METHODS OF EXAMINATION.
In order to make a complete gynecological examination, we must examine
the abdomen, the external organs of generation, and the pelvic
structures.
=Examination of the Abdomen.=--In order to make a perfectly
satisfactory examination of the abdomen, the woman should be in bed,
with all clothing removed except the undershirt and the night-dress,
which should be drawn well up above the costal margin. Examination
made with any constricting clothing about the waist or about the lower
thorax is most unsatisfactory.
The abdomen is examined by inspection, palpation, percussion, and
auscultation.
The woman should lie flat upon her back, and the abdomen should be
thoroughly exposed. We can then determine by _inspection_ the presence
of dilated veins or of lineæ albicantes, the general size and form of
the abdomen, the occurrence of any abdominal movement, and the presence
of any asymmetry in the abdominal contour, such as would be made by the
bulge of a tumor or the displacement of an abdominal organ. The shape
of the abdomen, even though symmetrical, is often diagnostic of certain
intra-abdominal conditions. Thus, an abdominal enlargement that is due
merely to fat presents a different contour from the enlargement caused
by tympanitic distention of the intestine. The enlargement due to
ascites, or free fluid in the peritoneum, differs in contour from that
caused by an encysted collection of fluid.
It should be remembered that lineæ albicantes are not always the result
of pregnancy, but that they may have been caused by distention of the
abdomen from some other cause.
_Palpation._--We can determine most by palpation of the abdomen. The
examiner should always remember that it is most important to secure the
patient’s confidence, and to proceed so gently, slowly, and gradually
in performing palpation that no voluntary or reflex contraction of the
abdominal muscles may impede his manipulations.
In cases in which there is a sore or tender spot within the abdomen
the contraction of the recti muscles may be altogether involuntary,
persisting even when the patient is anesthetized. We see this in the
rigid right rectus muscle of appendicitis. The hands should be warmed,
and palpation should be performed with both hands. A certain amount of
gentle stroking or massage of the abdomen will secure the patient’s
confidence by making her feel that she will not be hurt by any sudden
violent pressure, and will also prevent reflex contraction of the
muscles. By proceeding in this way, slowly, the examiner can palpate
the whole of the abdominal surface, exploring first the structures
lying most anterior, and then, pressing the fingers more deeply, he can
examine the more posterior structures.
Fluctuation in an encysted fluid accumulation is generally readily
determined. While one hand is placed against one side of the fluid
mass and the opposite side is percussed by the fingers of the other
hand, the wave of fluctuation is easily felt. Sometimes a thrill or
a false wave of fluctuation is observed in the subcutaneous fat of
obese women. This disturbing element may, however, be eliminated by an
assistant pressing the ulnar edge of his hand in the median line upon
the abdominal surface, thus stopping the fat wave of fluctuation.
Special organs in the abdomen sometimes require special methods of
examination. It is very often necessary for the gynecologist to examine
the kidneys, because many women have movable or floating kidneys,
and the nervous, gastric, and abdominal symptoms may be due to this
condition. The presence of a floating kidney may often be determined
by inspection; the presence of a movable kidney, however, must be
determined by palpation. This should be performed with the woman in
the sitting, or standing, erect posture; or sitting upon the edge of
a chair, with the body inclined somewhat forward and the hands upon
the knees; or lying upon a bed, on the side opposite the kidney that
is being examined. One hand should be placed over the lumbar muscles;
the other hand should be placed upon the anterior abdominal wall
immediately below the costal margin, and should be pressed backward.
If the kidney lies below its normal position, it may in this way be
brought between the two hands, and can be felt to glide upward as the
hands are pressed together. In case a movable kidney cannot readily
be found, because it may have returned to its normal position, it may
often be brought down again if the woman is made to cough.
In a thin woman the vermiform appendix may sometimes be felt through
the abdominal wall; and in cases of pain and inflammation in the right
iliac region it is sometimes important to determine whether or not
the trouble has started in the vermiform appendix or in the Fallopian
tube. In order to palpate the vermiform appendix the examiner should
stand upon the right side of the woman, who is lying upon her back,
and should place the tips of the fingers of the right hand at about
the junction of the upper and middle thirds of a line drawn from the
middle of Poupart’s ligament to the umbilicus. By pressing backward
firmly and gently, pulsations of the right common iliac artery may be
felt; and then by drawing the hand directly outward it will pass over
the different structures in this region lying between the palpating
hand and the posterior abdominal wall. The appendix may often be felt,
especially if it is indurated by inflammation.
_Percussion_ of the abdomen should be performed with the woman in the
dorsal position; though, if the examiner suspects the presence of free
fluid in the peritoneum, or ascites, much may be learned by percussing
in different positions and noting the accompanying changes in the
percussion-note.
