BOOK II.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD AND THE ELEMENTS.

[I have adopted the division of the chapters from Hardouin, as given

in the editions of Valpy, Lemaire, Ajasson, and Sillig; the Roman

figures, enclosed between brackets, are the numbers of the chapters

in Dalechamps, De Laët, Gronovius, Holland, and Poinsinet. The titles

of the chapters are nearly the same with those in Valpy, Lemaire, and

Ajasson.]

CHAP. 1. (1.)—WHETHER THE WORLD BE FINITE, AND WHETHER THERE BE MORE

THAN ONE WORLD.

The world[86], and whatever that be which we otherwise call the

heavens[87], by the vault of which all things are enclosed, we must

conceive to be a Deity[88], to be eternal, without bounds, neither

created, nor subject, at any time, to destruction[89]. To inquire what

is beyond it is no concern of man, nor can the human mind form any

conjecture respecting it. It is sacred, eternal, and without bounds,

all in all; indeed including everything in itself; finite, yet like

what is infinite; the most certain of all things, yet like what is

uncertain, externally and internally embracing all things in itself; it

is the work of nature, and itself constitutes nature[90].

It is madness to harass the mind, as some have done, with attempts to

measure the world, and to publish these attempts; or, like others, to

argue from what they have made out, that there are innumerable other

worlds, and that we must believe there to be so many other natures,

or that, if only one nature produced the whole, there will be so many

suns and so many moons, and that each of them will have immense trains

of other heavenly bodies. As if the same question would not recur at

every step of our inquiry, anxious as we must be to arrive at some

termination; or, as if this infinity, which we ascribe to nature,

the former of all things, cannot be more easily comprehended by one

single formation, especially when that is so extensive. It is madness,

perfect madness, to go out of this world and to search for what is

beyond it, as if one who is ignorant of his own dimensions could

ascertain the measure of any thing else, or as if the human mind could

see what the world itself cannot contain.

CHAP. 2. (2.)—OF THE FORM OF THE WORLD[91].

That it has the form of a perfect globe we learn from the name which

has been uniformly given to it, as well as from numerous natural

arguments. For not only does a figure of this kind return everywhere

into itself[92] and sustain itself, also including itself, requiring

no adjustments, not sensible of either end or beginning in any of its

parts, and is best fitted for that motion, with which, as will appear

hereafter, it is continually turning round; but still more, because we

perceive it, by the evidence of the sight, to be, in every part, convex

and central, which could not be the case were it of any other figure.

CHAP. 3. (3.)—OF ITS NATURE; WHENCE THE NAME IS DERIVED.

The rising and the setting of the sun clearly prove, that this globe

is carried round in the space of twenty-four hours, in an eternal and

never-ceasing circuit, and with incredible swiftness[93]. I am not

able to say, whether the sound caused by the whirling about of so great

a mass be excessive, and, therefore, far beyond what our ears can

perceive, nor, indeed, whether the resounding of so many stars, all

carried along at the same time and revolving in their orbits, may not

produce a kind of delightful harmony of incredible sweetness[94]. To

us, who are in the interior, the world appears to glide silently along,

both by day and by night.

Various circumstances in nature prove to us, that there are impressed

on the heavens innumerable figures of animals and of all kinds of

objects, and that its surface is not perfectly polished like the eggs

of birds, as some celebrated authors assert[95]. For we find that the

seeds of all bodies fall down from it, principally into the ocean,

and, being mixed together, that a variety of monstrous forms are in

this way frequently produced. And, indeed, this is evident to the eye;

for, in one part, we have the figure of a wain, in another of a bear,

of a bull, and of a letter[96]; while, in the middle of them, over our

heads, there is a white circle[97].

(4.) With respect to the name, I am influenced by the unanimous

opinions of all nations. For what the Greeks, from its being

ornamented, have termed κόσμος, we, from its perfect and complete

elegance, have termed _mundus_. The name _cœlum_, no doubt, refers to

its being engraven, as it were, with the stars, as Varro suggests[98].

