, since they have been
mentioned in the narrative.
CHAP. II.
THE RIVER OXUS, OR AMOO; WITH SOME NOTICE OF THE SEA OF ARAL.
~Source and course of the Oxus.~
The Oxus, or Amoo, is a river of considerable magnitude and classical
celebrity. It was known to the Greeks under the designation of Oxus:
the Asiatics call it Jihoon and Amoo. Jihoon means a flood, and is used
in all the Turkish and Persian works that treat upon these countries:
but the inhabitants on its banks now speak of the river under the name
of Amoo, calling it “Durya-i-Amoo,” the River, or literally, the Sea of
Amoo. I am not aware of any meaning that attaches to this title. The
Oxus rises in the table-lands of Pamere, and is formed by a variety
of rivulets which collect in that elevated region of Asia. According
to the information which I have received, its source is a degree more
northward and eastward than appears in Mr. Macartney’s map. It is
stated that four rivers, which flow in opposite directions, issue from
the vicinity of the lake Surikol: these are the Oxus, Sir or Jaxartes,
one of the heads of the Indus, and a portion of the waters of Tibet.
The Oxus waters the rich valley of Budukhshan, where it receives the
river of that name, the greatest of its tributaries, and is afterwards
joined by a variety of smaller streams from Koondooz and Hissar, which
have been described by Mr. Macartney. It winds among mountains, and,
approaching within twenty miles of the town of Khoolloom, and much
nearer than appears in our maps, passes about half a degree to the
north of Balkh. There are no hills between it and that ancient city,
as have been represented. It here enters upon the desert by a course
nearly N.W., fertilizes a limited tract of about a mile on either
side, till it reaches the territories of Orgunje or Khiva, the ancient
Kharasm, where it is more widely spread by art, and is then lost in the
sea of Aral. In the latter part of its course, so great is the body of
water drawn for the purposes of irrigation, and so numerous are the
divisions of its branches, that it forms a swampy delta, overgrown with
reeds and aquatic plants, impervious to the husbandman, and incapable
of being rendered useful to man, from its unvarying humidity. I will
not permit the much-disputed subject of the Oxus having terminated, at
a former period, in the Caspian instead of the Aral sea, to lead me
into a digression on that curious point. I have only to state, after
an investigation of the subject, and the traditions related to me, as
well as much enquiry among the people themselves, that I doubt the Oxus
having ever had any other than its present course. There are physical
obstacles to its entering the Caspian, south of Balkhan, and north of
that point; its more natural receptacle is the lake of Aral. I conclude
that the dry river beds between Astrabad and Khiva are the remains
of some of the canals of the kingdom of Kharasm, and I am supported
in this belief by the ruins near them, which have been deserted as
the prosperity of that empire declined. We shall thus account for
such appearances on obvious grounds, without calling in the aid of
earthquakes and other commotions of nature.
~The sea of Aral.~
The Tartars inform you that the word “Aral” implies between, and that
that sea or lake is so called from its lying between the Sir and the
Amoo, the Jaxartes and the Oxus. It is a popular belief, that the
waters of the Aral pass by a subterraneous course into the Caspian. At
a spot called Kara Goombuz, between the seas, where the caravans halt,
some assert that the water is to be heard rushing beneath. It is said
to make a noise like the words “Kara doom,” which mean “I am thirsty;”
but the clock strikes what the fool thinks. The necessity of some such
subterraneous passage is obvious in the eyes of the people, since
the Aral has no outlet for two large rivers, but they do not think of
evaporation, which is great beyond belief in this dry country[23],
where there is also a perpetual wind. It is a curious fact, however,
that at Kara Goombuz, before mentioned, which appears to be a sandy
ridge, water is found close to the surface, while further south it
is not to be had nearer than 100 fathoms. The water of the Aral is
drinkable. It is seldom frozen in winter. In one of its many islands
they relate some tales of a colony that passed over the ice with their
herds and flocks, and has since had no opportunity of returning. The
banks of the Aral are peopled by wandering tribes, who cultivate great
quantities of wheat and other grain, which, with fish, that are caught
in abundance, form their food. The neighbourhood of the Aral is not
frequented by caravans.
