CONTINENTAL INVASIONS
1066-1545
Since 1066--a period of over eight centuries--there have been, apart
from many sporadic raids, no great successful invasions of England. On
two occasions relatively large forces have landed on these shores, but
in both cases they had the support of a considerable part of the nation.
The first of these occasions was in 1216. King John’s tyranny had at
last produced something like a general revolt--at any rate among his
barons. His assent to Magna Carta, given on June 15, 1215, had proved a
farce, and his mercenary armies were too strong for disorderly feudal
and civic levies. Further, John had declared himself the vassal of Pope
Innocent III., and thus ensured his support. The men of London, the
chief baronial stronghold, stoutly withstood the thunders of Rome; but
their military weakness forced them to apply for help to the Dauphin
Louis, son of John’s great enemy, Philip Augustus of France, whom they
acknowledged as King. Despite the opposition of the Pope, who finally
excommunicated him, Louis invaded England early in 1216.
England had possessed no regular standing navy since the days of
Edward the Confessor. The ports, however, had steadily increased in
prosperity during the generally peaceful period 1066-1216; and John,
living in fear of invasion, had kept up a large naval force collected
from them. It is at this time that the association of the Cinque Ports
becomes prominent, and, besides London, Yarmouth, Fowey, Bristol, and
other places, could send out hundreds of small but well-manned craft.
In 1214, under John’s gallant half-brother, William ‘Longsword,’ they
had gained the famous victory of Damme. Their effectiveness was much
diminished by their lack of discipline and bloody feuds, but when
united they were formidable. John had succeeded in conciliating them,
and had they met Louis at sea he would hardly have landed. But in 1216,
as in 1066, the English fleet was wind-bound, and Louis landed in
Thanet on May 21.
The operations that followed are devoid of interest, owing to their
aimlessness. Most of the south-east submitted to Louis, except Dover,
which made a magnificent resistance under Hubert de Burgh. A memento of
Louis’s domination survives in the name of a row of ancient houses at
St. Albans, which are said to have lodged some of his followers. King
John made an attempt to come to the relief of his faithful officer, but
lost his baggage and treasure in the treacherous shallows of the Wash,
and died at Newark on October 19.
His son Henry, a boy of ten, was crowned king at Gloucester by Cardinal
Gualo, the Pope’s legate. His chief supporter was William the Marshal,
Earl of Pembroke, an aged warrior, who had held his present rank under
Henry II. He was also supported by a strong remnant of his father’s
mercenaries, under the fierce chief Faukes de Bréauté, as well as by
greedy but talented officials of the type of Peter des Roches. Gualo
and the Marshal made great efforts to satisfy the mercenary generals,
and to keep their ruffianly troops in hand.
Louis, on his side, distrusted his English supporters, regarding them
as traitors, and was short of money to pay his own mercenaries. For
a while he continued to gain ground, but the dissensions among his
followers increased. The Royalists promised that all past desertions
should be forgiven to those who returned to their allegiance, and
barons began to change sides once more. The Cinque Ports, which had
submitted to Louis, now repented. The Wealden peasants rose against him
under an esquire named William de Cassingham (‘Wilkin of the Weald’),
and practically besieged Louis in Winchelsea, which was patriotically
deserted by its inhabitants. He was at last relieved by a French fleet,
but the Royalists meanwhile regained most of the south. Meanwhile,
however, his lieutenant in London, Enguerrand de Coucy, had organized
a force under Gilbert of Ghent, which marched northward and besieged
Lincoln.
Louis, much disheartened, went to France for reinforcements; but as he
was now under the ban of the Pope, he obtained little support, since
his cautious father dared not act openly. He was, however, joined by
the Counts of Brittany and Perche and other nobles, with some 120
knights and their followings, and brought back with him to England a
train of siege engines. The engines, however, made no impression on
Dover; and Lincoln Castle, gallantly defended by its châtelaine, Nicola
de Camville, was defiant.
Blanche of Castille, Louis’s wife, regardless of Papal thunders,
was collecting fresh forces in France to aid her husband. Louis, in
London, had the choice of moving either north or south. In the south
the Royalists were very strong, though Winchester still was Louis’s,
and the Prince resolved to turn his strength northward. A force under
the Count of Perche, Robert Fitzwalter, who had been the Marshal of
the baronial army in the preceding year, and Saer de Quincy, Earl of
Winchester, accordingly marched to assist Gilbert of Ghent at Lincoln.
