ARGUMENT
=87. General Principle.=--There is probably no form of expression
with which you are more practically acquainted than argumentation,
both from using it yourself and from having it employed on you. If
you go to college, you will study the theory of it in connection
with logic and you will have a great many hard names to learn and
a complicated system to understand; but, as a matter of fact, you
find now that if you greatly care to have something done or not
done, you will instinctively find reasons for supporting your
views. You did this even as a little child, when you wished to do
something your parents did not think advisable, or to be excused
from doing something they desired you to do. Although this may be
the first time you have consciously thought of argument as a form of
composition, you must have had a great deal of practical experience
in it.
It has been pointed out several times in this book that the very
first thing to consider in any form of expression is the reader to
whom you address yourself. Owing to the frequent practical use you
have made of argument in conversation, this will be easy for you to
remember when you now come to write it. That is, you are so used to
making your arguments suit the persons you are trying to persuade,
that you do it instinctively. Even a little child puts forth
different reasons for action when trying to persuade his mother from
those which he would put forth when trying to persuade a playfellow;
and you feel, without the necessity of stopping to think at all,
that you should use different arguments with your mother from those
which would be likely to convince your teacher.
But the next step in composing, which has been mentioned throughout
the book, is more necessary in argumentation than in any other form
of expression. You must not only have an outline in mind for what
you are about to say, but that outline should be written, and almost
as much time and thought should be given to it as to the composition
itself; for clear thought is the great essential in argumentation,
and a carefully prepared outline is the greatest help to clear
thought.
=88. The Introduction.=--There are three parts to every outline
for a discussion or argument. First comes _the introduction_,
or statement of the subject. To write this clearly, you need
to remember the principles of exposition, because often the
introduction to an argument is merely a clear exposition of the
subject. It is very necessary to be perfectly clear in this
introduction, so that your reader may have a definite idea of
what it is you are about to discuss. Sometimes people discuss at
great length, only to find that from neglect to state the subject
clearly they have been arguing about quite different questions.
For instance, suppose that the following subject is selected for
a discussion: _Pupils under fifteen years of age should not
be taken out of school to earn money for their families._ The
statement and full exposition of the subject in the introduction to
the argument should exclude cases where there is no other possible
source of income for the family; otherwise you and your opponent may
be discussing a question about which you really agree.
In your introduction, therefore, give first a perfectly plain
statement of your subject,--what are the generally admitted facts
about it (facts which even your opponent must admit), and what it is
you wish to prove.
=Exercise 136.=--In the following subjects for discussion, see
if you can pick out the place where the statement is indefinite
and might lead to misunderstanding. Write one paragraph on each,
defining, limiting, and making clear the subject as you see
it, and another on the generally admitted facts in the case as
distinct from the points which are debatable.
1. _Animals in captivity are better off than in their natural
state._
What kind of captivity? What kind of animals? What do you mean
by being "better off"--merely "healthier" or "happier" or "more
secure"?
2. _A boy's club should not study history._
What kind of boys? What kind of history? Is history taught in
the schools? Do these boys go to school?
3. _All girls should learn to be housekeepers._
What do you mean by "housekeeper"? Do you mean that they should
learn nothing else?
4. _It is not harmful for children to read fairy tales._
How about nervous, excitable children who cannot sleep after a
fairy story? How about dreadful tales of witches and hobgoblins
that make the healthiest child afraid of the dark?
5. _It is wrong to kill animals._
Do you include noxious and dangerous ones? Or animals used for
food?
=89. The Reasons.=--The second part of your argument consists of
the statement of the various proofs and reasons you advance to make
people think and feel as you do about your subject. It is well to
divide your subject into several main divisions or points, and
take these up one by one; also to set down separately your main
arguments. These should be arranged in what is called "climactic
order,"--that is, the more unimportant reasons first and the better
and stronger ones after, leading up to the argument which you think
is your strongest one. There are two main divisions of argument as
reasons in favor of something. First, there are the proofs directly
for your side of the question, and then there are the proofs against
your opponent's argument. The first is called direct proof; the
second is called refutation.
Suppose now that you wish to persuade the principal of your school
to grant a holiday on Washington's Birthday. Your introduction
states the subject very briefly, since in the nature of things there
can be almost no possibility of misunderstanding. It might be well
to mention here that nobody doubts the value of vacations in school
life if wisely selected, and that what you wish to prove is that
it would be a wise selection to give the school a holiday on the
twenty-second of February.