~Capabilities of the Oxus.~
The Oxus is a navigable river throughout the greater portion of its
course. Its channel is remarkably straight, and free from rocks,
rapids, and whirlpools; nor is it much obstructed by sand-banks:
were it not for the marshes which choke its embouchure, it might be
ascended from the sea of Aral to near Koondooz, a distance of 600
miles. If we deduct the extent of that delta, commencing some way below
Orgunje, which does not exceed fifty miles, we have still an inland
line of navigation of 550 miles. The volume of water which this river
discharges appears great for the short extent of its course, but it is
the only drain of a wide and mountainous country. It is never fordable
after it has received the rivers of Koondooz and Talighan, which join
it under the name of Aksurai, below Huzrut Imam; these rivers are fed
by the melted snow on the northern side of the great Hindoo Koosh.
It may then only be so passed below that place (Huzrut Imam) for six
months during the year, when the ford is passable for artillery; which
has been frequently verified by the ruler of Koondooz. On leaving the
hilly ground below Kilef, about sixty miles north-west of Balkh, the
channel of the Oxus does not exceed 350 yards; on the plain it is
wider spread, and we crossed it at Khoja Salu, thirty miles below that
point, with a channel of 823 yards, as determined by the sextant. At
Charjooee, 200 miles lower down, within twenty leagues of Bokhara,
it had a channel of 650 yards. A detailed account of the river at
these points will furnish the best data for a determination of its
capabilities in a military and commercial point of view.
~Depth, current, and slope of the Oxus.~
At Khojusalu, on the 17th of June, a month before the periodical swell
had attained its greatest height, the Oxus was divided into three
distinct branches, only separated from each other by sand-banks. The
width of these arms respectively was 295, 113, and 415 yards; which
gives the total breadth of 823 yards. The soundings were irregular, and
at the deepest place did not amount to twenty feet. An enumeration of
them follows:--6, 9, 12, 6 feet in the first branch; 6 feet throughout
the second; and 6, 9, 15, 19, 6, in the third and last. The medium
depth of this river will never, therefore, be less than nine feet,
since that is the product of 828 yards, divided by 92, the sum total
of all the feet in the different soundings. Nor can there be much
incorrectness in the approximation, since on the 17th of August, which
is precisely two months later, when the river had passed its greatest
rise, we had much the same volume of water at Charjooee, near Bokhara.
The breadth was less, but the soundings were greater, and five heaves
of the lead gave 12, 18, 29, 20, and 18 feet. The Oxus flows with a
velocity of 6000 yards, or nearly three and a-half miles an hour; and
I discover from the boiling point of water at the two places (Khoja
Salu and Charjooee), that there is a difference of one and one third
of a degree between them, which will give a slope of 800 feet in a
distance of 200 miles. This is a great fall in such a river on so
flat at country; and, since the boiling point of water is subject to
slight variations even at the same place according to the state of the
atmosphere, it must only be received as an approximation to the truth.
The smallest change in so rude an instrument, for so nice an operation,
produces a great error, but, after every allowance, I cannot rate this
fall under 600 feet, or about a yard a mile: the course of the river is
not tortuous, which always bespeaks a greater rapidity of descent.
