PUNCTUATION
=95. General Theory of Punctuation.=--Punctuation is a way of
showing by various signs (or points) which words in a written
composition bear a close relation to one another. Read, for example,
the following passage:--
As Pandora raised the lid, the cottage grew very dark and
dismal; a black cloud had swept over the sun, and seemed to
have buried it alive. But Pandora, heeding nothing of all this,
lifted the lid nearly upright, and looked inside. It seemed as
if suddenly a swarm of winged insects brushed past her, taking
flight out of the box, while at the same instant she heard a
voice. It was that of Epimetheus, as if he were in pain.
"Oh, I am stung!" cried he. "I am stung! Naughty Pandora! Why
have you opened this wicked box?"
The period at the end of the first sentence shows that all the words
preceding it are to be taken together. Notice the similar use of the
other periods.
Notice the semicolon which is used to separate the two clauses of
the first sentence. Each clause is complete in itself and might be
taken separately; yet they are sufficiently related to be included
in one sentence. The semicolon is therefore used to show a slighter
separation between the thoughts than would be indicated by the use
of the period.
The commas show a still slighter separation, being used to divide
the lesser groups of words. Notice this use of the two commas in the
first sentence. In the second sentence the commas before and after
"heeding nothing of all this" show that these words belong together,
and that "But Pandora" belongs to "lifted the lid," etc.
Notice the use of the interrogation point and the exclamation point
in the last paragraph.
These various marks, then, are used to help the reader. They show
the grammatical structure or grouping. Let us now study these marks
in detail, beginning with those that indicate the close of the
larger groups,--the period, the exclamation point, the interrogation
point.
=96. The Period.=--The period marks the end of a declarative or
imperative sentence.
The period is also used after an abbreviation. (For a list of common
abbreviations, see p. 267.)
=97. The Question Mark.=--The question mark is placed at the end of
every direct question. It is not used with an indirect question.
Shall I go?
I ask you, "Shall I go?"
I asked whether I should go.
=98. The Exclamation Point.=--The exclamation point is used after
exclamatory words, phrases, and sentences. When an exclamatory
sentence begins with an interjection, it is usually sufficient
to place a comma after the interjection and to reserve the
exclamation point until the end of the sentence. When an unemphatic
interjection begins a declarative sentence, it is frequently
possible to omit the exclamation point entirely. As a rule _O_ is
used only in direct address.
Help! You rascal! Be off with you!
Ah, you are back again!
Oh, what a mess I have made of it!
Oh, I didn't see you.
Hear me, O King! Oh! I am wounded!
=99. The Semicolon.=--Semicolons have two uses:--
1. To separate the principal clauses in a compound sentence.
To our left we beheld the towers of the Alhambra beetling above us;
to our right we were dominated by equal towers on a rocky eminence.
Some suppose them to have been built by the Romans; others, by the
Phoenicians.
He received only ten guineas for this stately, vigorous poem; but
the sale was rapid and the success complete.
There was now a sound behind me like a rushing blast; I heard the
clatter of a thousand hoofs; and countless throngs overtook me.
When his men had thus indemnified themselves, in some degree, for
their late reverses, Cortes called them again under their banners;
and, after offering up a grateful acknowledgment to the Lord of
Hosts for their miraculous preservation, they renewed their march
across the now deserted valley.
The principal clauses in a compound sentence may also be separated
by a _comma_, provided that a coördinate conjunction is present.
It was a moonlight night, _and_ the fresh north wind rustled
solemnly in the palm trees.
We examined their sculptures by the aid of torches, _and_ our Arab
attendants kindled large fires of dry corn-stalks, which cast a
strong red light on the walls.
The forehead and nose approach the Greek standard, _but_ the mouth
is more roundly and delicately carved, _and_ the chin and cheeks are
fuller.
When a coördinate conjunction is _not_ present, it is incorrect to
separate such clauses by a comma. See § 6.
When a coördinate conjunction _is_ present, and the choice lies
between a comma and a semicolon, the semicolon is to be used:--
(_a_) When the writer wishes the break or separation between the
principal clauses to be emphatic.
(_b_) When the principal clauses are long and already divided into
their parts by commas.
2. To separate clauses or phrases from each other in a series of
similar phrases or subordinate clauses, when commas would not be
sufficient to indicate clearly where each clause or phrase began and
ended.
We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are
created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with
inherent and inalienable rights; that among these are life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these
rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their
just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any
form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the
right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute
new government, laying its foundations on such principles and
organizing its power in such form, as to them shall seem most
likely to effect their happiness.
=Exercise 146.=--(1) Find three sentences in which the principal
clauses are separated by the semicolon. (2) Write three such
sentences of your own composition. (3) Write three sentences
in which the semicolon is used to separate similar phrases or
subordinate clauses in a series. Let the sentences be of your
own composition.
