scrupulous, and that the defect of perspicuity is easily supplied by
accurate punctuation; the answer is, That punctuation may remove an
ambiguity, but will never produce that peculiar beauty which is felt
when the sense comes out clearly and distinctly by means of a happy
arrangement. Such influence has this beauty, that by a natural
transition of feeling, it is communicated to the very sound of the
words, so as in appearance to improve the music of the period. But as
this curious subject comes in more properly afterward, it is sufficient
at present to appeal to experience, that a period so arranged as to
bring out the sense clear, seems always more musical than where the
sense is left in any degree doubtful.
A rule deservedly occupying the second place, is, That words expressing
things connected in the thought, ought to be placed as near together as
possible. This rule is derived immediately from human nature, in which
there is discovered a remarkable propensity to place together things
that are in any manner connected[90]. Where things are arranged
according to their connections, we have a sense of order: otherwise we
have a sense of disorder, as of things placed by chance. And we
naturally place words in the same order in which we would place the
things they signify. The bad effect of a violent separation of words or
members thus intimately connected, will appear from the following
examples.
For the English are naturally fanciful, and very often disposed, by
that gloominess and melancholy of temper which is so frequent in
our nation, to many wild notions and visions, to which others are
not so liable.
_Spectator_, Nº 419.
Here the verb or assertion is, by a pretty long circumstance, violently
separated from the subject to which it refers. This makes a harsh
arrangement; the less excusable that the fault is easily prevented by
placing the circumstance before the verb or assertion, after the
following manner:
For the English are naturally fanciful, and, by that gloominess and
melancholy of temper which is so frequent in our nation, are often
disposed to many wild notions, _&c._
For as no mortal author, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of
things, knows to what use his works may, some time or other, be
applied, _&c._
_Spectator_, Nº 85.
Better thus:
For as, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, no mortal
author knows to what use, some time or other, his works may be
apply’d.
From whence we may date likewise the rivalship of the house of
France, for we may reckon that of the Valois and that of Bourbon as
one upon this occasion, and the house of Austria, that continues at
this day, and has oft cost so much blood and so much treasure in
the course of it.
_Letters on history, vol. 1. letter 6. Bolingbroke._
It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore in such a country,
whatever it might be in the Abbot of St Real’s, which was Savoy I
think; or in Peru, under the Incas, where Garcilasso de la Vega
says it was lawful for none but the nobility to study--for men of
all degrees to instruct themselves in those affairs wherein they
may be actors, or judges of those that act, or controllers of those
that judge.
_Letters on history, vol. 1. letter 5. Bolingbroke._
If Scipio, who was naturally given to women, for which anecdote we
have, if I mistake not, the authority of Polybius, as well as some
verses of Nevius preserved by Aulus Gellius, had been educated by
Olympias at the court of Philip, it is improbable that he would
have restored the beautiful Spaniard.
_Ibid. letter 3._
If any one have a curiosity for more specimens of this kind, they will
be found without number in the works of the same author.
A pronoun, which saves the naming a person or thing a second time, ought
to be placed as near as possible to the name of that person or thing.
This is a branch of the foregoing rule; and with the reason there
given, another concurs, _viz._ That if other ideas intervene, it is
difficult to recal the person or thing by reference.
If I had leave to print the Latin letters transmitted to me from
foreign parts, they would fill a volume, and be a full defence
against all that Mr. Partridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal
inquisition, will be ever able to object; _who_, by the way, are
the only enemies my predictions have ever met with at home or
abroad.
Better thus:
---- and be a full defence against all that can be objected by Mr.
Partridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal inquisition; who, by
the way, are, _&c._
There being a round million of creatures in human figure,
throughout this kingdom, _whose_ whole subsistence, _&c._
_A modest proposal_, &c. _Swift._
Better:
There being, throughout this kingdom, a round million of creatures
in human figure, whose whole subsistence, _&c._
Tom is a lively impudent clown, and has wit enough to have made him
a pleasant companion, had _it_ been polished and rectified by good
manners.
_Guardian_, Nº 162.
It is the custom of the Mahometans, if they see any printed or
written paper upon the ground, to take it up, and lay it aside
carefully, as not knowing but it may contain some piece of their
Alcoran.
_Spectator_, Nº 85.
The arrangement here leads to a wrong sense, as if the ground were taken
up, not the paper. Better thus:
It is the custom of the Mahometans, if they see upon the ground any
printed or written paper, to take it up, _&c._
The following rule depends on the communication of emotions or feelings
to related objects, a principle in human nature we have had more than
one occasion to mention. We find this operation, even where the objects
are not otherwise related than by the juxtaposition of the words that
express them. Hence to elevate or depress an object, one method is, to
join it in the arrangement to another that is naturally high or low.