In confirmation of this idea we may adduce the Zodiac[99], in which

are twelve figures of animals; through them it is that the sun has

continued its course for so many ages.

CHAP. 4. (5.)—OF THE ELEMENTS[100] AND THE PLANETS[101].

I do not find that any one has doubted that there are four elements.

The highest of these is supposed to be fire, and hence proceed the

eyes of so many glittering stars. The next is that spirit, which both

the Greeks and ourselves call by the same name, air[102]. It is by

the force of this vital principle, pervading all things and mingling

with all, that the earth, together with the fourth element, water, is

balanced in the middle of space. These are mutually bound together,

the lighter being restrained by the heavier, so that they cannot fly

off; while, on the contrary, from the lighter tending upwards, the

heavier are so suspended, that they cannot fall down. Thus, by an

equal tendency in an opposite direction, each of them remains in its

appropriate place, bound together by the never-ceasing revolution

of the world, which always turning on itself, the earth falls to

the lowest part and is in the middle of the whole, while it remains

suspended in the centre[103], and, as it were, balancing this centre,

in which it is suspended. So that it alone remains immoveable, whilst

all things revolve round it, being connected with every other part,

whilst they all rest upon it.

(6.) Between this body and the heavens there are suspended, in this

aërial spirit, seven stars[104], separated by determinate spaces,

which, on account of their motion, we call wandering, although,

in reality, none are less so[105]. The sun is carried along in the

midst of these, a body of great size and power, the ruler, not only

of the seasons and of the different climates, but also of the stars

themselves and of the heavens[106]. When we consider his operations, we

must regard him as the life, or rather the mind of the universe, the

chief regulator and the God of nature; he also lends his light to the

other stars[107]. He is most illustrious and excellent, beholding all

things and hearing all things, which, I perceive, is ascribed to him

exclusively by the prince of poets, Homer[108].

CHAP. 5. (7.)—OF GOD[109].

I consider it, therefore, an indication of human weakness to inquire

into the figure and form of God. For whatever God be, if there be any

other God[110], and wherever he exists, he is all sense, all sight,

all hearing, all life, all mind[111], and all within himself. To

believe that there are a number of Gods, derived from the virtues and

vices of man[112], as Chastity, Concord, Understanding, Hope, Honour,

Clemency, and Fidelity; or, according to the opinion of Democritus,

that there are only two, Punishment and Reward[113], indicates still

greater folly. Human nature, weak and frail as it is, mindful of its

own infirmity, has made these divisions, so that every one might have

recourse to that which he supposed himself to stand more particularly

in need of[114]. Hence we find different names employed by different

nations; the inferior deities are arranged in classes, and diseases and

plagues are deified, in consequence of our anxious wish to propitiate

them. It was from this cause that a temple was dedicated to Fever, at

the public expense, on the Palatine Hill[115], and to Orbona[116], near

the Temple of the Lares, and that an altar was elected to Good Fortune

on the Esquiline. Hence we may understand how it comes to pass that

there is a greater population of the Celestials than of human beings,

since each individual makes a separate God for himself, adopting his

own Juno and his own Genius[117]. And there are nations who make Gods

of certain animals, and even certain obscene things[118], which are not

to be spoken of, swearing by stinking meats and such like. To suppose

that marriages are contracted between the Gods, and that, during so

long a period, there should have been no issue from them, that some

of them should be old and always grey-headed and others young and like

children, some of a dark, complexion, winged, lame, produced from

eggs, living and dying on alternate days, is sufficiently puerile and

foolish. But it is the height of impudence to imagine, that adultery

takes place between them, that they have contests and quarrels, and

that there are Gods of theft and of various crimes[119]. To assist man

is to be a God; this is the path to eternal glory. This is the path

which the Roman nobles formerly pursued, and this is the path which is

now pursued by the greatest ruler of our age, Vespasian Augustus, he

who has come to the relief of an exhausted empire, as well as by his

sons. This was the ancient mode of remunerating those who deserved it,

to regard them as Gods[120]. For the names of all the Gods, as well as

of the stars that I have mentioned above[121], have been derived from

their services to mankind. And with respect to Jupiter and Mercury, and

the rest of the celestial nomenclature, who does not admit that they

have reference to certain natural phenomena[122]?