=100. The Colon.=--The colon indicates that what follows it is an
explanation or specification of what precedes it. It is used:--
1. To introduce a list, a quotation, or an explanatory proposition.
When the explanation begins a new paragraph, a dash is usually
placed after the colon, as in the second sentence of this section.
He provided himself with the following books: Worcester's
dictionary, a Latin grammar, an atlas, and a Bible.
We hold these truths to be self-evident: that, etc. [See example
under § 99, 2 above.]
He read, on a marble tablet in the chapel wall opposite, this
singular inscription: "Look not mournfully into the past."
2. In a compound sentence in which the principal clauses are not
connected by a conjunction, to show that the following clause
explains or illustrates the preceding clause.
I am no traveler: it is ten years since I have left my village.
The general refused to believe him: the risk was too great.
3. After such phrases of address as _Dear Sir,_[2] _Ladies and
Gentlemen,_ etc.
[2] At the beginning of a letter, _Dear Sir_ may be followed by (1)
a comma, (2) a comma and a dash, or (3) a colon. It should never be
followed by a semicolon. (3) is more formal than (2) and (1).
=Exercise 147.=--I. Write five examples of your own composition
of (1); five of (2); and three of (3).
II. Explain the use of the semicolons and colons in the
following:--
1. Sin has many tools; but a lie is the handle which fits them
all.
2. In Bryant's _To a Waterfowl,_ we find the following lines:--
"He who, from zone to one,
Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight,
In the long way that I must tread alone,
Will lead my steps aright."
3. Speech is silver; silence is gold.
4. There are three great virtues: faith, hope, and charity.
=101. The Comma.=--As we have seen, the period is used to close a
declarative sentence, and the semicolon and colon are used to mark
off the greater divisions of a sentence. The office of the comma is
to point off the smaller divisions of a sentence. It is used in the
following ways:--
1. In a compound sentence, to separate the different clauses, when
there is not a sufficient break in the thought to make the semicolon
necessary. See above, §99, 1.
He rested himself in the Chancellor's room till the debate
commenced, and then, leaning on his two relatives, he limped to
his seat.
His exertions redeemed his own fame, but they effected little
for his country.
2. To separate the different parts of a compound predicate, unless
the connection between them is very close.
The slightest particulars of that day were remembered, and have
been carefully recorded.
He lost the thread of his discourse, hesitated, repeated the
same words several times, and was so confused that, in speaking
of the Act of Settlement, he could not recall the name of the
Electress Sophia.
I see and hear you.
3. In a complex sentence in which the dependent clause precedes, to
separate the dependent clause from the principal clause. When the
dependent clause follows, the comma is, as a rule, not needed.
If you are wise, you will trust him implicitly.
Although I saw him, I could not wait.
I would not stop until he called out to me.
4. To mark off an explanatory relative clause.
_Note._--Relative clauses may be roughly divided into
explanatory clauses and restrictive clauses. An explanatory
relative clause describes or gives information about its
antecedents. A restrictive relative clause narrows the meaning
of its antecedent. An explanatory clause might usually be
omitted without affecting the thought of the principal clause. A
restrictive clause cannot usually be omitted without affecting
the thought of the principal clause. No comma is used before a
restrictive clause.
EXAMPLES. (a) _Explanatory Clauses._--1. The twenty-four
columns, each of which is sixty feet in height, are oppressive
in their grandeur.
2. Beyond lay various other apartments, which receive no light
from without.
3. This churchman rode upon a well-fed, ambling mule, whose
bridle was ornamented with silver bells.
4. His companion, who was a man past forty, was tall and
muscular.
(_b_) _Restrictive Clauses._--1. The two who rode foremost were
persons of importance.
2. This is not the book that I ordered.
3. There is no reason which can be urged in favor of such a bill.
4. Such was the appearance of the man who was about to receive
into his hand the destinies of half the world.
5. We walked through the inner halls under the spell of a
fascination which we had hardly power to break.
5. In general, to indicate the beginning and the end of a group of
words, whether a phrase or a clause, which must be regarded as a
unit, particularly if it occurs parenthetically.
Let us go together through the low gateway, _with its
battlemented top and small window in the center_, into the inner
road.
And now I wish that the reader, _before I bring him into St.
Mark's Place_, would imagine himself in a little English town.
6. To separate similar words or phrases used, in a series, in the
same construction, and not joined by conjunctions.
It was done quickly, neatly, artistically.
It was done quickly and neatly.
He was a big, hearty, happy fellow.
The horse was a quiet, sensible old beast. [Here _quiet_ and
_sensible_ limit _old beast_, not _beast_ alone.]
He was gay and jovial, gloomy and despondent, as the weather
indicated.