Percussion should then be performed with the woman upon her back, upon
the right side, upon the left side, sitting up, and upon the hands and
knees. An encysted fluid accumulation will give practically the same
result in percussion in all positions, while free fluid will gravitate
to the most dependent portion.
_Auscultation_ of the abdomen is best performed with the stethoscope.
By it we may hear fetal heart-sounds, uterine souffle, placental
bruit, peritoneal friction sounds, and the peristaltic sounds of the
intestinal tract. All of these sounds are of importance, and the
presence or absence of any of them may have an important bearing upon
the diagnosis of the case.
=Examination of External Genitals and Pelvic Structures.=--To examine
the external organs of generation and the pelvic viscera the woman
should be placed upon a table. In some cases the physician may be
obliged, for want of proper facilities or on account of the physical
condition of the patient, to make his examination upon a bed. Such
an examination, however, is never so satisfactory or so thorough as
the examination made with the woman upon the examining-table. A great
number of gynecological tables have been introduced. The one which
seems to the writer the best, on account of its simplicity and the
perfect relaxation of the abdominal muscles furnished by it, is shown
in the accompanying illustration (Fig. 1). It is a plain wooden table,
at the foot of which are attached the upright supports for holding the
stirrups for the feet, such as have been devised by Dr. Edebohls. By
this arrangement the feet and legs are supported without any effort on
the part of the woman; when the buttocks are drawn well down to the
foot of the table there is a certain amount of flexion of the pelvis
upon the trunk, and the most complete attainable relaxation of the
abdominal muscles is secured.
When the woman has been placed in this position the examiner should
investigate thoroughly, and in order, the following structures: The
anus, the perineum, the labia majora, the nymphæ, the fourchette, the
orifices of the ducts of the vulvo-vaginal glands, the hymen or its
remains, the vestibule and the small glands of the vestibule, the
external urinary meatus, and the clitoris.
To determine any pathological condition of these structures it is
necessary that the physician should be familiar with the appearance in
the normal woman, and to gain such essential knowledge we should avail
ourselves of every opportunity offered to make a critical examination
of the external genitals of women, going over all the different
structures in order.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Woman in the dorsal position with feet
supported in Edebohls’ stirrups.]
=Vaginal and Bimanual Examination.=--Having examined and noted the
condition of the external genitals, the physician should next proceed
to examine the vagina. The index finger of the right or the left
hand should be gently introduced into the vagina. The condition of
the vaginal walls, and the direction, consistency, form, etc. of the
vaginal cervix, may be determined. The shape and size of the os uteri
should be noted. The ulnar edge and the tips of the fingers of the
other hand should then be placed upon the abdomen, immediately above
the symphysis pubis, and gently pressed backward and downward toward
the vaginal finger (Fig. 2). In this way the various pelvic organs,
the uterus, Fallopian tubes, ovaries, and ureters, may be palpated
between the two hands, and their position, size, shape, and consistency
may be determined. Such an examination is, of course, made much more
easily in a thin woman than in a fat one. A thin woman a few weeks
after labor may be examined most easily, on account of the relaxation
of the abdominal and vaginal walls.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Bimanual examination.]
This is called the bimanual method of examination, and the student will
find that as he acquires practice in this method he will gradually
depend less upon examination by the uterine sound and the speculum, and
will rely altogether upon his sense of touch, his ability to palpate.
It matters not which hand be used in making the vaginal examination. It
will, however, be found that the hand that is used the more frequently
will become the more proficient.
In making the bimanual examination the structures should be palpated
methodically in order. The vaginal finger notes the condition of the
cervix uteri. If the fundus be in the normal position, the uterus can
then be taken between the abdominal hand (upon the fundus) and the
vaginal finger (upon the cervix) (Fig. 3). The shape, size, mobility,
and consistency are noted. The vaginal finger is then passed anteriorly
and laterally toward either uterine cornu, while the abdominal fingers
pass over to the posterior aspect of the same cornu. The ovarian
ligament and the proximal end of the Fallopian tube may thus be felt.
Passing farther outward, the whole of the tube and the ovary may be
examined. The same procedure is then applied to the opposite side.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Bimanual examination; median sagittal section
of the pelvis.]
The condition of the ureters may be determined by placing the vaginal
finger in either lateral vaginal fornix and drawing it outward and
forward, when these structures will pass over the end of the finger.
When the ureters are indurated by inflammation they can be plainly
felt.
By the method of examination here advised the physician will always
make a visual examination before making a digital one. There are
several advantages derived from this procedure. In the first place, no
examination of a woman is thorough unless a careful visual examination
of the external genitals has been made. The discovery of discharges
and of lesions of the external genitals may throw much light upon
the condition found higher up in the pelvis. Again, the examiner
protects himself. A great many unfortunate cases of syphilis have been
acquired by physicians from a primary sore upon the examining finger.