The fall of the Castle now appeared imminent. The besieging army
consisted of over 600 knights and their followers. William the Marshal
came in haste from the south and joined Peter des Roches and Faukes de
Bréauté at Newark.
[Illustration:
_A. Rischgitz._
JOHN DUDLEY, VISCOUNT LISLE, DUKE OF NORTHUMBERLAND (OB. 1553).
Lord High Admiral of England in 1545.
_From an engraving (by T. A. Dean) after the portrait by Holbein._]
The Royalist army consisted of 400 knights’ retinues, and 300 mercenary
crossbowmen--_i.e._, probably only about 700 really effective
troops. They wore white crosses on their garments as the army of Holy
Church, and were solemnly blessed before they set out by Cardinal
Gualo--a ceremony which may or may not have appealed to Bréauté’s
swashbucklers. On May 20 they were outside Lincoln. The crossbowmen
were passed safely into the Castle, and the knights charged into the
town by the north gate. The French seem to have had no proper guard
at any of the entrances. They fought gallantly in the streets, but
were finally driven out by Bargate. It became blocked, and hundreds of
knights, including Robert Fitzwalter, were taken. The Count of Perche
was slain by a spear-thrust in the eye. Only a few knights fell, but
there was a frightful massacre of their followers and the hapless
citizens, while so much plunder was gained that the Royalists called
the combat ‘The Fair of Lincoln.’
This defeat was a severe blow to the hopes of Louis, but he still held
firm at London, watching for his reinforcements. The Dauphiness had
collected several hundred knights and large supplies, which were to be
conveyed to England by Eustace the Monk, a renegade ecclesiastic, now
a noted pirate chief, with a fleet of 100 sail. On August 23 it sailed
from Calais, but as all the south-eastern ports were hostile, and were
held in force by the Marshal, who had his headquarters at Sandwich,
it turned up Dover Straits to round the North Foreland and put into
the Thames. As it passed Dover, the Cinque Ports squadron, some
forty vessels under Hubert de Burgh himself, put out to the attack.
The ships were well manned with bowmen (or crossbowmen) under Philip
d’Albini, and quicklime was provided for use against boarders. The
heavily laden French ships were at a hopeless disadvantage. The English
seamen manœuvred for the wind, and, having gained it, bore down on
their encumbered foes. The result was an overwhelming victory. Robert
de Courtenay, the leader of the reinforcements, was taken prisoner.
So, too, was the Monk, who, having been in the English service,
was immediately beheaded. Many knights were slain, others drowned
themselves in despair, and only fifteen ships escaped. The victory had
decisive results. Louis at once made peace, submitting to the Pope’s
legate, and abandoning all hopes of the English crown. Hubert de Burgh
became the darling of England. Years later, when he had fallen into
disgrace with Henry III., a smith who was ordered to fetter him threw
down hammer and chains and swore that he would never put iron upon the
man who had saved England from a foreign yoke.
For more than three centuries there was little that can be described
as a serious invasion of England from the sea. The constant raids and
counter-raids of the more than half-piratical seamen of the Channel
ports, indeed, went on unchecked. The State Papers afford ample
evidence that piracy was rife among the seamen of the English ports.
During the ‘Hundred Years’ War’ with France these raids became of
national significance. At first the English held the command of the sea
by their famous victories of Sluys in 1340 and ‘L’Espagnols sur Mer’ in
1350, but after 1372 it passed to the allied French and Castilians. As
early as 1360 Winchelsea was sacked--a fate it again suffered in 1361.
In 1369 Portsmouth was burned. In 1372 the French and Spaniards gained
a complete victory over the English off La Rochelle. France had now a
capable admiral in Jean de Vienne, and in 1377 he carried devastation
along the English coast. The Isle of Wight was wasted, and Dartmouth,
Plymouth, Yarmouth, Rye, Hastings, and Portsmouth, sacked one after
another. The English were helpless, and the French sailed up the Thames
to Gravesend, which shared the fate of the other ports. The Patent
Rolls of this period are full of records of the prevailing panic and
disaster.