If the members of the series are joined by conjunctions, commas are
unnecessary. When, however, a conjunction joins the last two members
of the series, the comma is employed.[3]
[3] The usage of many writers and publishers, however, is to omit
commas in such cases; that is, they prefer "_a_, _b_ and _c_,"
to "_a_, _b_, and _c_." The latter usage, as described above, is
followed in this book.
Bread and butter.
She was good and true and beautiful.
They visited Rome, Florence, and Venice.
7. To indicate the omission of words logically necessary to the
construction.
One was tall; the other, short.
Admission, twenty-five cents.
8. To mark off phrases when they open a sentence or are not closely
connected with the context. Phrases occurring in their usual places
and closely connected with the context are, however, not marked off
by commas.
Following the dim path, we proceeded slowly.
On his arrival in England, he found himself an object of general
interest and admiration.
With rare delicacy, he refused to receive this token of
gratitude.
The case was heard, according to the usage of the time, before a
committee of the whole house.
From a child he hated the English.
He refused with emphasis this token of gratitude.
9. To mark off adverbs and adverb phrases which have a connective
force. Notice the difference between (_a_) "you will see, then, that
you have been misled," and (_b_) "you will then see that you have
been misled."
This, on the other hand, was his purpose.
My mission, too, is one of peace.
He recalled, however, his motive.
10. To mark off words or phrases (_a_) in direct address or (_b_) in
apposition. Notice, however, that in expressions like "the Emperor
William," _William_ is rather a noun limited by _Emperor_ than a
noun in apposition with _Emperor_.
(_a_) I do not understand you, sir.
I apologize, ladies and gentlemen, for my apparent discourtesy.
(_b_) His romantic novel, the _Castle of Otranto_, is now unread.
He is like me in this, that he cannot resist entreaty.
11. Before a direct quotation. See the more formal use of the colon,
§ 100, 1.
He kept crying, "On! on!"
As he fell, he heard some one say, "There goes another."
12. In dates, addresses, as in the following examples:--
Jan. 1, 1899.
Dr. C. H. Smith, Salem, Essex County, Mass.[4]
[4] On an envelope it is becoming customary to omit all punctuation
at the end of lines, except periods after abbreviations.
13. To prevent ambiguity or to make a sentence more easily
understood.
=Exercise 148.=--I. Write two sentences (of your own
composition) illustrating each of the uses described in the
preceding section.
II. Give reasons for the marks of punctuation used in the
following:--
One day, when he was looking for wild flowers, of which he was
very fond, he heard a rustling in some thick bushes near by, and
saw that some animal was moving among them. He took his gun and
fired, and, going to the place, found that he had shot a lion's
cub.
When his colored gun-bearer saw this, he screamed with terror,
and ran away shouting, "Run, Benana! run!" Almost at the same
instant, Bishop Hannington heard a fearful roar; turning, he saw
a huge lion and a lioness rushing furiously towards him.
III. Supply commas where needed, giving reasons.
In Holland children have very few playthings. The shoes are
shaped very much like the canal-boats of the country. The
children recognize this fact and have a custom of sailing them
on the water. This is fine sport except when the little craft is
loaded with too many stones causing it to sink and insuring them
punishment from their parents.
I was told of a small lad who going out one morning to sail his
wooden shoe put into it his knife a small brass cannon a top and
some marbles that had been given him on the previous Christmas.
His tiny vessel which had a paper sail ran firmly until an old
man came down to the canal to dip up a pail of water. This made
such waves that the heavily laden shoe was overwhelmed and sank
suddenly before the knife or cannon or marbles could be rescued.
=102. Parentheses and Brackets.=--Parentheses are to inclose
explanatory matter which is independent of the grammatical
construction of the sentence. Brackets have the same general office,
but are generally used only to inclose corrections, explanations, or
similar matter, introduced by the author into the statement of some
one else.
Prescott (1796-1859) was a brilliant historian.
It is said (and I can believe that it is true) that many still
believe in witches.
It was at that moment [10 A.M.], the colonel goes on to say,
that his superior officer [General Smith] met him.
=103. The Dash.=--The dash is used to indicate a sudden change in
thought or construction. Two dashes have the general effect of
parentheses.
Yes--no--I scarcely know what to say.
You were saying that--
I suppose--but why should I tell you?
His father, his mother, his brothers, his sisters,--all are dead.
At last he succeeded in opening the box and found in it--nothing.
He had two constant motives--love of man and love of God.
The two motives--love of man and love of God--were constant.
=104. The Apostrophe.=--The apostrophe is used (1) to indicate the
omission of a letter or letters, (2) in forming the possessive case,
and (3) in forming the plurals of letters and figures.
Don't, shan't, o'er, John's, horses', his abc's.