~Inundation of the Oxus.~
The Oxus is subject to a periodical swell, as are all the great rivers
which flow from the south of the same stupendous chain of mountains
in which it has its rise. In both cases the causes are similar,--the
melting of the snows in elevated regions. The inundation commences
in May, and ceases in October; but it is also subject to a second
and lesser flood during the rains of spring. It fluctuates in its
rise and fall with the state of the weather, rising under the sun of
a cloudless sky, and sinking with a denser atmosphere; while on its
banks, in June, it subsided a foot and a half in thirty-six hours, and
it had not then attained its height. The influence of the waters is
rarely felt for half a mile beyond the channel of the river, though its
inner banks are low and depressed, but there is a second bank varying
in distance from a mile and a half to two miles on either side, and
in some places more distant. The valley thus formed is clothed with
verdure and moistened, though seldom inundated by the swell. Here it
is that the inhabitants cultivate the land, and water it by industry
and art. In some instances the aqueducts extend inland for a distance
of four miles, and the water must then be raised by the Persian wheel
for irrigating the fields. On leaving this tract the scene changes to
sterility and desolation: the valley itself is in many places overgrown
with a bastard indigo, tamarisk, and rank weeds, and neglected by the
inhabitants. In winter, when the river has retired to its bed, it is
contracted to a space of 400 yards, but is never fordable. During the
swell, the waters of the Oxus are tinged by the soil of the mountains,
and assume a reddish hue. I ascertained that one fortieth of their body
consisted of silt suspended in the stream; while under the influence
of this snowy water, the river had a temperature of 73° at the summer
solstice, when the thermometer rose to 103° in the air.
~Freezing of the Oxus.~
It would not have been suspected that so vast a river, in so low a
parallel as 38° north latitude, should be frozen during winter, which
is no rare occurrence with the Oxus. The upper part of its course above
Koondooz freezes annually, and passengers and beasts of burden cross
it on the ice, on their route to Yarkund; but there it flows in an
elevated region. In the desert, however, its waters are also congealed
in a severe winter. Below Khiva it freezes annually; and at Charjooee,
which is about seventy miles from Bokhara, it was frozen last year from
bank to bank. The season was remarkably cold, and the caravans passed
it on the ice. At Kirkee, half-way to Balkh, it was also frozen; but
at the ferry of Kilef, opposite that city, there was a narrow channel
in the middle of the stream, which prevented the passage of both boats
and caravans for a month. A stone could be thrown from the ice of
one bank to that of the other; and it is not doubted that the only
hindrance to their junction in this narrow part of the Oxus arose from
the rapidity of the current, that was hemmed in by a confined bank. It
is an established fact, that the temperature of deserts is both colder
and hotter than countries which are more favoured by nature. In the
torrid deserts of Toorkistan, there is a cold bleakness during winter,
which will account for the congelation of the Oxus; it is nevertheless
a curious fact in physical geography, since the Danube, which flows
parallel with the Oxus, and in a higher latitude by seven degrees, is
not subject to a like phenomenon. In winter, if the Oxus be not frozen,
the passage of boats is sometimes endangered by the masses of ice which
are floated down from the upper part of its course. These have been
known to sink a boat, and require attention on the part of the ferrymen.
[Illustration: BOAT OF THE OXUS.]
~Craft on the Oxus. Their build and number, &c.~
The boats which are used on the Oxus are of a superior description,
though they have neither masts nor sails. They are built in the shape
of a ship, with a prow at both ends, and are generally about fifty feet
long and eighteen broad. They would carry about twenty tons English;
they are flat-bottomed, and about four feet deep: when afloat, the
gunwale is about two and a half or three feet above the stream; for
they do not draw much more than a foot of water when laden. They are
constructed of squared logs of wood, each about six feet long, formed
of a dwarf jungle-tree, called “pukee,” or “sheeshum,” which grows
in great abundance throughout the banks of the river, and cannot be
procured of greater dimensions. These trees are felled, their bark
is peeled off, and they are chipped into a square shape, which makes
them ready for the workmen. The logs are clamped with iron, and,
though these boats have a rude appearance, there is a strength and
solidity in their build that admirably fits them for the navigation
of such a river. There are few boats in the higher part of the Oxus
above Charjooee. From that place to where it becomes fordable, near
Koondooz, there are about fifteen ferries, and as each is provided
with two, we have only a tonnage of thirty vessels in a distance of
three hundred miles. The reason is obvious, for the inhabitants make
no use of the navigable facilities of the Oxus. Below Bokhara the
supply increases, and there are about 150 boats between it and the
Delta, chiefly belonging to Orgunje. Here they are not appropriated
as ferry-boats, but used in the transport of merchandise to and from
Bokhara. The embarkations take place at Eljeek, on the north bank of
the river, about sixty-five miles from the city. Below the Delta there
are no boats; and I am informed that the sea of Aral is without vessels
of any other description than small canoes. In ascending, the boats are
dragged against the stream; and in dropping down make for the middle,
where the current is rapid, and float down with their broadsides to it.