[Illustration: A VERY EARLY CAST-IRON BREECH-LOADING GUN FOUND NEAR
DOVER.
(_In the Artillery Museum, Woolwich._)]
Something was done to retaliate by raids on France, but with little
success. In 1380 the main Franco-Spanish fleet endeavoured to raid
Ireland, but was severely defeated by the ships of Devon and Bristol at
Kinsale. Yet in the same year Winchelsea was again destroyed. It never
recovered, and its once splendid church was reduced to the fragment
which still survives. In 1385 De Vienne sailed to the Forth, and helped
the Scots to invade England. A great effort, however, in 1386, to
equip a vast fleet for the invasion of England failed utterly, and the
English port squadrons made lucrative raids upon the French ships as
they lay rotting on the coasts. This failure practically put an end to
active French operations, but they still retained to a great extent
the command of the sea. In 1403 a French squadron sacked Plymouth,
and landed a few men to assist the great Welsh rebel, Owen Glendower.
Another squadron raided the Isle of Wight, but was repulsed by the men
of Hampshire.
In August, 1405, a large French fleet appeared in Milford Haven,
and landed 800 horsemen and 1,800 infantry, under the Maréchal Jean
de Rieux and Jean de Hangest, Master of the Crossbows. Glendower
joined them with 10,000 men. The allies took Tenby, Haverfordwest,
and Caermarthen, and brought Henry IV. westward with a large army.
Glendower starved him into a retreat, and captured much of the royal
baggage, including Henry’s crown and robes. But the French fleet was
defeated by Lord Berkeley, and the French soldiers worked as ill with
the Welsh as with the Scots (see Chapter XI.). They drifted home in
detachments during 1405 and 1406, and Glendower was left to maintain
alone his gallant but hopeless contest with England.
For over a hundred years France made no further attempt. She interfered
at different times in the English dynastic broils, but not until
1545 was there any attempt at a great invasion. During this period,
despite civil and foreign war, the idea of a true royal navy had never
been really lost sight of. Henry VII. had given the question serious
attention, and his vigorous son took a strong personal interest in
naval matters. The consequence was that by 1543, when war threatened
with France, he had a really formidable naval force.
When war broke out England was in alliance with the Emperor Charles
V., while France’s only supporter was gallant but feeble Scotland.
The result was that the English Navy wasted the Scottish and French
coasts, and swept French commerce off the sea. But in 1545 François
I. succeeded in detaching Charles from the alliance. He then
slowly collected a huge fleet. There finally assembled nearly 150
great-ships (_gros vaisseaux ronds_), 60 oared vessels of 40 or 50
tons (_flouins_), and 25 galleys from the Mediterranean. Besides the
crews, there were 10,000 troops on board under the Maréchal Biez. The
Commander-in-Chief was Admiral d’Annibault. Paulin, Baron de la Garde,
and Leone Strozzi, Admiral of the Galleys of Rhodes, commanded the
galleys.
Henry had ample intelligence of the intended invasion. The whole of the
available naval strength of England was concentrated at Spithead under
the command of John, Lord Lisle, High Admiral of England, afterwards
Duke of Northumberland. It consisted of ‘great-ships’ built in England
or purchased abroad, ‘galleasses’--really galleons, or ships built
on finer lines than the ordinary great-ship (see Chapter XIII.), and
small craft. To deal with the free-moving galleys Henry had himself
designed thirteen row-barges, fast, handy little vessels of about 20
tons, armed with several small guns, and propelled by sweeps as well
as sails. The flagship was an unwieldy giant of 1,000 tons, the _Harry
Grâce-à-Dieu_. The total number of vessels was over 100. The majority
of the crews were soldiers; the supreme importance of the seaman was
not yet realized. In view of the apparent superiority of the enemy
Lisle was ordered to remain on the defensive. No less than 120,000 men
were levied for land defence, organized in four armies.
D’Annibault sailed from Havre on July 14. On the 16th he was off the
coast of Sussex, where he wasted time in pillaging fishing-villages.
He then moved on to the Isle of Wight, and anchored off St. Helens.