=105. Quotation Marks.=--Double inverted commas indicate that the
inclosed matter is a quotation. Single inverted commas indicate
a quotation within a quotation. Double quotation marks are also
sometimes used to indicate the title of a book, magazine, or
newspaper, or the name of a ship. See also § 106.
A direct quotation is one in which the exact words of a speaker or
writer are repeated. When a direct quotation is broken by words
of the author, each part of the quotation should be inclosed in
quotation marks.
A short informal quotation, if it constitutes a sentence, is
preceded by a comma or a comma and a dash. If a quotation is long,
or if it is desired to give it with a little more formality, it may
be preceded by a colon. If the quotation begins a paragraph, it is
preceded by a colon and a dash. See § 100, 1.
"To be or not to be."
The word "coward" has never been applied to me.
"Sir," said I, "you insult me."
I said to him, "Sir, you insult me."
This was his reply: "I tell you that he said only last night, 'You
will never see me again.'"
This "History of English Literature" is worth reading.
The wreck of the "Polar Star."
An indirect quotation repeats the thought of some speaker or writer
without giving his exact words. Quotation marks are not used to
indicate indirect quotations.
[Direct quotation] "Well, my boys," said Mr. Webster, "I will be the
judge."
[Indirect quotation] Mr. Webster told his boys that he would be the
judge.
=Exercise 149.=--Rewrite the following story, _Daniel Webster's
First Case_, changing the direct quotations to indirect and the
indirect quotations to direct:--
The father of Daniel Webster was a farmer. His garden had suffered
somewhat from the visits of a woodchuck that lived in a hole close
by. One day Daniel and his brother Ezekiel set a steel trap for the
trespasser, and caught him alive. And now the great question was,
"What shall be done with the rogue?"
"Kill him," said Ezekiel.
"Let him go," said Daniel, looking with pity into the eyes of the
dumb captive.
"No, no!" replied Ezekiel, "he'll be at his old tricks again."
The boys could not agree; so they appealed to their father to decide
the case.
"Well, my boys," said Mr. Webster, "I will be judge. There is the
prisoner, and you shall be counsel, Daniel for him and Ezekiel
against him. It rests with you whether the woodchuck shall live or
die."
Ezekiel opened the case. The woodchuck, he said, was a thief by
nature. He had already done much harm, and would do more, if he were
set free. It had cost a great deal of labor to catch him. It would
be harder to catch him a second time; for he would have gained in
cunning. It was better on every account to put him to death. His
skin would be worth something, although it would not half repay the
damage he had done.
The father looked with pride upon his son, little dreaming, however,
that he was then showing signs of that power that made him so sound
a jurist in his manhood.
"Now, Daniel, it is your turn. I'll hear what you have to say."
Daniel saw that the argument of his brother had sensibly moved his
father the judge. The boy's large, black eyes looked upon the timid
woodchuck, and, as he saw the poor thing trembling with fear, his
heart swelled with pity.
God, he said, had made the woodchuck. He made him to live, to enjoy
the air and sunshine, the free fields and woods. The woodchuck had
as much right to live as any other thing that breathes. God did
not make him or anything in vain. He was not a destructive animal
like the wolf or the fox. He ate a few common things, to be sure;
but they had plenty of them, and could well spare a part. And he
destroyed nothing except the little food needed to sustain his
humble life. That little food was as sweet to him, and as necessary
to his existence, as was the food on their mother's table to them.
God gave them their food. Would they not spare a little for the dumb
creature that really had as much right to his small share of God's
bounty as they themselves to theirs? Yea, more; the animal had never
broken the laws of his nature or the laws of God, as man often did,
but had strictly lived up to the simple instincts that had been
given him by the good Creator of all things. Created by God's hands,
he had a right from God to his life and his liberty, and they had no
right to deprive him of either.
The young orator then alluded to the mute but earnest entreaties of
the animal for his life, as sweet, as dear to him, as their own was
to them; and to the just penalty they might expect, if, in selfish
cruelty, they took the life they could not restore,--the life that
God Himself had given.
During this appeal for mercy tears had started to the father's eyes,
and were fast running down his sunburnt cheeks. Every feeling of his
manly heart was stirred within him,--gratitude for the gift of so
eloquent and noble a boy, pity for the helpless and anxious prisoner
at the bar.
The strain was more than he could bear. While Daniel was yet
speaking, without thinking that he had won his case, his father
sprang from his chair, and, in entire forgetfulness of his character
as judge, exclaimed to his elder son, "Zeke! Zeke! let that
woodchuck go!"
Sometimes you may wish to quote, not a whole sentence, but a word or
two. Such a partial quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks,
but you should not begin it with a capital or place a comma before
it, unless the comma is needed there for some other reason.
She was "born to blush unseen."