Witness the following speech of Eumenes to the Roman senate.
Causam veniendi sibi Romam fuisse, præter cupiditatem visendi _deos
hominesque_, quorum beneficio in ea fortuna esset, supra quam ne
optare quidem auderet, etiam ut coram moneret senatum ut Persei
conatus obviam iret.
_Livy, l. 42. cap. 11._
To join the Romans with the gods in the same enunciation, is an artful
stroke of flattery, because it tacitly puts them on a level. On the
other hand, when the purpose is to degrade or vilify an object, this is
done successfully by ranking it with one that is really low:
I hope to have this entertainment in a readiness for the next
winter; and doubt not but it will please more than the opera or
puppet-show.
_Spectator_, Nº 28.
Manifold have been the judgments which Heaven from time to time,
for the chastisement of a sinful people, has inflicted upon whole
nations. For when the degeneracy becomes common, ’tis but just the
punishment should be general. Of this kind, in our own unfortunate
country, was that destructive pestilence, whose mortality was so
fatal as to sweep away, if Sir William Petty may be believed, five
millions of Christian souls, besides women and Jews.
_God’s revenge against punning. Arbuthnot._
Such also was that dreadful conflagration ensuing in this famous
metropolis of London, which consumed, according to the computation
of Sir Samuel Morland, 100,000 houses, not to mention churches and
stables.
_Ibid._
But on condition it might pass into a law, I would gladly exempt
both lawyers of all ages, subaltern and field officers, young
heirs, dancing-masters, pickpockets, and players.
_An infallible scheme to pay the public debts. Swift._
Circumstances in a period resemble small stones in a building employ’d
to fill up vacancies among those of a larger size. In the arrangement of
a period, such under-parts crowded together make a poor figure; and
never are graceful but when interspersed among the capital parts. I
shall illustrate this rule by the following example.
It is likewise urged, that there are, by computation, in this
kingdom, above 10,000 parsons, whose revenues, added to those of my
Lords the bishops, would suffice to maintain, _&c._
_Argument against abolishing Christianity. Swift._
Here two circumstances, _viz. by computation_ and _in this kingdom_, are
crowded together unnecessarily. They make a better appearance separated
in the following manner.
It is likewise urged, that in this kingdom there are, by
computation, above 10,000 parsons, _&c._
If there be room for a choice, the sooner a circumstance be introduced,
the better. Circumstances are proper for that coolness of mind, with
which a period as well as a work is commenced. In the progress, the mind
warms, and has a greater relish for matters of importance. When a
circumstance is placed at the beginning or near the beginning of the
period, the transition from it to the principal subject is agreeable: it
is like ascending or mounting upward. On the other hand, to place it
late in the period has a bad effect; for after being engaged in the
principal subject, one is with reluctance brought down to give attention
to a circumstance. Hence evidently the preference of the following
arrangement,
Whether in any country a choice altogether unexceptionable has been
made, seems doubtful,
before this other,
Whether a choice altogether unexceptionable has in any country been
made, _&c._
For this reason the following period is exceptionable in point of
arrangement:
I have considered formerly, with a good deal of attention, the
subject upon which you command me to communicate my thoughts to
you.
_Bolingbroke of the study of history, letter 1._
which, with a slight alteration, may be improved thus:
I have formerly, with a good deal of attention, considered the
subject, _&c._
The bad effect of placing a circumstance last or late in a period, will
appear from the following examples.
Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who
holds the reins of the whole creation in his hand.
_Spectator_, Nº 12.
Better thus:
Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him, who,
in his hand, holds the reins of the whole creation.
Virgil, who has cast the whole system of Platonic philosophy, so
far as it relates to the soul of man, into beautiful allegories,
_in the sixth book of his Æneid_, gives us the punishment, _&c._
_Spectator_, Nº 90.
Better thus:
Virgil, who in the sixth book of his Æneid has cast, _&c._
And Philip the Fourth was obliged at last to conclude a peace, on
terms repugnant to his inclination, to that of his people, to the
interest of Spain, and to that of all Europe, in the Pyrenean
treaty.
_Letters on history, vol. 1. letter 6. Bolingbroke._
Better thus:
And at last, in the Pyrenean treaty, Philip the Fourth was obliged
to conclude a peace, _&c._
In arranging a period, it is of importance to determine in what part of
it a word makes the greatest figure, whether in the beginning, during
the currency, or at the close. The breaking silence rouses the attention
to what is said; and therefore deeper impression is made at the
beginning than during the currency. The beginning, however, must yield
to the close; which being succeeded by a pause, affords time for a word
to make its deepest impression. Hence the following rule, That to give
the utmost force to a period, it ought if possible to be closed with
that word which makes the greatest figure. The opportunity of a pause
should not be thrown away upon accessories, but reserved for the
principal object, in order that it may make a full impression. This is
an additional reason against closing a period with a circumstance. There
are however periods that admit not this structure; and in that case,
the capital word ought if possible to be placed in the front, which next
to the close is the most advantageous for making an impression. Hence,
in directing our discourse to any man, we ought to begin with his name;
and one will be sensible of a degradation, when this rule is neglected,
as it frequently is for the sake of verse. I give the following
examples.