The body of your argument comes next, and you might begin by stating
that a holiday would be beneficial to school work. Support the
statement by pointing out, first, that the twenty-second of February
comes in the midst of a long stretch of uninterrupted school, just
at the time when both pupils and teachers are tired and would do
better work after a rest; second, that the weather is apt to be
brisk and bracing, and such as would tempt every one to be out of
doors.
Your next general argument might be a statement of the value of
honoring in every way possible the great men of the nation, and of
not allowing them to be forgotten. Three good reasons as proofs of
this statement are, first, that we owe them great gratitude for what
they have done for us; second, that they furnish the best examples
for our own action; third, that they make us patriotic by making us
proud of our country.
Having established the desirability of honoring our great men, your
next need is to show that granting a holiday to school children
does honor them. To prove this, you might make a word picture of
the great importance which a holiday has in a school; how every one
looks forward to it, plans for it, enjoys it, and remembers it,--so
that it is felt that the occasion of a holiday must be a very
notable man. Show how even the little children are impressed with
the greatness of Washington's name (because of the holiday) before
they know much about him, so that they are all prepared to realize
instinctively how prominent he was in our history when they come to
study about him. See if you cannot show how much more valuable is an
instinctive _feeling_ like this than any amount of mere _knowledge_
of what we owe to him, illustrating by the affection a child feels
for a relative--a cousin or an aunt--whom he has always known,
compared with his affection for a relative whom he learns to know
after he has grown up.
A second reason to prove the advisability of granting a holiday
to honor the memory of a great man is based on one of the most
universally acceptable of proofs. It is good to do a thing when
other people do it and always have done it. This is usually one
of the first proofs which come into your mind, as is shown by the
fact that the average child, on being refused something, says
immediately, "Why, all the other boys have it!" So your second
reason is that in our own country and abroad no better way has been
found to celebrate an anniversary than to grant a holiday on that
date. Cite Christmas, the Fourth of July, the Fourteenth of July
in France, etc., collecting as many instances as you can, from all
sources. This is a very important form of proof, although it should
rarely be placed first in your argument.
Now, having shown that great men should be honored, and that
holidays are a good form of honoring them, you need to prove that
Washington should be specially selected from among our great men for
such honors. There are various reasons you might cite here, a few of
which are that he was the greatest of the founders of our nation;
that his private character was noble and dignified; that he was the
first American to receive world-wide recognition; that we might not
be a nation without him; that, at the present day, we need more than
ever to look back to his integrity and devotion to the patriotic
cause, etc.
You have now given enough proofs to make up the main body of
your discussion. The end of an argument is called the conclusion,
and sums up in a brief way, but as forcibly as possible, the main
proofs, and the way in which they lead to the conclusion you desire.
=90. The Outline.=--The outline of the argument which has just been
sketched for you would be set down in a form something like this.
A holiday should be granted to this school on Washington's Birthday.
A. Introduction.
It is taken for granted that holidays are desirable at times;
we are to prove in this case that the twenty-second of February
is a good time for a holiday.
B. Proof.
I. It would be beneficial to school work,
1. because the day comes at a time when a break in the
routine is needed;
2. because it comes usually in good winter weather, when
outdoor life is possible.
II. It is desirable to honor the great men of a nation,
1. because of our gratitude to them;
2. because they set a good example to us;
3. because they help us to be patriotic.
III. A holiday is a suitable means for honoring the memory
of a great man,
1. because it is an important occasion for all pupils,
and fixes their attention on the reason for granting it;
2. because all over the world holidays are given and
always have been given as the best way of making a
day memorable.
IV. Washington should be selected for this honor,
1. because he was the founder of the nation;
2. because he was the first well-known American;
3. because he was the first president, etc.
C. Conclusion.
I. Summing up of the arguments.
II. Statement of the conclusion.
=91. The Plea.=--This is an outline of that form of argument which
is sometimes called a _plea_; an argument, that is, which aims to
induce somebody to take action.
=Exercise 137.=--Make out similar outlines, and write pleas,
addressed to the school authorities, on the following subjects.
Take the side that appeals to you.
1. The weekly holiday should be on Monday instead of Saturday.
(Or "should _not_ be," according to your convictions.)
