that we find precious stones used as similes of religious virtue, in
Buddhist writings also we have examples of this. In the “Questions of
King Milinda,” composed perhaps as early as the third century of our
era, occur the following passages:[354]
Just, O King, as the diamond is pure throughout; just so, O King,
should the strenuous Bhikshu, earnest in effort, be perfectly pure in
his means of livelihood. This, O King, is the first quality of the
diamond he ought to have.
And again, O King, as the diamond cannot be alloyed with other
substance; just so, O King, should the strenuous Bhikshu, earnest in
effort, never mix with wicked men as friends. This, O King, is the
second quality of the diamond he ought to have.
And again, O King, just as the diamond is set together with the most
costly gems; just so, O King, should the strenuous Bhikshu, earnest
in effort, associate with those of the highest excellence, with men
who have entered the first or second or third stage of the Noble
Path, with the jewel treasures of the Arahats, of the recluses of
the threefold wisdom, or of the sixfold insight. This, O King, is
the third quality of the diamond he ought to have. For it was said,
O King, by the Blessed one,[355] the god over all gods, in the Sutta
Nipâta:
Let the pure associate with the pure,
Ever in recollection firm;
Dwelling harmoniously wise,
Thus shall ye put an end to griefs.
The description of the New Jerusalem in the book of Revelations finds a
curious parallel in the Hindu Puranas. Here we are told that the divine
Krishna, the eighth incarnation of Vishnu, took up his abode in the
wonderful city Devârakâ, and was visited there by the various orders of
gods and geniuses.[356]
Gods, Asuras, Gandharas, Kinnaras began to pour into Dwáraká, to see
Krishna and Valaráma.
Some descended from the sky, some from their cars—and alighting
underneath the banyan tree, looked on Dwáraká, the matchless.
The city was square,—it measured a hundred _yojonas_, and over all,
was decked in pearls, rubies, diamonds, and other gems.
The city was high,—it was ornamented with gems; and it was furnished
with cupolas of rubies and diamonds,—with emerald pillars, and
with court-yards of rubies. It contained endless temples. It had
cross-roads decked with sapphires, and highways blazing with gems. It
blazed like the meridian sun in summer.
As compared with the description in Revelations we cannot fail to note
the lack of definiteness. Instead of the well-ordered scheme of color
as represented by the twelve precious stones dedicated to the twelve
tribes of Israel, the mystic Hindu city is simply a gorgeous mass of
the most brilliant gems known in India.
The poetic description of the royal city Kusavati, given in the Maha
Sudassana Suttanta, may perhaps have originated in some tradition
regarding Ecbatana or Babylon. Seven ramparts surrounded Kusavati,
the materials being respectively gold, silver, beryl, crystal, agate,
coral and (for the last) “all kinds of gems.” In these ramparts
were four gates—one of gold, one of silver, one of crystal and one
of jade—and at each gate seven pillars were fixed, each three or
four times the height of a man and composed of the seven precious
substances that constituted the ramparts. Beyond the ramparts were
seven rows of palm trees, the fourth row having trunks of silver and
leaves and fruit of gold; then followed palms of beryl, with leaves
and fruit of beryl; agate palms, whose fruit and leaves were of coral,
and coral palms, with leaves and fruit of agate; lastly, the palms
whose trunks were composed of “all kinds of gems,” had leaves and
fruits of the same description, “and when these rows of palm trees were
shaken by the wind, arose a sound sweet and pleasant, and charming and
intoxicating.”[357]
In Greek literature also there is a “gem-city,”—namely, the city
of the Islands of the Blessed, described by Lucian in his Vera
Historia.[358] The walls of this city were of emerald, the temples
of the gods were formed of beryl, and the altars therein of single
amethysts of enormous size. The city itself was all of gold as a fit
setting for these marvellous gems.