Neither rafts nor skins are used on the Oxus.
~Mode of navigating the Oxus.~
The manner of ferrying across is novel, and, I believe, peculiar to
this river; the boats are dragged across by horses, as I have fully
described in the narrative: nor should such a contrivance be lost sight
of by those who may use the Oxus as a navigable river.
~Wood of the Oxus.~
Facilities in the navigation of a river rest much on the supplies of
the country through which it flows; in particular, of the nature and
quantity of wood which is there procurable. The number of boats on the
Oxus is certainly small, since they do not amount to two hundred; but
there is every facility for building a fleet, the supply of wood being
abundant, and fortunately found in single trees along the valley of
the river, and not growing in forests on any particular spot. There
are no cedar or pine-trees brought down by the inundation, which I
hold as conclusive proof that the mountains from which the Oxus and
its tributaries flow are destitute of that wood. The only other trees
which I saw on the river were mulberry and the white poplar; which
last is floated down in quantities from Hissar to Charjooee, and
applied to purposes of house-building. In any increase of the tonnage
on this river, the immediate resources of the neighbouring country
must therefore be called into action; but these are highly important.
The nature of the build in the boats of the river requires no skill
in naval architecture; the wood is not sawed, and it does not require
seasoning, so that the utmost despatch might be used at all times in
forming a flotilla, whether it were desired to navigate, cross, or
bridge it. I believe that 150 men might be embarked on a boat of the
size which I have described. The river could only be bridged by boats,
for the wood is too small for an application of it in any other way,
and the furze and tamarisk which grow in its banks would supply the
place of planks, and make it at once complete and practicable. A bridge
of boats was thrown across the Oxus by both Timour and Nadir, and the
remains of some temporary buildings erected by the latter conqueror
are still shown at the ferry of Kilef, north of Balkh. The river there
presents facilities for such an operation, since it has hillocks on
both sides, is narrow, and not _always_ rapid. Passengers frequently
swim across the river at this ferry. Below the mountains the Oxus has a
firm and sandy bed, and boats may be anchored by branches of trees in
all parts of its stream.
~Political and commercial advantages of the Oxus.~
The advantages of the Oxus, both in a political and commercial point of
view, must, then, be regarded as very great: the many facilities which
have been enumerated point it out either as the channel of merchandize,
or the route of a military expedition; nor is it from the features of
the river itself that we form such a conclusion. It is to be remembered
that its banks are peopled and cultivated. It must therefore be viewed
as a river which is navigable, and possessing great facilities for
improving the extent of that navigation. This is a fact of great
political and commercial importance, whether an hostile nation may turn
it to the gratification of ambition, or a friendly power here seek for
the extension and improvement of its trade. In either case, the Oxus
presents many fair prospects, since it holds the most direct course,
and connects, with the exception of a narrow desert, the nations of
Europe with the remote regions of Central Asia.
CHAP. III.
ON THE VALLEY OF THE UPPER OXUS; BEING A NOTICE OF KOONDOOZ,
BUDUKHSHAN, AND THE KAFFIR COUNTRY, WITH THE ADJACENT TERRITORIES.