We listened with pity to this tale of "man's inhumanity to man."
=Exercise 150.=--Construct sentences using the following partial
quotations:--
"Waste her sweetness on the desert air," "simple and heart-felt
lay," of "night's candles," "lowly thatched cottage," "sweet
bells out of tune."
=Exercise 151.=--Rewrite the following so that you will have
in each instance a quotation within a quotation. You will be
obliged to make introductions using the name of the author.
1. Had it not been the season when "no spirit dares stir
abroad," I should have been half tempted to steal from my room
at midnight.--WASHINGTON IRVING.
2. The story-teller paused for a moment and said, "There is no
situation in life but has its advantages and pleasures."
--DIEDRICH KNICKERBOCKER.
3. We are in that part of the year which I like best--the Rainy
or Hurricane Season. "When it is good, it is very, very good;
and when it is bad, it is horrid."
--ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON.
=106. Italics.=--The term "italics" refers to a special kind of
type used in printing; thus, _italics_. Ordinary type is referred
to as "roman." In writing, a single line drawn underneath a word
is understood to be the equivalent of italics. Italics are used
for (1) words especially emphasized, for (2) words from a foreign
language, and, sometimes, as in this volume, for (3) names of books,
newspapers, magazines, and ships. See § 105, ¶ 1.
To his amazement, he saw _footprints_.
The carriage rolled away from the _porte-cochère_.
His _History of English Literature_.
The wreck of the _Polar Star_.
=107. The Hyphen.=--The hyphen is used as follows:--
1. Between the parts of some compound words, _son-in-law_,
_simple-hearted_, _vice-president_. With regard to many words,
usage varies. The tendency is to omit the hyphen and write the
words as one, _e.g. football_, _horsecar_. According to some
authorities, compound numerals and fractions retain the hyphen,
_e.g. twenty-nine_, _one hundred and thirty-first_, _two-thirds_.
2. To separate two vowels which are not pronounced together, _e.g._
_pre-eminent_, _co-operation_. The diæresis is frequently used for
the same purpose, _e.g. preëminent_.
3. To mark the division of a word at the end of a line. Usage varies
as to the way in which many words shall be divided. The subject can
be best studied by noticing the practice of good printers. The pupil
may bear in mind, however, (_a_) that he should not divide words of
only one syllable; (_b_) that he should be guided by pronunciation;
(_c_) that syllables should begin, if possible, with a consonant.
For example, _photog-raphy_, _Napo-leon_, _litera-ture_.
=Exercise 152.=--Make up three illustrations each of proper
uses of the question mark, the exclamation point, parentheses,
brackets, the dash, the apostrophe, double quotation marks,
single quotation marks, italics, the hyphen.
=108. Capitals.=--The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ are
written with capital letters. Capital letters are used at the
beginning of words as follows:--
1. The first word of a sentence, a line of poetry, and a direct
quotation.
"Making his rustic reed of song
A weapon in the war with wrong."
His last words were: "Mother is coming."
"Run," he said, "there is still time."
2. Names and titles of the Deity and personal pronouns referring to
Him, _e.g. the Almighty_, _the Holy Spirit_, _I pray that He will
aid me_.
3. Proper nouns and adjectives, including names of streets, the
months, the days, races, sects, parties, nations, and parts of
the country. For example, _John Smith_, _Broadway_, _New York
City_, _February_, _Sunday_, _Christmas_, _Indian_, _Episcopalian_,
_Democrat_, _English_, _the South_. Notice that _negro_ and _gypsy_
are not begun with capital letters.
Personal titles, whenever they are equivalent to proper nouns. In
compound titles, each part begins with a capital.
The President and the Governor of Rhode Island are here.
The Attorney-General of the United States.
4. The first word in the title of a book, article, or composition
and every noun and adjective in the title, but not other words. When
a verb or adverb is an important or prominent word in the title, it
may also be begun with a capital.
The Spy; a Tale of the Neutral Ground.
Under the Red Robe.
Sketches, New and Old.
Teaching Requires Knowledge and Skill.
5. Personified nouns, and names of great events or bodies of men.
"While sallow Autumn fills thy lap with leaves."
It was a cold day in autumn.[5]
At the beginning of the Revolutionary War.
While the Legislature is sitting.
[5] Notice that the names of the seasons do not begin with capitals
unless they are personified.
=Exercise 153.=--I. Construct sentences containing in all twenty
words that should begin with capital letters.
II. Which words in the following sentences should begin with
capitals? Why?
1. He added, with a look of curiosity, "you must be a stranger."
2. "I like," said he, "to lie down upon the grass." 3. In 1827 he
entered the senate, serving there until the president appointed him
secretary of state. 4. At length I reached fourth street. 5. It
was easter morning. 6. He has always voted the republican ticket.