Integer vitæ, scelerisque purus,
Non eget Mauris jaculi, neque arcu,
Nec venenatis gravidâ sagittis,
Fusce, pharetrâ.
_Horat. Carm. l. 1. ode 22._
Je crains Dieu, cher Abner, et n’ai point d’autre crainte.
In these examples the name of the person addressed to makes a mean
figure, being like a circumstance slipt into a corner. That this
criticism is well founded, we need no other proof than Addison’s
translation of the last example.
O Abner! I fear my God, and I fear none but him.
_Guardian_, Nº 117.
O father, what intends thy hand, she cry’d,
Against thy only son? What fury, O son,
Possesses thee to bend that mortal dart
Against thy father’s head?
_Paradise Lost, book 2. l. 727._
Every one must be sensible of a dignity in the invocation at the
beginning, which that in the middle is far from reaching. I mean not
however to censure this expression. On the contrary it appears
beautiful, by distinguishing the respect due to a father and to a son.
* * * * *
The substance of what is said in this and the foregoing section, upon
the method of arranging the words of a period so as to make the
strongest impression with respect to sound as well as signification, is
comprehended in the following observation. That order of the words in a
period will always be the most agreeable, where, without obscuring the
sense, the most important images, the most sonorous words, and the
longest members, bring up the rear.
* * * * *
Hitherto of arranging single words, single members, and single
circumstances. But the enumeration of many particulars in the same
period is often necessary; and the question is, In what order they
should be placed. It does not seem easy at first view to bring a subject
apparently so loose under any general rules. But luckily reflecting upon
what is said in the first chapter about order, we find rules laid down
to our hand, so as to leave us no harder task than their application to
the present question. And, first, with respect to the enumerating a
number of particulars of equal rank, it is laid down in the place cited,
that as there is no foundation for preferring any one before the rest,
it is indifferent to the mind in what order they be viewed. And it is
only necessary to be added here, that for the same reason, it is
indifferent in what order they be named. 2dly, If a number of objects of
the same kind, differing only in size, are to be ranged along a
straight line, the most agreeable order to the eye is that of an
increasing series. In surveying a number of such objects, beginning at
the least and proceeding to greater and greater, the mind swells
gradually with the successive objects, and in its progress has a very
sensible pleasure. Precisely for the same reason, the words expressive
of such objects ought to be placed in the same order. The beauty of this
figure, which may be termed _a climax in sense_, has escaped Lord
Bolingbroke in the first member of the following period.
Let but one great, brave, disinterested, active man arise, and he
will be received, followed, and almost adored.
The following arrangement has sensibly a better effect.
Let but one brave, great, active, disinterested man arise, _&c._
Whether the same rule ought to be followed in enumerating men of
different ranks, seems doubtful. On the one hand, a procession of a
number of persons, presenting the lowest class first, and rising upon
the eye in succession till it terminate upon the highest, is undoubtedly
the most agreeable order. On the other hand, in every list of names, it
is customary to set the person of the greatest dignity at the top, and
to descend gradually through his inferiors. Where the purpose is to
honour the persons named according to their rank, the latter order ought
to be followed; but every one who regards himself only, or his reader,
will chuse the former order. 3dly, As the sense of order directs the eye
to descend from the principal to its greatest accessory, and from the
whole to its greatest part, and in the same order through all the parts
and accessories till we arrive at the minutest; the same order ought to
be followed in the enumeration of such particulars. I shall give one
familiar example. Talking of the parts of a column, _viz._ the base, the
shaft, the capital, these are capable of six different arrangements, and
the question is, Which is the best? When one has in view the erection of
a column, he will naturally be led to express the parts in the order
above mentioned; which at the same time is agreeable by mounting upward.
But considering the column as it stands without reference to its
erection, the sense of order, as observed above, requires the chief part
to be named first. For that reason we begin with the shaft; and the base
comes next in order, that we may ascend from it to the capital. Lastly,
In tracing the particulars of any natural operation, order requires that
we follow the course of nature. Historical facts are related in the
order of time. We begin at the founder of a family, and proceed from him
to his descendents. But in describing a lofty oak, we begin with the
trunk, and ascend to the branches.
When force and liveliness of expression are aimed at, the rule is, to
suspend the thought as much as possible, and to bring it out full and
entire at the close. This cannot be done but by inverting the natural
arrangement, and by introducing a word or member before its time. By
such inversion our curiosity is raised about what is to follow; and it
is agreeable to have our curiosity gratified at the close of the period.