A preliminary visual examination enables one to guard against this
danger. The primary sore occurs upon the end of the examining finger or
upon the web between the index and middle fingers--the part of the hand
that is pressed against the fourchette.
The hands of the physician should, of course, be surgically clean
before making an examination, and the grease or oil which is used
as a lubricant should be clean. The hands should always be washed,
after separating the parts to make the visual examination, before the
finger is thrust into the vessel containing the lubricant. It is best
to place a small portion of the lubricant on a plate or a saucer for
each individual patient, and thus avoid the danger of contaminating
the rest. Carbolized oil, borated vaseline or cosmoline, and a thick
sterile solution of soap are good lubricants. Neutral green soap
diluted with boiled water to the consistency of thin jelly is a very
agreeable lubricant which may easily be washed from the hands and the
vagina.
If practicable, the woman should receive a vaginal douche of
bichloride-of-mercury solution, 1:4000, and the vulva should be
washed, before making a bimanual examination. The examiner should
always clean the external genitals of all discharges before introducing
the vaginal finger. In this way we avoid the danger of carrying septic
material from the external genitals to the upper portion of the genital
tract. This preliminary cleansing is not desirable before the external
genitals have been examined; for much may be learned from observation
of the discharges which bathe or escape from the various structures.
If practicable, a cleansing vaginal douche of bichloride-of-mercury
solution should be administered after the bimanual examination.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Double tenaculum.]
The examination of the uterus and other pelvic structures is often
facilitated by dragging the uterus downward with a tenaculum while
the vaginal or the bimanual examination is being made. Sensation in
the cervix is so slight that little or no pain is experienced in this
procedure. The anterior or posterior lip of the cervix is caught with
the single or the double tenaculum (Fig. 4), guided along the vaginal
finger or introduced through the speculum, and the uterus is drawn down
by an assistant in case the bimanual examination is being made, or by
the external hand of the examiner in case a simple vaginal examination
is made. When this is done the utero-sacral ligaments are made tense,
and can be felt like two cords extending from the sides of the cervix
outward and backward to the pelvic wall. The posterior surface of the
uterus can be palpated often as high up as the fundus. The method is
especially useful when the examination is made by the rectum, and in
this way the whole posterior surface and the fundus of the uterus may
be palpated (Fig. 5).
The contraindications to a vaginal examination are virginity, the
presence of a hymen, and any acute inflammatory or painful condition
of the vulva or vagina. None of these conditions, however, forbid an
examination if an exact diagnosis is essential to the proper treatment
of the case, and can be made only in this way. It may be that in these
cases a rectal examination will be sufficient for diagnosis.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Bimanual examination with one finger in the
rectum. The uterus is drawn down with the double tenaculum.]
Rectal examination of the pelvic structures is made in a way similar
to that already described for the vaginal examination. Bimanual
examination may be made by palpating the various organs between the
rectal finger and the abdominal hand.
_The Vaginal Speculum._--The speculum is an instrument through which a
visual examination is made of the vagina, the external os uteri, and
the vaginal cervix. A great number of specula have been invented. At
the present day the best two instruments of this class are the bivalve
speculum, such as Goodell’s (Fig. 6), and the duck-bill speculum (Fig.
7), or perineal retractor, invented by Sims.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Goodell’s speculum.]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Sims’ speculum.]
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Sims’ depressor for the anterior vaginal wall.]
The bivalve speculum is introduced with the woman upon her back, in
the dorso-sacral position already described. The vulva and the vagina
should be cleaned. The speculum should be warmed by placing it in
hot water, and should then be lubricated with the soap solution or
with vaseline. It should be introduced with the blades closed and the
plane of the blades lying not exactly in the median sagittal plane
of the body, but inclined at a small acute angle to this plane, one
edge of the speculum being directed toward either vaginal sulcus. The
instrument is passed into the vagina toward the position in which, by a
previous digital examination, the vaginal cervix had been found to lie.
The instrument is then turned with the handles toward either thigh, so
that the blades become parallel to the anterior and posterior vaginal
walls, in order that, when separated, they will open the vaginal slit.
The handles are brought together and the blades opened. When the
vaginal cervix comes well into view the blades are fixed in place by
the screws (Fig. 9).
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Goodell’s speculum in position.]
In some cases, where the cervix points well forward or well backward,
it may be readily brought into view through the speculum by catching it
with a tenaculum.
By means of the bivalve speculum we are able to make a partial
inspection of the vaginal walls, an imperfect inspection of the vaginal
vault, and a good inspection of the vaginal cervix and the external
os. Applications can be made to the cervix, but none of the minor
operations of gynecology can be performed through this speculum.
The Sims speculum enables us to make the most thorough inspection
of the vagina, the vaginal vault, and the vaginal cervix. The Sims
speculum is merely a hook or retractor for the perineum, and may be
introduced with the woman in the dorsal position, the Sims position,
or the genu-pectoral position. If the Sims speculum is introduced in
the dorso-sacral position, it is necessary to hold forward the anterior
vaginal wall in order to obtain a view of the cervix.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--The Sims position.]