7. There are more negroes in the south than in the west. 8. No one
imagined that he would make a good emperor. 9. The king died on
tuesday. 10. I shall see you this summer.
=Exercise 154.= (Review).--Insert in the following sentences the
proper marks of punctuation:--
1. It was a dull dark gloomy day. 2. He was a rosy faced smiling and
cheerful young gentleman. 3. Some of us were disappointed others
overjoyed. 4. A pretty little white dog came running up to me. 5.
Samuel the youngest of the three was by far the tallest. 6. My
letters have brought no response consequently I have ceased writing.
7. Well Philip I am glad to see you again. 8. With hearty thanks
for your kindness to me a stranger I am my dear sir your obedient
servant John Smith. 9. Now Wegg said Mr. Boffin hugging his stick
closer I want to make an offer to you. 10. The champion moving
onward ascended the platform.
11. At the flourish of clarions and trumpets they started out at
full galop. 12. The lake greatly to my surprise seemed as far off
as before. 13. Terrible as was his anger he still spoke calmly. 14.
To make a long story short I could never find a trace of him again.
15. His expressions too were frequently incorrect. 16. After the
fourth encounter however there was a considerable pause. 17. However
strong you may be you must not waste your strength. 18. My friend
who is called Sir Roger came at once to see me. 19. The person who
comes last must start first. 20. He that read loudest was to have a
half-penny.
21. None was so dissatisfied as Cedric who regarded the whole scene
with scorn. 22. The message which I wished to send is simply this.
23. I will never do not interrupt me I will never consent to such
a plan. 24. As often as he came and he came very often he stood
long at the gate before entering. 25. Though they dwelt in such a
solitude these people were not lonely. 26. If you insist I will
speak frankly.
27. At ten o'clock the great war chief with his treacherous
followers reached the fort and the gateway was thronged with their
savage faces. 28. Some were crested with hawk eagle or raven plumes
others had shaved their heads leaving only the fluttering scalp-lock
on the crown while others again wore their long black hair flowing
loosely at their backs or wildly hanging about their brows like
a lion's mane. 29. Their bold yet crafty features their cheeks
besmeared with ocher and vermilion white lead and soot their keen
deep-set eyes gleaming in their sockets like those of rattlesnakes
gave them an aspect grim uncouth and horrible. 30. For the most part
they were tall strong men and all had a gait and bearing of peculiar
stateliness.
=109. List of Common Abbreviations.=--The following is a list
of common abbreviations, particularly those of foreign words or
phrases. Abbreviations of names of states and other very familiar
abbreviations are omitted.
=A.B.= or =B.A.= (Latin, _Artium Baccalaureus_), Bachelor of Arts.
=A.D.= (Latin, _anno domini_), in the year of our Lord.
=A.M.= or =M.A.= (Latin, _Artium Magister_), Master of Arts.
=a.m.= (Latin, _ante meridiem_), before noon.
=anon.=, anonymous.
=B.C.=, before Christ.
=Bp.=, Bishop.
=Capt.=, Captain.
=cf.= (Latin, _confer_), compare.
=C.O.D.=, collect on delivery.
=Col.=, Colonel.
=cor. sec.=, corresponding secretary.
=D.D.=, Doctor of Divinity.
=e.g.= (Latin, _exempli gratia_), for example.
=Esq.=, Esquire.
=etc.= (Latin, _et cetera_), and so forth.
=F.= or =Fahr.=, Fahrenheit (thermometer).
=F.R.S.=, Fellow of the Royal Society.
=Gov.=, Governor.
=H.R.H.=, His Royal Highness.
=Hon.=, Honorable.
=ibid.= (Latin, _ibidem_, "in the same place"), a term used in
footnotes, in reference to a book just mentioned.
=i.e.= (Latin, _id est_), that is.
=inst.= (Latin, _mense instante_), the present month.
=jr.= or =jun.=, junior.
=Lieut.=, Lieutenant.
=LL.D.=, Doctor of Laws.
=M.= (Latin, _meridies_), noon.
=M.= (French, _Monsieur_), Mr.
=Maj.=, Major.
=M.C.=, Member of Congress.
=M.D.= (Latin, _Medicinæ Doctor_), Doctor of Medicine.
=Mlle.= (French, _Mademoiselle_), Miss.
=MM.= (French, _Messieurs_), used as the plural of _M._
=Mme.= (French, _Madame_), Mrs.
=MS.=, manuscript.
=MSS.=, manuscripts.
=N.B.= (Latin, _nota bene_), mark well.
=p.=, page.
=per cent.= (Latin, _per centum_), by the hundred.
=p.m.= (Latin, _post meridiem_), after noon.
=pp.=, pages.
=Prof.=, Professor.