Next day the galleys engaged the English fleet at long range without
result. On the 18th the French threatened an attack in three divisions
of ships, with the galleys as an advance guard. There was a dead
calm, and for a while the long 60-pounders of the galleys made good
practice. But before long a breeze sprang up, and Lisle weighed so
smartly that the galleys were nearly caught before they could put
about. They succeeded in doing so, however, and retired slowly, with
the object of drawing on the English great-ships. Lisle, however,
would not be enticed, and sent the row-barges in pursuit. They chased
with great daring, and before the long galleys could turn on their
nimble tormentors they had been well peppered. Had the French made a
serious attack, Lisle had formed an able plan for their discomfiture.
He designed to fall with his whole force on their right wing and drive
them upon the dangerous shoals of the ‘Owers’ which stretch eastward
from the Isle of Wight. The wind, however, was unfavourable, and
without it he would not abandon his strong position.
[Illustration: BREECH-LOADING WROUGHT-IRON GUN RECOVERED FROM THE
‘MARIE ROSE.’
The _Marie Rose_ was built in 1509. The iron pin may have been
used for manipulating the clumsy, wooden breech-block shown in
place. The rings or dolphins were used for slinging the gun.
(_In the Royal United Service Museum, Whitehall._)]
As it was obvious that Lisle was not to be drawn out, the French landed
raiding parties in the Isle of Wight. They were roughly handled by the
garrison, and then D’Annibault gave up and retired. Disease was already
breaking out in the crowded and dirty ships. The English lost the
great-ship _Marie Rose_, which capsized owing to her bad construction
and over-armament, carrying with her Captain Grenville, (father of the
hero of Elizabeth’s reign), Sir George Carew, and 500 men.
[Illustration:
A BRASS CANNON ROYAL OF THE TIME OF HENRY VIII., RECOVERED FROM
THE WRECK OF THE ‘MARIE ROSE.’
Length, 8 feet 6 inches; calibre, 8·54 inches; weight of shot,
about 60 pounds.
(_In the Royal Artillery Museum, Woolwich._)]
D’Annibault made some more irritating and futile raids on Sussex, and
then went back to Havre, landed 7,000 of his scurvy-stricken troops,
and returned to sail aimlessly about the Channel. Meanwhile Henry,
annoyed at finding that the galleys could thus beard him at his very
door, had ordered some of his lighter ships to be fitted with sweeps.
Having effected this, Lisle cleared from Spithead about August 11, with
104 sail. He had carefully organized his fleet, and the flagships
all carried special flags by day and lights at night. The watchword was
‘God save King Henry!’ the countersign ‘And long to reign over us!’ The
order of battle was--
‘Vawarde’: 24 great-ships; 3,800 men. Sir Thomas Clere,
Vice-Admiral of England.
‘Battle’: 40 great-ships; 6,846 men. Viscount Lisle, Lord High
Admiral of England.
‘Wing’: 40 galleasses, shallops, and war-boats; 2,092 men.
Rear-Admiral William Tyrrell.
[Illustration: A GREAT SHIP OF THE REIGN OF HENRY VIII.
Vessels of this type, with the characteristic cage-works fore and aft,
made up the greater part of Lisle’s fleet.]
On the 15th the two fleets encountered off Shoreham. Lisle intended
to attack the French great-ships, which were close inshore, with the
‘Battle’ and the ‘Vawarde,’ while the ‘Wing’ of oared craft kept
off the galleys. Before he could close, however, the wind fell. The
fighting was only between the galleys and Tyrrell. The advantage rested
with the English. Lisle stated that the oared craft ‘did so handle the
galleys, as well with their sides as with their prows, that your great
ships in a manner had little to do;’ and in the night the French drew
off. They went home and dispersed, and so in this impotent fashion the
greatest invasion of England that had yet been planned flickered out.
Lisle was able to burn Tréport, and retaliate for the raids on Sussex;
and towards the close of the war an action was fought off Ambleteuse,
south of Cape Gris-Nez. There were eight French galleys against four
English ‘galleasses’ and four pinnaces. It is notable because the
English declined to close, and relied chiefly upon steady gun-fire.
The galleys were severely mauled, and one of them taken.
The attack of François I. was the first serious attempt at an invasion
of England by France from the sea since the abortive effort in 1386. It
was not to be the last, though all were to be fruitless; but not for
more than 250 years was a hostile French soldier to set foot on English
soil, and then but for a moment.