~Sketch of the countries to be described.~
The countries north of Hindoo Koosh, which lie in the valley of the
Oxus, and its tributary rivers, from Balkh upwards, have no general
designation; eastward of that city lies Koondooz, under which all the
smaller provinces may be classed, since the Meer, or chief of that
state, has subdued them. Further to the eastward, we have the province
of Budukhshan, also a dependency of Koondooz. To the north of this
territory are the hill states of Wakhan, Shughnan, Durwaz, Koolab,
and Hissar; which are remarkable, as containing a race of people
that claim a descent from Alexander the Great. To the eastward of
Budukhshan lies the plain of Pamere, inhabited by the Kirghizzes; and
beyond the Beloot Tagh mountains we have Chitral, Gilgit, and Iskardo,
that extend towards Cashmere, and are also inhabited by tribes who
assert their Macedonian origin. South of Budukhshan is the country
of the Siahposh Kaffirs, a most singular people, who dwell among the
mountains of Hindoo Koosh. These are the provinces which it is now
proposed to describe; but we shall reserve any particular mention of
the descendants of Alexander for the following chapter, and proceed, in
the first place, to speak of the country and its productions.
~Koondooz.~
Koondooz is situated in a valley among low hills, which extend from
east to west for about thirty miles, and from north to south about
forty, when it is bounded by the Oxus. It is watered by two rivers,
which join north of Koondooz, and are not fordable during the
melting of the snows in summer. The climate of this country is most
insalubrious: the heat is excessive, yet the snow lies for three months
during winter. The greater part of the valley is so marshy, that the
roads across are constructed on piles of wood, which are fixed among
noxious reeds and vegetation. Rice is reared in such places as are not
entirely inundated, and in the drier ground there is wheat and barley.
The fruit consists of apricots, plums, cherries, and mulberries, and it
ripens at Balkh and Khooloom about a fortnight sooner than at Koondooz.
The great mountain of Hindoo Koosh is in sight at Koondooz; but those
hills which form the valley on either side do not rise to a height of
a thousand feet from the plain. They are long ridgy high-lands, covered
with grass and flowers, but free from trees or brushwood, forming
valuable pasture lands. The town of Koondooz cannot boast a population
of 1500 souls; for it is deserted by the chief and the people. The
neighbouring districts do not partake of the unhealthiness of Koondooz.
Khooloom, Heibuk, Goree, Inderab, Talighan, and Huzrut Imam, are its
subjected districts, and except the last, which lies in the Oxus, they
possess a pleasant climate, and have a rich and prolific soil. These
districts are watered by rivulets flowing into the Oxus, and the soil
is valued by the facilities which it enjoys of being watered. Heibuk
and Khooloom stand on the same rivulet, the water of which is dammed up
on certain days, and allowed to run on others. The gardens on its banks
are rich and beautiful; and among the fruit-trees, one again meets the
fig, which does not grow in Cabool.
~Budukhshan.~
The countries that lie higher up the Oxus have none of the defects of
climate which are peculiar to Koondooz, and both natives and foreigners
speak in rapture of the vales of Budukhshan, its rivulets, romantic
scenes and glens, its fruits, flowers, and nightingales. This district
lies along the valley of the Oxus; but its capital is further to the
south, and eastward of Koondooz. It is sometimes called Fyzabad, but
its more common and proper name is Budukhshan. This once celebrated
country is now almost without inhabitants; it was overrun by the chief
of Koondooz about twelve years ago: its ruler has been dethroned, and
his substitute exists as a mere pageant; its peasants have been marched
out of the country, and a rabble of lawless soldiery is now quartered
in the different provinces. It also suffered from an earthquake in
January, 1832, which destroyed many villages, and a great part of the
population. The roads through many parts of the country were blocked up
by the falling of stones, and the river of Budukhshan was hemmed in for
five days, by a hill that tumbled in upon it. This great convulsion of
nature occurred at midnight, and scarcely a family in the country but
deplored the loss of some of its members. It was felt at Mooltan and
Lahore, but the centre of its violence appears to have been the valley
of the Oxus. The natives of Budukhshan are Tajiks; they are very fond
of society, and such is their hospitality, that, it is said, bread is
never sold in the country. Their language is Persian, which they speak
with the broad pronunciation of a native of Iran. It is related that
Budukhshan was peopled from the Persian city of Balkh, and most of the
inhabitants are Shiahs. Neither the Uzbeks, nor any of the Toorkee
families, have settled in the country, and the people have yet the
manners and customs that obtained north of Hindoo Koosh before the
invasion of the Tartars.