Hindu mythology tells of a wonderful tank formed of crystal, the
work of the god Maya. Its bottom and sides were encrusted with
beautiful pearls and in the centre was a raised platform blazing with
the most gorgeous precious stones. Although it contained no water,
the transparent crystal produced the illusion of water, and those
who approached the tank were tempted to plunge into it and take a
refreshing bath in what appeared to be clear, fresh water.[359]
The Kalpa Tree of Hindu religion, a symbolical offering to the gods, is
described by Hindu poets as a glowing mass of precious stones. Pearls
hung from its boughs and beautiful emeralds from its shoots; the tender
young leaves were corals, and the ripe fruit consisted of rubies. The
roots were of sapphire; the base of the trunk of diamond, the uppermost
part of cat’s-eye, while the section between was of topaz. The foliage
(except the young leaves) was entirely formed of zircons.[360]
The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Heuen Tsang, who visited India between 629
and 645 A.D., tells of the wonderful “Diamond Throne” which, according
to the legend, had once stood near the Tree of Knowledge, beneath whose
spreading branches Gautama Buddha is said to have received his supreme
revelation of truth. This throne had been constructed in the age called
the “Kalpa of the Sages”; its origin was contemporaneous with that of
the earth, and its foundations were at the centre of all things; it
measured one hundred feet in circumference, and was made of a single
diamond. When the whole earth was convulsed by storm or earthquake this
resplendent throne remained immovable. Upon it the thousand Buddhas of
the Kalpa had reposed and had fallen into the “ecstasy of the diamond.”
However, since the world has passed into the present and last age, sand
and earth have completely covered the “Diamond Throne,” so that it can
no longer be seen by human eye.[361]
In the Kalpa Sutra, written in Prakrit, one of the sacred books of the
Jains, the rivals of the Buddhists, it is said that Harinegamesi, the
divine commander of the foot troops, seized fourteen precious stones,
the chief of which was _vajra_, the diamond, and rejecting their
grosser particles, retained only the finer essence to aid him in his
transformations. In the same sutra the following glowing description is
given of the adornment of the surpassingly beautiful goddess Sri:[362]
On all parts of her body shone ornaments and trinkets, composed
of many jewels and precious stones, yellow and red gold. The pure
cup-like pair of her breasts sparkled, encircled by a garland of
Kunda flowers in which glittered a string of pearls. She wore
strings of pearls made by clever and diligent artists, strung with
wonderful strings, a necklace of jewels with a string of Dinaras, and
a trembling pair of ear-rings, touching her shoulders, diffused a
brilliancy; but the united beauties and charms of these ornaments were
only subservient to the loveliness of her face.
As engraved decoration of a fine Chinese vase of white jade with
delicate crown markings, appear eight storks, each of which bears
in its beak an attribute of one of the Eight Taoist Immortals. Thus
we have the double gourd as attribute of the most powerful of these
demi-gods known as “Li with the Iron Crutch,” whose aid is sought by
magicians and astrologers; the magic sword, with which Lu T’ung-pin
vanquished the spirits of evil that roamed through the Chinese Empire
in the form of terrible dragons; the basket of flowers, attribute of
Lan Ts’ai-ho, the patron of gardeners and florists; the royal fan used
by Han Chung-li, of the Chow Dynasty (1122-220 B.C.), to call again to
life the spirits of the departed; the lotus flower, emblematic of the
virgin Ho Hsien-Ku, venerated somewhat as a patron saint by Chinese
housewives, and who acquired the gift of immortal life by the help of
a powder of pulverized jade and mother-of-pearl; the bamboo tubes and
rods with which the mighty necromancer Chang Kuo, patron of artists,
evoked the souls of the dead; the flute of the musicians’ patron,
Han Hsiang-tzu, who owed his immortality to his craft in stealthily
entering the Taoist paradise and securing a peach from the sacred
tree of life; and, lastly, the castanets of Tsao Kuo-chin, especially
revered by Chinese actors.
The prevailing belief in India, that treasures offered to the images
or shrines of the gods will bring good fortune to the generous donor,
finds expression in many ancient and modern Hindu writings. In the Rig
Veda it is said that “by giving gold the giver receives a life of light
and glory.” In the Samaveda Upanishad we read: “Givers are high in
Heaven. Those who give horses live conjointly with the sun; givers of
gold enjoy eternal life; givers of clothes live in the moon.” Another
text (Hâiti Smriti) reads:[363]
Coral in worship will subdue all the three worlds. He who worships
Krishna with rubies will be reborn as a powerful emperor; if with a
small ruby, he will be born a king. Offering emeralds will produce
Gyana or Knowledge of the Soul and of the Eternal. If he worships with
a diamond, even the impossible, or Nirvâna, that is Eternal Life in
the highest Heaven, will be secured. If with a flower of gold a man
worships for a month, he will get as much wealth as Kuvera, the Lord
of Rubies, and will hereafter attain to Nirvâna and to Muskwa, or
Salvation.