=pro tem.= (Latin, _pro tempore_), for the time being.
=prox.= (Latin, _proximo_), next month.
=P.S.= (Latin, _post scriptum_), postscript.
=Q.E.D.= (Latin, _quod erat demonstrandum_), which was to be proved.
=Rev.=, Reverend.
=R.R.=, Railroad.
=Rt. Rev.=, Right Reverend.
=sr.= or =sen.=, senior.
=Supt.=, Superintendent.
=ult.= (Latin, _ultimo_), last month.
=U.S.A.=, United States army.
=U.S.M.=, United States mail.
=U.S.N.=, United States navy.
=vid.= (Latin, _vide_), see.
=viz.= (Latin, _videlicet_), to wit, namely.
APPENDIX
_A._ RULES FOR SPELLING
I. For dropping or retaining the final _e_.
1. Words ending in _e_, preceded by a consonant, usually drop _e_ on
taking a suffix beginning with a vowel.
move moving
believe believing
conceive conceiving
receive receiving
achieve achieving
2. Words ending in _ue_ drop _e_ on taking a suffix.
argue arguing
fatigue fatiguing
_Exception_: vague, vaguely, vagueness.
3. Words ending in _e_ retain _e_ on taking a suffix beginning with
a consonant.
move movement
large largely
hoarse hoarseness
peace peaceful
sense senseless
whole wholesome
remorse remorseless
advertise advertisement
4. Words ending in _ce_ or _ge_ retain _e_ on adding _able_, _ably_,
or _ous_.
change changeable
courage courageous
notice noticeable
outrage outrageous
II. For doubling the final consonant.
1. Words of one syllable (and words of more than one syllable
if accented on the last syllable), ending in a single consonant
preceded by a single vowel, double the first consonant before a
suffix beginning with a vowel.
thin thinner forgot forgotten
slap slapping trot trotting
acquit acquitting begin beginner
2. When the accent is thrown back upon another syllable, after the
derivative is formed, the final consonant is not doubled.
refer reference
prefer preference
3. When preceded by two vowels, the final consonant is not doubled.
toil toiling
keep keeper
III. For final _y_.
1. Words ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, retain _y_ before
a suffix beginning with _i_; on taking a suffix beginning with any
other letter, _y_ is in most cases changed to _i_.
cry crying lazy laziness
fly flying duty dutiable
try trying happy happiness
2. Words ending in _y_, preceded by a vowel, retain _y_ before a
suffix.
buy buying gray grayness
play playing stay staying
joy joyful obey obeying
_B._ MODEL OF CONSTITUTION
ARTICLE I. _Name._--This club shall be known as the ......
ARTICLE II. _Object._--Its object shall be the ......
ARTICLE III. _Officers._--Its officers shall be a president, a
vice-president, a secretary, and a treasurer. There shall also be
...... committees of ...... each. These officers and committees
shall be elected by the club at each annual meeting, as provided for
in the by-laws.
ARTICLE IV. _Meetings._--The club shall hold an annual business
meeting on ......, and a regular meeting every ...... None but
members shall be present, except as provided in the by-laws. ......
members shall constitute a quorum. Special meetings may be called by
the president upon the written application of ...... members.
ARTICLE V. _Membership._--......
ARTICLE VI. _Dues._--The [annual] dues shall be ...... payable on
......
BY-LAWS
ARTICLE I. _Duties of Officers._--SECTION 1. President and
vice-president.--The President shall preside at meetings of the club
and shall ...... The vice-president shall preside at meetings in the
absence of the president and shall ......
SECT. 2. The Secretary.--The secretary shall keep a correct record
of all meetings and shall ......
SECT. 3. The Treasurer.--The treasurer shall receive and pay out all
money, subject to the order of the club, and shall keep a correct
account in detail of all receipts and expenditures, and shall render
a report in writing at the annual meeting.
SECT. 4. Standing Committees.--The duties of the committees shall be
as specified below ......
ARTICLE II. _Election of Members._--......
ARTICLE III. _Visitors._--......
ARTICLE IV. _Programme of Meetings._--......
ARTICLE V. _Amendments._--This constitution may be amended at any
regular meeting of the club by a two-thirds vote of the members
present, provided that written notice of the intended change has
been given at the previous meeting.
INDEX
(THE NUMERALS REFER TO PAGES.)
I. SUBJECTS TREATED
Advertisements, 135.
Appeals, 133.
Argument, general principle of, 214;
the introduction, 215;
the reasons, 217;
the outline, 220;
the plea, 221;
other forms of, 221.
Autobiography, 140.
Biography, 142.
Clause, defined, 4;
dependent or subordinate, 4;
independent or principal, 5.
Condensation, 67;
method in, 71.