But it is ridiculous to suppose, that the great head of all things,

whatever it be, pays any regard to human affairs[123]. Can we believe,

or rather can there be any doubt, that it is not polluted by such a

disagreeable and complicated office? It is not easy to determine which

opinion would be most for the advantage of mankind, since we observe

some who have no respect for the Gods, and others who carry it to a

scandalous excess. They are slaves to foreign ceremonies; they carry on

their fingers the Gods and the monsters whom they worship[124]; they

condemn and they lay great stress on certain kinds of food; they impose

on themselves dreadful ordinances, not even sleeping quietly. They do

not marry or adopt children, or indeed do anything else, without the

sanction of their sacred rites. There are others, on the contrary, who

will cheat in the very Capitol, and will forswear themselves even by

Jupiter Tonans[125], and while these thrive in their crimes, the others

torment themselves with their superstitions to no purpose.

Among these discordant opinions mankind have discovered for themselves

a kind of intermediate deity, by which our scepticism concerning God

is still increased. For all over the world, in all places, and at

all times, Fortune is the only god whom every one invokes; she alone

is spoken of, she alone is accused and is supposed to be guilty; she

alone is in our thoughts, is praised and blamed, and is loaded with

reproaches; wavering as she is, conceived by the generality of mankind

to be blind, wandering, inconstant, uncertain, variable, and often

favouring the unworthy. To her are referred all our losses and all our

gains, and in casting up the accounts of mortals she alone balances the

two pages of our sheet[126]. We are so much in the power of chance,

that chance itself is considered as a God, and the existence of God

becomes doubtful.

But there are others who reject this principle and assign events to

the influence of the stars[127], and to the laws of our nativity;

they suppose that God, once for all, issues his decrees and never

afterwards interferes. This opinion begins to gain ground, and both the

learned and the unlearned vulgar are falling into it. Hence we have

the admonitions of thunder, the warnings of oracles, the predictions

of soothsayers, and things too trifling to be mentioned, as sneezing

and stumbling with the feet reckoned among omens[128]. The late Emperor

Augustus[129] relates, that he put the left shoe on the wrong foot,

the day when he was near being assaulted by his soldiers[130]. And

such things as these so embarrass improvident mortals, that among all

of them this alone is certain, that there is nothing certain, and

that there is nothing more proud or more wretched than man. For other

animals have no care but to provide for their subsistence, for which

the spontaneous kindness of nature is all-sufficient; and this one

circumstance renders their lot more especially preferable, that they

never think about glory, or money, or ambition, and, above all, that

they never reflect on death.

The belief, however, that on these points the Gods superintend human

affairs is useful to us, as well as that the punishment of crimes,

although sometimes tardy, from the Deity being occupied with such a

mass of business, is never entirely remitted, and that the human race

was not made the next in rank to himself, in order that they might be

degraded like brutes. And indeed this constitutes the great comfort in

this imperfect state of man, that even the Deity cannot do everything.

For he cannot procure death for himself, even if he wished it, which,

so numerous are the evils of life, has been granted to man as our

chief good. Nor can he make mortals immortal, or recall to life those

who are dead; nor can he effect, that he who has once lived shall not

have lived, or that he who has enjoyed honours shall not have enjoyed

them; nor has he any influence over past events but to cause them to be

forgotten. And, if we illustrate the nature of our connexion with God

by a less serious argument, he cannot make twice ten not to be twenty,

and many other things of this kind. By these considerations the power

of Nature is clearly proved, and is shown to be what we call God. It

is not foreign to the subject to have digressed into these matters,

familiar as they are to every one, from the continual discussions that

take place respecting God[131].

CHAP. 6. (8.)—OF THE NATURE OF THE STARS; OF THE MOTION OF THE PLANETS.