2. The summer vacation should be shorter, in order that the
winter vacation might be longer.
3. Gymnasium work, or participation in outdoor sports, should be
compulsory for boys and girls alike.
4. Music should not be taught in the schools.
5. One foreign language should be compulsory in American public
schools.
6. All pupils, even those who have no natural taste for it,
should be made to study good literature.
7. Every one in the class should be forced to join a debating
society.
8. There should be a common school library, rather than a
collection of books in each class room.
9. It is better to have one long school session with a short
recess than two shorter sessions with an hour or more for lunch.
=92. Other Forms.=--There are a number of arguments which can
scarcely be treated like _pleas_, since their object is not to
induce somebody else to take some action, but to support the truth
or justice of some statement.
=Exercise 138.=--In treating the subjects given below, write as
though you were defending the statement against an opponent. Or
the subjects may be taken as topics for debate by the class,
one half taking one side, and the other half attacking their
position.
1. Tennis is a better game than golf. (Define what you mean by
"better." Better for whom; or for what results?) 2. City life
is better than country life. 3. Summer (autumn, winter, spring)
is the best time of the year. 4. The best method to prepare
for a hard examination is to study hard up to the last minute
before you take it. 5. Children of foreigners in this country
should learn only English and _not_ their parent language. 6.
It is better to live near the sea than in the mountains. 7. It
is easier to do school work at home than in the class room.
8. Swimming is the best form of exercise. 9. Little children
should not be taught to believe in Santa Claus, in fairies, or
in giants. 10. Novel reading has a bad influence. 11. Every one
should be forced to learn to dance, to swim, to sail a boat,
to skate, to ride, to learn a trade, etc. 12. Bonfires should
be allowed in the street on the evenings of festival days of
various kinds. 13. Pupils should report the wrong-doings of
others to the teacher. 14. Books should be furnished free by
public schools. 15. Composition is a more important study than
arithmetic. 16. Alms should never be given to beggars. 17. No
examination should be over an hour in length. 18. A city library
is as important as city schools. 19. The climate of our part of
the country is more conducive to good health than the climate of
the tropics.
Another form of argument or persuasion consists in finding reasons
and stating them eloquently, in support of a personal taste or
opinion. The same general outline is used as in the plea, but the
argument is apt to be less impersonal.
=Exercise 139.=--Arrange your reasons in their logical order
and write most at length upon those which are most important.
Construct your argument as though in answer to the remark, "Why
do you feel that way? I don't agree with you at all."
1. I had rather be a doctor (lawyer, merchant, cook, teacher,
musician, farmer, etc.) than anything else. 2. I had rather be
a sailor than a soldier. 3. If I were not an American, I had
rather be English (French, German, Italian, Norwegian, Cuban,
etc.) than anything else. 4. If I did not live here, I had
rather live in ---- than in any other state; in ---- than in any
other city. 5. If I could always remain a certain age, I should
prefer to be ---- years old. 6. Of all my studies I think ----
is the most valuable. 7. If I were not myself, I should prefer
to be ----. 8. Of all the historical characters I have studied I
should prefer to be ----. 9. The best book I ever read is ----.
10. I like poetry better than prose. 11. Unlike most people,
I like a rainy day (a windy day, foggy weather) better than a
fair day. 12. I had rather have a cat (a dog, a horse, a rabbit,
etc.) than any other pet.
Many of the above subjects can be treated in letter forms as pleas.
This is a very good exercise in writing easily and familiarly upon a
careful and well-constructed outline. For instance, you might take
the abstract subject that every one should learn to swim. Make it
personal and write a letter to your parents, asking to be allowed to
learn to swim. Draw up your outline with no less care for a familiar
letter than for a formal argument. Take pains to try to imagine the
arguments which would be used on the other side and bring to bear
all the counterproof you can think of. Your parents would naturally
be anxious about the danger involved in your learning to swim.
Oppose to this the ability to save yourself in the water all the
rest of your life after you have learned. They may maintain that you
will never have any occasion to swim, since you do not live near
the water. You can oppose to this the great frequency of journeys
taken on or partly on water. They might think it would take too much
time and strength from your studies. Oppose to this the fact that
you must have exercise of some sort, that you work better after you
have been in the water, and that your general health will be better,
etc.