~Ruby mines.~
Budukhshan has acquired great celebrity for its ruby mines, which were
well known in early times, and also to the emperors of Delhi. They
are said to be situated on the verge of the Oxus, near Shughnan, at
a place called Gharan; which may simply mean caves. They are dug in
low hills; and one man assured me that the galleries passed under the
Oxus; but I doubt the information. It is a mistake to believe that
they are not worked, as the present chief of Koondooz has employed
people in digging them since he conquered the country. These persons
had been hereditarily engaged in that occupation; but, as the returns
were small, the tyrant of Koondooz demanded their labour without pay;
and on their refusing to work, he marched them to the unhealthy fens of
Koondooz, where their race has almost become extinct. In the search of
rubies, it is a popular belief that a pair of large ones will be always
found together; and the workmen will often conceal a gem till its match
can be found, or break a large ruby into two pieces. The rubies are
said to be embedded in limestone; and to be found like round pieces of
pebble or flint, which exist in such deposits.
~Lapis lazuli.~
In the vicinity of the ruby mines, great masses of lapis lazuli are
found on the verge of the Oxus. The mode of detaching it from the
cliffs appeared to be ingenious, though I think I have heard of similar
means being used to quarry stone in other quarters. A fire is lit over
the block of lapis lazuli, and when the stone becomes sufficiently
heated, cold water is dashed upon it, and the rock is thus fractured.
The lapis lazuli of the Oxus was sent in former years to China; but the
demand has lately decreased. I have seen many specimens of this stone,
with veins, which were said to be gold; but I imagine they were mica.
Lapis lazuli and rubies are only collected in winter.
~Mountain districts north of Budukhshan.~
North of Koondooz, and Budukhshan, and beyond the Oxus, we have the
small hill states of Hissar, Koolab, Durwaz, Shoognan, and Wukhan: the
whole of them are mountainous. Hissar is finely watered, and a rice
country, independent of Bokhara and Koondooz. It is held by four Uzbek
chiefs, who divided it among themselves on their father’s death; its
capital stands on a hillock forty miles east of Dihnou. A range of
hills called Kohitun, which are about 4000 feet high, traverses the
district from north to south. There is an extensive deposit of red rock
salt in it, which is exported to other countries. The saddle used by
the natives of Hissar differs from others in Toorkistan. The tree, or
seat, is scooped out like a bowl, and is then covered with leather:
it has a knob in front. The ferry of Tirmez on the Oxus, bounds
Hissar on the west; and to the east it has Koolab, which is a small
district,--sometimes called Bulgeewan. It has lately been seized by the
chief of Koondooz, who forded the Oxus and conquered it. Durwaz is the
next territory, and is ruled by a Tajik chief, who is independent. In
his territories, the Oxus is most successfully washed for gold. The two
next districts of Shughnan and Wukhan are tributary to Koondooz; but
there are not more than three or four villages in each of them. Wukhan
is the territory mentioned by Marco Polo; and the few specimens which I
could collect of its language were as follows:--
Father Fait
Mother Nan
Son Kash
Daughter Poorchad
Fire Rekhnu
Water Yoobk.
The chief of Wukhan is named Meer Mahommed Ruheem Khan, and will allow
none of his progeny to leave the hills. The people of Shughnan differ
also in their dialect. I give a specimen of three words:--
Bread Gurdu
Son Ghudyk
Daughter Ghuds.
The whole of the population is Mahommedan; and I did not hear of any
trace of pristine superstition. They designate the Deity by the Persian
word Khooda. I heard of a singular practice among the people of these
districts, who shoe their horses with the antlers of the mountain deer.