At Multan, one of the most ancient cities of India, situated in the
Punjab, 164 miles southwest of Lahore, there was in the Hindu temple
an idol having for eyes two great pearls. The eyes of the rude image
of Jagganath at Puri, in Bengal (Orissa), are said to have at one
time been formed of precious stones, as were also those of the idols
of Vishnu at Chandernagore and in the great seven-walled temple at
Srirangam, whence appears to have come the Orloff diamond.
In ceremonial worship the Hindus recognize sixteen offerings, the ninth
consisting of gems and jewelry, and a divine assurance of adequate
return to the giver appears in the Bhagavat Purana, where Krishna
says, “Whatever is best and most valued in this world and that which
is most dear to you should be offered to me, and it will be received
back in immense and endless quantity.” On certain appointed days the
holy images are decorated with the choicest garments and the richest
jewelry in the temple treasury; this is especially the case on the
day celebrated as the birthday of the respective divinity. However,
the gifts are believed to retain their sacred character as dedicated
objects only for a comparatively brief period, varying from a month or
more for garments and vestments, to ten or twelve years for jewels,
such as the naoratna or the panchratna, the prized and revered jewels,
composed respectively of nine and five gems. The panchratna usually
consists of gold, diamond, sapphire, ruby, and pearl. After the gifts
have ceased to be worthy of use in the temples, they may be disposed
of to defray the expenses of the foundation, including the cost of
supporting the numerous priests and attendants. As the objects still
retain their sacred associations, they are eagerly bought by pious
Hindus, who undoubtedly regard them as valuable talismans. Thus they
not only serve to bring blessings upon the donors, but also constitute
one of the chief sources of income for the temples.[364]
One of the oldest and perhaps the most interesting talismanic jewel
is that known as the naoratna or nararatna, the “nine-gem” jewel. It
is mentioned in the old Hindu ratnaçastras, or treatises on gems,
for example, in the Nararatnaparîkshâ, where it is described as
follows:[365]
Manner of composing the setting of a ring:
In the centre The Sun The Ruby
To the East Venus The Diamond
To the Southeast The Moon The Pearl
To the South Mars The Coral
To the Southwest Râhu The Jacinth
To the West Saturn The Sapphire
To the Northeast Jupiter The Topaz
To the North The descending node The Cat’s-eye
To the Northwest Mercury The Emerald
Such is the planetary setting.
From this description we learn that the jewel was designed to combine
all the powerful astrological influences. The gems chosen to correspond
with the various heavenly bodies, and with the aspects known as the
ascending and descending nodes, differ in some cases from those
selected in the West. For instance, the emerald is here assigned to
Mercury, whereas in Western tradition this stone was usually the
representative of Venus, although it is sometimes associated with
Mercury also.[366] On the other hand, the diamond is dedicated to
Venus, instead of to the Sun as in the Western world.
[Illustration: MANI MÁLÁ, OR CHAIN OF GEMS.
Comprising diamond, ruby, cat’s-eye, pearl, zircon, coral, emerald,
topaz, sapphire, chrysoberyl, garnet, carnelian, quartz and
rock-crystal. A pendant is the naoratna, or “nine-gem” ornament,
suspended from which is a pear-shaped pearl.
In possession of the late Rajah Sir Surindro Mohun Tagore, of Calcutta.
From his “Mani Málá,” Calcutta, 1879, Vol. I, iv-506 pp., 2 plates,
portrait and plate; Vol. II, xiv + ii 507-1046 pp. Contains 49 figures
on 10 plates.]
In the naoratna the five gems known to the Hindus as the mahâratnâni,
or “great gems,”—the diamond, pearl, ruby, sapphire, and
emerald,—were, as we see, associated with the Sun and Moon, Venus,
Mercury, and Saturn, while the four lesser gems (uparatnâni)—namely,
the jacinth, topaz, cat’s-eye, and coral—represent Mars, Jupiter,
Râhu, and the descending node. The two last named are very important
factors in astrological calculations and are often called the Dragon’s
Head and the Dragon’s Tail. These designations signify the ascending
and descending nodes, indicating the passage of the ecliptic by the
Moon in her ascent above and descent below this arbitrary plane.
In three somewhat obscure passages of the Rig Veda there are references
to the seven ratnas. Whether these were gems cannot be determined,
since the primary meaning of the word ratna is “a precious object,” not
necessarily a precious stone; but it is possible that we may have here
an allusion to some earlier form of talisman, in which only the Sun,
Moon, and the five planets were represented.