Let us return from this digression to the other parts of nature. The

stars which are described as fixed in the heavens[132], are not, as the

vulgar suppose, attached each of them to different individuals[133],

the brighter to the rich, those that are less so to the poor, and

the dim to the aged, shining according to the lot of the individual,

and separately assigned to mortals; for they have neither come into

existence, nor do they perish in connexion with particular persons,

nor does a falling star indicate that any one is dead. We are not so

closely connected with the heavens as that the shining of the stars

is affected by our death[134]. When they are supposed to shoot or

fall[135], they throw out, by the force of their fire, as if from an

excess of nutriment, the superabundance of the humour which they have

absorbed, as we observe to take place from the oil in our lamps, when

they are burning[136]. The nature of the celestial bodies is eternal,

being interwoven, as it were, with the world, and, by this union,

rendering it solid; but they exert their most powerful influence on

the earth. This, notwithstanding its subtilty, may be known by the

clearness and the magnitude of the effect, as we shall point out in the

proper place[137]. The account of the circles of the heavens will be

better understood when we come to speak of the earth, since they have

all a reference to it; except what has been discovered respecting the

Zodiac, which I shall now detail.

Anaximander the Milesian, in the 58th olympiad[138], is said to have

been the first who understood its obliquity, and thus opened the road

to a correct knowledge of the subject[139]. Afterwards Cleostratus

made the signs in it, first marking those of Aries and Sagittarius;

Atlas had formed the sphere long before this time[140]. But now,

leaving the further consideration of this subject, we must treat of the

bodies that are situated between the earth and the heavens[141].

It is certain that the star called Saturn is the highest, and

therefore appears the smallest, that he passes through the largest

circuit, and that he is at least thirty years in completing it[142].

The course of all the planets, and among others of the Sun, and the

Moon, is in the contrary direction to that of the heavens[143], that

is towards the left, while the heavens are rapidly carried about to

the right[144]. And although, by the stars constantly revolving with

immense velocity, they are raised up, and hurried on to the part where

they set, yet they are all forced, by a motion of their own, in an

opposite direction[145]; and this is so ordered, lest the air, being

always moved in the same direction, by the constant whirling of the

heavens, should accumulate into one mass, whereas now it is divided and

separated and beaten into small pieces, by the opposite motion of the

different stars. Saturn is a star of a cold and rigid nature, while

the orbit of Jupiter is much lower, and is carried round in twelve

years[146]. The next star, Mars, which some persons call Hercules[147],

is of a fiery and burning nature, and from its nearness to the sun is

carried round in little less than two years[148]. In consequence of the

excessive heat of this star and the rigidity of Saturn, Jupiter, which

is interposed between the two, is tempered by both of them, and is thus

rendered salutary. The path of the Sun consists of 360 degrees; but, in

order that the shadow may return to the same point of the dial[149],

we are obliged to add, in each year, five days and the fourth part

of a day. On this account an intercalary day is given to every fifth

year[150], that the period of the seasons may agree with that of the

Sun.

Below the Sun[151] revolves the great star called Venus, wandering

with an alternate motion[152], and, even in its surnames, rivalling

the Sun and the Moon. For when it precedes the day and rises in the

morning, it receives the name of Lucifer, as if it were another sun,

hastening on the day. On the contrary, when it shines in the west, it

is named Vesper, as prolonging the light, and performing the office

of the moon. Pythagoras, the Samian, was the first who discovered

its nature[153], about the 62nd olympiad, in the 222nd year of the

City[154]. It excels all the other stars in size, and its brilliancy

is so considerable, that it is the only star which produces a shadow

by its rays. There has, consequently, been great interest made for its

name; some have called it the star of Juno[155], others of Isis, and

others of the Mother of the Gods. By its influence everything in the

earth is generated. For, as it rises in either direction, it sprinkles

everything with its genial dew, and not only matures the productions

of the earth, but stimulates all living things[156]. It completes the

circuit of the zodiac in 348 days, never receding from the sun more

than 46 degrees, according to Timæus[157].