They form the horn into a suitable shape, and fix it on the hoof with
horn pins, never renewing it till fairly worn out. It is said that the
custom is borrowed from the Kirgizzes.
~Plain of Pamere.~
The high plain of Pamere lies between Budukhshan and Yarkund; and
is inhabited by an erratic race, the Kirgizzes. The centre of this
table-land is the lake of Surikool, from which the Jaxartes, the
Oxus, and a branch of the Indus are said to rise. This elevated plain
extends on every side of the lake for a journey of six days; and all
the mountains are described as seen under the feet from this great
elevation. It is a flat tract, intersected by shallow ravines, and
covered with short but rich pasture: it is very cold; and the snow
in summer does not disappear from the hollows. The inhabitants robe
their whole bodies, even their hands and faces, in sheepskins, from
the severity of the cold. There is no grain in the country; for the
Kirgizzes subsist on flesh and milk: they do not even know the use
of flour; and, if it is given them, they mix it up with their soup,
but never bake it into bread. They live on round khirgahs, like the
Toorkmun tribes, and wander from one place to another.
~Singular animal that inhabits Pamere.~
I heard of an animal called “Rass” by the Kirgizzes, and “Kooshgar”
by the natives of the low countries; which is described as peculiar
to Pamere. It is larger than a cow, and less than a horse; of a white
colour, with pendent hair under its chin, and crowned with horns of
huge dimensions. These are described to be so large, that no one man
can lift a pair of them; and, when left on the ground, the small foxes
of the country bring forth their young inside them. The flesh of the
“Rass” is much prized by the Kirgizzes, who hunt and shoot it with
arrows. This animal is said to delight in the coldest climate; and
would appear, from its beard, to be of the goat species, or, perhaps,
the bison. A common-sized “Rass” will require two horses to bear its
flesh from the field.
~Countries of Chitral, Gilgit, and Iskardo.~
The tract that lies beyond the Beloot mountains and Budukhshan, and
between it and Cashmere, is filled up by the cantons of Chitral,
Gilgit, and Iskardo, all of which are held by Shiah Mahommedans. There
is another district to the north-east of Chitral, which is called
“Gunjoot,” from the gold which is found in it. The countries of which I
now speak have been designated by the general name of Kaushgar, by Mr.
Elphinstone; and are separated from Budukhshan by the range of Beloot.
Kaushgar itself is a small district near Deer, north of Peshawur; and
I never heard a native of Budukhshan or Yarkund speak of the country
under that general name. They had not even heard of any Kaushgar but
that in the vicinity of Yarkund. Chitral is situated on a branch of the
Cabool river, and is subject to the chief of Koondooz, who has at times
entered the country; and new demands a yearly tribute of slaves, who
are sent to Bokhara for sale. The chief has the title of Shah Kuttore,
and boasts of his Macedonian lineage. The dialect of Chitral differs
again from that of the neighbouring states; and I fortunately met a
native who was acquainted with it: he gave me these specimens:--
Mother Nunan
Son Dirk
Daughter Jaor
Man Mach
Woman Kumoor
Water Oogh
Fire Ungar
Above Acha
Below Aye
Mountain Koh
Fort Noghar
I go Booghdo
Where do you go? Koora roobas.
The next district is Gilgit, or Gilgitty, where the dialect also
differs from Chitral: it is a strong country, and independent of
Koondooz. The remaining division lies further eastward, bordering on
Baltee or Little Tibet, and bears the name of Iskardo. The principal
place of the same name is a large fort of irregular construction, which
is built on the banks of the Indus, and is said to be but eight marches
north-east of the City of Cashmere. The country is independent.