It is easy to understand that such a talisman as the naoratna,
combining the favorable influences of all the celestial bodies supposed
to govern the destinies of man, must have been highly prized, and we
may well assume that only the rich and powerful could own this talisman
in a form ensuring its greatest efficacy. For the Hindus believed that
the virtue of every gem depended upon its perfection, and they regarded
a poor or defective stone as a source of unhappiness and misfortune.
In modern times this talisman is sometimes differently composed. A
specimen shown in the Indian Court of the Paris Exposition of 1878
consisted of the following stones: coral, topaz, sapphire, ruby, flat
diamond, cut diamond, emerald, amethyst, and carbuncle. Here the cut
diamond, amethyst, and carbuncle take the place of the jacinth, pearl,
and cat’s-eye.
Instead of uniting the different planetary gems in a single ring, they
have sometimes been set separately in a series of rings to be worn
successively on the days originally named after the celestial bodies.
We read in the life of Apollonius of Tyana (first century A.D.) by
Philostratus: “Damis also relates that Iarchas gave to Apollonius seven
rings named after the planets, and the latter wore these, one by one,
in the order of the weekdays.”[367] Although it is not expressly stated
that the appropriate stones were set in the rings, the custom of the
time makes it probable that this was the case.
NINE GEMS.
English Sanskrit Burmese Chinese (Canton) Arabic
Diamond Vajra Chein Chun-syak Mâs
Ruby Manikya Budmiya Se-fla-yu-syak Yâkût bihar
Cat’s-eye Vaidûrya Châno Mâu-ji gan Ain al-hirr
Zircon Gomeda Gomok Pi-si Hajar yamânî
Pearl Muktâ Pa-le Chun-ti Lûlû
Coral Pravâla Tadâ Sau-ho-chi Murjân
Emerald Marakata Mujâ Luk-syak Zumurrud
Topaz Pushyaraga Outfiyâ Si-lang-syak Yâkût al-azrak
Sapphire Nîla Nîlâ Chang-syak Yâkût al-açfar
Among the Burmese the value for occult purposes of the nine gems
composing the naoratna, or nararatna, is strictly determined in the
following order: first, the ruby; second, the diamond, or rock-crystal;
third, the pearl; fourth, the coral; fifth, the topaz; sixth, the
sapphire; seventh, the cat’s-eye; eighth, the amethyst; and ninth, the
emerald.[368] That the ruby, diamond and pearl should occupy places of
honor is quite natural, but the relegation of the sapphire to sixth
place, after coral and topaz, seems to be a rather unfair treatment of
this beautiful stone.
[Illustration: SCULPTURED JADE MOUNTAIN.
Probably the largest mass of sculptured jade in existence. The design
commemorates the meetings of a literary club of the fourth century. The
Chinese characters (colored red) in the side of the cliff express the
famous _Lan Ting Hsu_, or “Epidendron Pavilion Essay,” by Wang Hi-che
(A.D. 321-379), ever since used by the Chinese as a model of elegant
caligraphy, and were engraved directly from the autograph of the
Emperor Ch’ien-lung, written by him in 1784. Height 23 inches, width
38½ x 18½ inches; weight 640 pounds. From the Summer Palace, west
of Peking. Collection of T. D. Walker, of Minneapolis, Minn.]
The yellow girdles worn by the Chinese emperors of the Manchu dynasty
were variously ornamented with precious stones according to the
different ceremonial observances at which the emperor presided. For
the services in the Temple of Heaven, the very appropriate choice
of lapis-lazuli ornaments was made; for the Altar of Earth, yellow
jade was favored; for a sacrifice on the Altar of the Sun, the gems
were red corals, while white jade was selected for the ceremonies
before the Altar of the Moon. Jade of different colors was used for
the six precious tablets employed in the worship of heaven and earth
and the four cardinal points. For the worship of Heaven there was
the dark-green round tablet; for that of Earth, an octagonal tablet
of yellow jade. The East was worshipped with a green pointed tablet;
the West was worshipped with the white “tiger-tablet”; the North with
a black, semi-circular tablet, and the South with a tablet of red
jade.[369]
Of all the Chinese works on jade the most interesting and remarkable
is the _Ku yü t’ou pu_ or “Illustrated Description of Ancient Jade,”
a catalogue divided into a hundred books and embellished with upward
of seven hundred figures. It was published in 1176, and lists the
magnificent collection of jade objects belonging to the first emperor
of the Southern Sung dynasty. One of the treasures here described was
a four-sided plaque of pure white jade over two feet in height and
breadth, and it was regarded as of altogether exceptional value, for
on it was a design miraculously engraven. This was a figure, seated on
a mat, with a flower-vase on its left and an alms-bowl on the right,
in the midst of rocks enveloped in clouds. The figure was an image of
the Buddhist saint, Samantabahadra, and the plaque is said to have
been washed out of a sacred cave in the year 1068, by a violent and
mysterious current.[370]
Jade talismans are very popular at the present day in the Mohammedan
world, and among the Turks they are so highly prized as heirlooms that
it is difficult to secure any of them. There is an orthodox Mohammedan
sect, whose members call themselves Pekdash, and who during their whole
lifetime carry about with them a flat piece of jade as a protection
against injury or annoyance of every kind.[371]
The four rain-making gods are shown wearing necklaces of coral and
turquoise in the ceremonial sand-paintings of the Navajos. These four
gods are respectively colored to denote the four cardinal points;
black for North, blue for South, yellow for West, and white for East.