The Sims position, which is also called the latero-abdominal position,
is shown in Fig. 10. The woman is placed on the bed or table upon her
left side. The side of the face is upon the pillow; the left arm is
behind the back, so that the left breast rests upon the table. The
thighs are flexed upon the abdomen at an angle of about 90° to the
trunk. The right thigh is more flexed than the left, so that the right
knee may touch the table above the left knee. The legs are flexed on
the thighs. In this position there is a tendency for the intestines,
following the force of gravity, to fall from the pelvis, and for the
uterus and other pelvic viscera to be drawn up. When the perineum
is retracted with the blade of the Sims speculum, air will enter
the vagina and the vaginal slit will become distended (Fig. 11). To
facilitate inspection of the cervix it is usually necessary also to
push forward the anterior abdominal wall by some kind of depressor,
such as the one shown in Fig. 8.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The cervix uteri exposed with the Sims
speculum.]
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--The knee-chest position.]
The genu-pectoral position or the knee-chest position is shown in Fig.
12. The side of the face is upon the pillow; the breast is upon the
table; the thighs are vertical. In this position the intestines fall
from the pelvis, and the other pelvic viscera are drawn upward by the
force of gravity. If the anus is opened, air rushes in and distends
the rectum. If the perineum is retracted, air enters and distends the
vagina. If the urethra is opened, the bladder is likewise distended.
The position is the most useful one for inspection of the rectum,
vagina and vaginal cervix, and the bladder.
The Sims speculum, with the woman in the dorsal, the Sims, or the
knee-chest position, is the most useful instrument by which to expose
the cervix uteri for any of the minor operations of gynecology. The
manipulations of the operator are not hampered by working between metal
walls.
=Examination of the Rectum.=--If the woman is placed in the knee-chest
position, a most satisfactory inspection of the whole of the rectum may
be made. The woman should be placed in this position with the buttocks
before a good light, and the posterior margin of the anus should be
retracted by the small blade of a Sims speculum; the rectum will
immediately become distended with air and the rectal walls will be well
exposed. Or the rectal specula (Figs. 13, 14) may be used. In employing
the longer of these instruments it is best to use light reflected from
a head-mirror or thrown directly from an electric head-light into the
speculum.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Rectal speculum, large size.]
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Rectal speculum, small size.]
The instrument should always be introduced for the first two inches
with the obturator in place. The obturator should then be withdrawn and
the speculum pushed farther in, the operator watching and guiding its
course around the rectal valves or folds of mucous membrane, so as to
prevent injury to the walls of the rectum. Anesthesia is not necessary
for this procedure.
=Examination of the Bladder.=--It will readily be understood that all
the hollow viscera are much more easily examined when their walls are
separated by distention with air than when the walls are collapsed.
The bladder is most readily examined in this way. The woman should be
placed in the knee-chest position, or in the dorsal position with the
hips elevated above the abdomen. In either position the intestines
fall from the pelvis, and when the urethra is opened air enters and
distends the bladder. This distention is most certainly accomplished
in the knee-chest position. In women who are not very fat, however,
the extreme dorso-sacral position is equally good. The details of this
method of examination are described on a later page.
_The uterine sound_ is an instrument by which the length of the uterine
cavity may be determined (Fig. 15). The sound, which is a large
surgical probe, somewhat curved to adapt itself to the normal shape of
the uterine axis, is made of pliable metal, so that the curvature may
be changed readily to suit any case. The sound is graduated, and at a
position of 2½ inches from the tip is a small elevation marking the
length of the normal uterine cavity.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Uterine sound.]
The uterine sound was at one time used a great deal to determine
the length and direction of the uterus, and perhaps to assist
in determining the character of the uterine contents or of the
endometrium. With our present methods of examination, however, the
sound is of but little if any use. The size and direction of the
uterus can in nearly all cases be determined by bimanual examination.
The use of the uterine sound is by no means free from danger. Many
cases of septic endometritis and salpingitis have been caused by it,
and the physician has often unintentionally committed an abortion by
passing the sound in a pregnant woman. The uterine sound should never
be used in a routine way. It should never be used unless one expects
to determine with it something that cannot be determined by simpler
methods of examination.
The most thorough aseptic precautions should be observed when the sound
is introduced. The vulva, vagina, and cervix should be cleaned and the
sound should be sterilized. The sound should never be introduced if
there is any suspicion of pregnancy.
=Antisepsis.=--In all examinations the physician should observe every
precaution to avoid carrying infection from one patient to another. All
instruments used in the examination should be thoroughly cleansed with
soap and warm water, and then boiled for five minutes in a 1-per cent.
solution of carbonate of soda.