Such arrangement produceth on the mind an effect similar to a stroke
exerted upon the body by the whole collected force of the agent. On the
other hand, where a period is so constructed as to admit more than one
complete close in the sense, the curiosity of the reader is exhausted at
the first close, and what follows appears languid or superfluous. His
disappointment contributes also to this appearance, when he finds, that,
contrary to his expectation, the period is not yet finished. Cicero, and
after him Quintilian, recommend the verb to the last place. This method
evidently tends to suspend the sense till the close of the period; for
without the verb the sense cannot be complete. And when the verb happens
to be the capital word, which is frequently the case, it ought at any
rate to be put last, according to another rule, above laid down. I
proceed as usual to illustrate this rule by examples. The following
period is placed in its natural order.
Were instruction an essential circumstance in epic poetry, I doubt
whether a single instance could be given of this species of
composition, in any language.
The period thus arranged admits a full close upon the word
_composition_; after which it goes on languidly, and closes without
force. This blemish will be avoided by the following arrangement.
Were instruction an essential circumstance in epic poetry, I doubt
whether, in any language, a single instance could be given of this
species of composition.
Some of our most eminent divines have made use of this Platonic
notion, as far as it regards the subsistence of our passions after
death, with great beauty and strength of reason.
_Spectator_, Nº 90.
Better thus:
Some of our most eminent divines have, with great beauty and
strength of reason, made use of this Platonic notion, _&c._
Men of the best sense have been touched, more or less, with these
groundless horrors and presages of futurity, upon surveying the
most indifferent works of nature.
_Spectator_, Nº 505.
Better:
Upon surveying the most indifferent works of nature, men of the
best sense, _&c._
She soon informed him of the place he was in, which,
notwithstanding all its horrors, appeared to him more sweet than
the bower of Mahomet, in the company of his Balsora.
_Guardian_, Nº 167.
Better:
She soon, _&c._ appeared to him, in the company of his Balsora,
more sweet, _&c._
The Emperor was so intent on the establishment of his absolute
power in Hungary, that he exposed the Empire doubly to desolation
and ruin for the sake of it.
_Letters on history, vol. 1. let. 7. Bolingbroke._
Better:
---- that for the sake of it he exposed the Empire doubly to
desolation and ruin.
None of the rules for the composition of periods are more liable to be
abused, than those last mentioned: witness many Latin writers, among the
moderns especially, whose style, by inversions too violent, is rendered
harsh and obscure. Suspension of the thought till the close of the
period, ought never to be preferred before perspicuity. Neither ought
such suspension to be attempted in a long period; because in that case
the mind is bewildered among a profusion of words. A traveller, while he
is puzzled about the road, relishes not the finest prospects.
All the rich presents which Astyages had given him at parting,
keeping only some Median horses, in order to propagate the breed of
them in Persia, he distributed among his friends whom he left at
the court of Ecbatana.
_Travels of Cyrus, book 1._
The foregoing rules concern the arrangement of a single period. I shall
add one rule more concerning the distribution of a discourse into
different periods. A short period is lively and familiar. A long
period, requiring more attention, makes an impression grave and solemn.
In general, a writer ought to study a mixture of long and short periods,
which prevents an irksome uniformity, and entertains the mind with
variety of impressions. In particular, long periods ought to be avoided
till the reader’s attention be thoroughly engaged; and therefore a
discourse, especially of the familiar kind, ought never to be introduced
with a long period. For that reason, the commencement of a letter to a
very young lady on her marriage is faulty.
Madam, The hurry and impertinence of receiving and paying visits on
account of your marriage, being now over, you are beginning to
enter into a course of life, where you will want much advice to
divert you from falling into many errors, fopperies, and follies,
to which your sex is subject.
_Swift._
See a stronger example in the commencement of Cicero’s oration, _Pro
Archia poeta_.
* * * * *
Before we proceed farther, it may be proper to take a review of the
rules laid down in this and the preceding section, in order to make
some general observations. The natural order of the words and members of
a period, is undoubtedly the same with the natural order of the ideas
that compose the thought. The tendency of many of the foregoing rules,
is to substitute an artificial arrangement, in order to reach some
beauty either of sound or meaning that cannot be reached in the natural
order. But seldom it happens, that in the same period there is place for
a plurality of these rules. If one beauty can be catched, another must
be relinquished. The only question is, Which ought to be preferred? This
is a question that cannot be resolved by any general rule. But practice,
supported by a good taste, will in most instances make the choice easy.
The component words and members of a period, are ascertained by the
subject. If the natural order be not relished, a few trials will
discover that artificial order which has the best effect. All that can
be said in general is, that in making a choice, sound ought to yield to
signification.