The whole painting, measuring nine by thirteen feet, is guarded on
three sides by magic wands; toward the East it is left unprotected,
as only good spirits are believed to dwell in this direction. Each of
the rain-gods carries suspended from his right wrist an elaborately
decorated tobacco pouch, bearing the figure of a stone pipe. The
Navajos believe that in this pouch the god places a ray of sunlight
with which he lights his pipe; when he smokes, clouds form in the sky
and the rain descends. In the sand-picture representing the God of
the Whirlwind this divinity also wears ear-pendants and a necklace of
turquoise.[372]
Of the turquoise in Aztec times we have the testimony of the missionary
Bernardino de Sahagun that one variety, presumably that regarded as the
finest and most attractive, bore the name _teuxivitl_, which signified
“turquoise of the gods.” No one was allowed either to own or wear this
as it was exclusively devoted to the service of the gods, whether as a
temple offering, or for the decoration of the divine images. Sahagun
describes this turquoise as “fine, unspotted and very clear. It was
very rare and was brought to Mexico from afar. Some specimens were of
rounded shape, like a hazel-nut cut in half; others were broad and
flat, and some were pitted as though in a state of decomposition.”[373]
The god of fire, Xiuhtecutli, or Ixçocauhqui, presided over the
ceremony of piercing the ears of the young boys and girls. The image
of this god was decorated with ear-rings encrusted with a mosaic of
turquoise. He held in his left hand a buckler on which were five large
green stones called _chalchiuitl_ (jadeite), placed in the form of a
cross on a plate of gold almost covering the shield.[374]
At the time of the Spanish Conquest an immense emerald, almost as large
as an ostrich egg, was adored by the Peruvians in the city of Manta.
This “emerald goddess” bore the name of Umiña, and, like some of the
precious relics of the Christian world, was only exhibited on high
feast days, when the Indians flocked to the shrine from far and near,
bringing gifts to the goddess. The wily priests especially recommended
the donation of emeralds, saying that these were the daughters of the
goddess, who would be well pleased to see her offspring. In this way
an immense store of emeralds rewarded the efforts of the priests, and
on the conquest of Peru all these fine stones fell into the hands of
Pedro de Alvarado,[375] Garcilasso de la Vega, and their companions.
The mother emerald, however, had been so cleverly concealed by the
priests of the shrine that the Spaniards never succeeded in gaining
possession of it. Many of the other emeralds were destroyed because of
the ignorance and stupidity of some of their new owners, who, supposing
that the test of a true emerald was its ability to withstand hard
blows, laid the stones on an anvil and hammered them to pieces. The old
and entirely false notion that the genuine diamond could endure this
treatment may have suggested the unfortunate test.
Garcilasso likens the growth of the emerald in its mine to that of
a fruit on a tree, and he believed that it gradually acquired its
beautiful green hue, that part of the crystal nearest the sun being
the first to acquire color. He notes an interesting specimen found in
Peru, half of which was colorless like glass, while the other half was
a brilliant green; this he compares with a half-ripened fruit.[376]
[Illustration: VOTIVE ADZE OF JADEITE FROM MEXICO.
a, Front view. b, Side view. c, Rear view. Kunz Collection, American
Museum of Natural History, New York. 10-13/16 × 6 × 4-5/8 inches,
Weight, 19 pounds Troy.]