Description, observation necessary in, 155;
general scientific description, 158;
specific scientific, 162;
use of technical terms in, 163;
literary description, 164;
of people, 169;
longer description, 172;
description of conditions, 174;
by contrast, 176;
of events, 177;
picture making of scenes of action, 179;
description of travel, 182;
descriptions of an hour, 185.
Diary, value of, 106;
contents of, 107;
imaginary diaries, 109;
class diaries, 109.
Expansion, 78;
purpose of, 79.
Exposition, general principles of, 199;
explanation of a material process, 201;
of games, 204;
of abstract ideas, 208;
by example and comparison, 208;
by repetition, 210;
by contrast, 211;
by a figure of speech, 211.
Figures of speech, 59.
History, 144.
Invitations, formal, 122.
Letters, various kinds of, 112;
friendly, 113;
of social intercourse, 119;
formal invitations, 122;
telegrams, 123;
business letters, 125.
Metaphor, 59.
Narration, essentials of a good narrative, 137;
autobiography, 140;
biography, 142;
history, 144;
plain reporting of facts, 150;
conversation, 152;
travel, 182;
historical stories, 188;
fictitious stories, 191;
the beginning of a narrative, 193;
the ending, 196;
the body, 197.
Notices, 130.
Oral composition, 102.
Outlines, 92, 98, 220.
Paragraph, defined and described, 29;
beginning of or topic sentence, 30;
unity in, 35;
body of, 37;
too many paragraphs, 41;
end of paragraph or summary sentence, 42;
arrangement in a whole composition, 96.
Paraphrase, 80, 84.
Petitions, 134.
Phrase, defined, 4.
Pronunciation, 104.
Punctuation, 246.
Quotations, how punctuated, 44, 259.
Secretarial work, 225.
Sentence, distinguished from phrase and clause, 4;
simple, complex, and compound, 7;
variety in the use of sentences, 14, 19;
length of, 14;
periodic, 17;
loose, 18;
bad, 21, 22, 23, 25;
"comma" sentence, 22;
with and without unity, 23;
formless, 25.
Simile, 59.
Slang, 63.
Spelling, 62.
Synonyms, 53.
Telegrams, 123.
Travel, 182.
Unity, in sentences, 23;
in paragraphs, 35;
in whole compositions, 97.
Versification, 234.
Vocabulary, size and character of English, 50;
increasing one's vocabulary, 50.
Whole composition, 88;
outline of, 92, 98, 220;
arrangement of paragraphs in, 96;
essentials of, 97;
how to plan a, 98.
Words, 49;
vocabulary, 50;
synonyms, 53;
choice of words, 55;
accuracy in the use of, 58;
errors in the use of, 62.
II. ILLUSTRATIVE EXTRACTS
Addison, Joseph, The Spectator, 209, 212.
Ames, Azel, How the Pilgrims Came to Plymouth, 144.
Baldwin, James, A Story of the Golden Age, 30.
Bryant, William C., To the Fringed Gentian, 158.
Buckley, Arabella, Fairyland of Science, 70.
Burroughs, John, Locusts and Wild Honey, 156;
Squirrels and Other Fur-bearing Animals, 192.
Cooper, James Fenimore, The Pilot, 71.
Dickens, Charles, A Child's History of England, 69, 75, 177, 188;
David Copperfield, 167, 169, 186.
Franklin, Benjamin, Autobiography, 43.
Garland, Hamlin, Main-traveled Roads, 174.
Gregory, Lady, Through Portugal, 182.
Hardy, Thomas, Far from the Madding Crowd, 179.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, Mosses from an Old Manse, 83.
Hughes, Thomas, Tom Brown's Schooldays, 63.
Irving, Washington, Rip Van Winkle, 43;
Astoria, 81, 82;
Life of Columbus, 83;
Stratford-on-Avon (The Sketch-Book), 88.
Kane, Elisha E., Arctic Explorations, 70.
Leavitt, R. G., Outlines of Botany, 158.
Lockyer, J. N., Astronomy, 92.
Long, William J., Ways of Wood Folk, 31.
Longfellow, Henry W., The Courtship of Miles Standish, 82;
The Bridge of Cloud, 83;
Walter Von der Vogelweid, 85.
Lowell, James R., The Vision of Sir Launfal, 84.
Main, E., Cities and Sights of Spain, 204.
Merriam, Florence A., Birds through an Opera Glass, 160, 162.
Motley, J. L., Correspondence, 170.
Nicolay, Helen, The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln, 32.
Parkman, Francis, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, 180.
Prescott, William H., The Conquest of Mexico, 82.
Sheridan, Richard B., The Rivals, 58.
Thoreau, Henry D., Excursions, 165.
Whittier, John G., The Barefoot Boy, 84.
Yonge, Charlotte M., A Book of Golden Deeds, 93.
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