~The Kaffirs.~
~Their descent from Alexander doubted.~
On the south-eastern corner of Budukhshan, and on the mountains between
it and Peshawur, we find that extraordinary people, the Siahposh
Kaffirs, or Black-vested Infidels, as called by their Mahommedan
neighbours, from their wearing black goat-skin dresses. This race
is entirely confined to the mountains, and persecuted by all the
surrounding nations, who seek to capture them as slaves. The chief of
Koondooz made an inroad into their country some years since, and lost
half of his army in the campaign. I can offer no further addition to
the notice of their religion and country, than is to be found in Mr.
Elphinstone’s work, though I met the worthy and faithful man Moollah
Nujeeb, who was sent into Kaffiristan for the purposes of enquiry. I
had much conversation with people who had been brought into contact
with them, and in Cabool was fortunate enough to see a Kaffir boy about
ten years old, who had left his country for a period of two years;
his complexion, hair, and features, differed from those of Asiatics:
his eyes were of a bluish colour. The boy replied to many questions
that were put to him about his country, and gave specimens of his
language, which assimilated with the Indian dialects. The Kaffirs
appear to be a most barbarous people, eaters of bears and monkies,
and fighting with arrows, and scalping their enemies. The greatest
intercourse which takes place between them and the Mahommedans is
carried on from the country of Lughman, between Cabool and Peshawur,
where a tribe of people reside who are called “Neemchu Moossulman,” or
half Mahommedans. The Kaffir country is strong and mountainous. The
people are much addicted to wine. Gold is found in its native state
among their mountains, and formed by them into vessels and ornaments.
These circumstances, with their appearance and complexion, have given
rise to an opinion, that they are the descendants of the Greeks. Both
Baber and Abool Fuzzil have made mention of this supposition; but they
have confounded the claims of the chiefs on the Oxus to a Macedonian
descent with the Kaffirs, who have no such tradition of their origin.
The great elevation of the country which they inhabit, would appear
to account satisfactorily for all their physical peculiarities; and
I believe it will be found that this people are none other than the
aborigines of the plains, who fled to their present abode on the
conversion of the low countries to the religion of Mahommed: the
Afghans, at least, tell you so, and the name of Kaffir, or Infidel,
seems a strong corroboration of the opinion. The Kaffirs are a race
of savages, and there is nothing either in their customs or religion
which seems to be anywise remarkable among a people at their state of
civilisation. The hill tribes in India have a religion which differs as
much from Hindooism as that of the Kaffirs; and the reason is obvious:
they inhabit remote regions, that were not accessible to the manners
and alterations which found their way into the more favoured plains.
The Kaffir women do all the out-door work, and follow the plough: it is
even said that they are sometimes yoked in it along with an ox.
CHAP IV.
ON THE REPUTED DESCENDANTS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN THE VALLEY OF THE
OXUS AND INDUS.
~Traditions of the descendants of Alexander the Great.~
In speaking of the existence of Grecian colonies in the remote regions
of Asia, and said to be descended from Alexander of Macedon, it is
necessary to premise that I am not indulging in speculation, but
asserting a lineage of various tribes of people, that is claimed by
themselves, and meriting, therefore, our attention. Marco Polo is
the first author who mentions the existence of such a tradition, and
informs us that the Meer of Budukhshan laid claim to a Grecian origin.
The emperor Baber corroborates the testimony; and Abool Fuzzul, the
historian of his grandson, Acbar, points to the Kaffir country north
of Peshawur as the seat of these Macedonians. Mr. Elphinstone has, I
think, successfully refuted the supposition of this historian; for the
Kaffirs are a savage and mountainous tribe, without a tradition on the
subject, as has been noticed in the preceding chapter. Mr. Elphinstone,
however, confirms the statements of Marco Polo, by the information
that the chief of Durwaz, in the valley of the Oxus, claimed a descent
from Alexander, which was admitted by all his neighbours. Such was the
extent of information with which I entered these countries, sufficient,
it will be said, to excite the utmost curiosity; and it will be
seen that I found ample encouragement in the investigation of such
traditions while in the valley of the Oxus, and in the very seats of
their existence.
~Their actual condition.~