Similarly circumstanced, but by no means equal in size and in power,

next to it, is the star Mercury, by some called Apollo[158]; it is

carried in a lower orbit, and moves in a course which is quicker by

nine days, shining sometimes before the rising of the sun, and at

other times after its setting, but never going farther from it than 23

degrees[159], as we learn from Timæus and Sosigenes[160]. The nature of

these two stars is peculiar, and is not the same with those mentioned

above, for those are seen to recede from the sun through one-third or

one-fourth part of the heavens, and are often seen opposite to it. They

have also other larger circuits, in which they make their complete

revolutions, as will be described in the account of the great year[161].

(9.) But the Moon[162], which is the last of the stars, and the one

the most connected with the earth, the remedy provided by nature for

darkness, excels all the others in its admirable qualities. By the

variety of appearances which it assumes, it puzzles the observers,

mortified that they should be the most ignorant concerning that star

which is the nearest to them. She is always either waxing or waning;

sometimes her disc is curved into horns, sometimes it is divided

into two equal portions, and at other times it is swelled out into

a full orb; sometimes she appears spotted[163] and suddenly becomes

very bright; she appears very large with her full orb and suddenly

becomes invisible; now continuing during all the night, now rising

late, and now aiding the light of the sun during a part of the day;

becoming eclipsed and yet being visible while she is eclipsed;

concealing herself at the end of the month and yet not supposed to

be eclipsed[164]. Sometimes she is low down, sometimes she is high

up, and that not according to one uniform course, being at one time

raised up to the heavens, at other times almost contiguous to the

mountains; now elevated in the north, now depressed in the south; all

which circumstances having been noticed by Endymion, a report was

spread about, that he was in love with the moon[165]. We are not indeed

sufficiently grateful to those, who, with so much labour and care,

have enlightened us with this light[166]; while, so diseased is the

human mind, that we take pleasure in writing the annals of blood and

slaughter, in order that the crimes of men may be made known to those

who are ignorant of the constitution of the world itself.

Being nearest to the axis[167], and therefore having the smallest

orbit, the Moon passes in twenty-seven days and the one-third part of a

day[168], through the same space for which Saturn, the highest of the

planets, as was stated above, requires thirty years. After remaining

for two days in conjunction with the sun, on the thirtieth day she

again very slowly emerges to pursue her accustomed course[169]. I

know not whether she ought not to be considered as our instructress

in everything that can be known respecting the heavens; as that the

year is divided into the twelve divisions of the months, since she

follows the sun for the same number of times, until he returns to the

commencement of his course; and that her brightness, as well as that

of the other stars, is regulated by that of the sun, if indeed they

all of them shine by light borrowed from him, such as we see floating

about, when it is reflected from the surface of water. On this account

it is that she dissolves so much moisture, by a gentle and less

perfect force, and adds to the quantity of that which the rays of the

sun consume[170]. On this account she appears with an unequal light,

because being full only when she is in opposition, on all the remaining

days she shows only so much of herself to the earth as she receives

light from the sun[171]. She is not seen in conjunction, because, at

that time, she sends back the whole stream of light to the source

whence she has derived it. That the stars generally are nourished by

the terrestrial moisture is evident, because, when the moon is only

half visible she is sometimes seen spotted, her power of absorbing

moisture not having been powerful enough; for the spots are nothing

else than the dregs of the earth drawn up along with the moisture[172].

(10.) But her eclipses and those of the sun, the most wonderful of

all the phenomena of nature, and which are like prodigies, serve to

indicate the magnitude of these bodies and the shadow[173] which they

cast.

CHAP. 7.—OF THE ECLIPSES OF THE MOON AND THE SUN.

For it is evident that the sun is hid by the intervention[174] of the

moon, and the moon by the opposition[174] of the earth, and that these

changes are mutual, the moon, by her interposition[174], taking the

rays of the sun from the earth, and the earth from the moon. As she

advances darkness is suddenly produced, and again the sun is obscured

by her shade; for night is nothing more than the shade of the earth.

The figure of this shade is like that of a pyramid or an inverted

top[175]; and the moon enters it only near its point, and it does

not exceed the height of the moon, for there is no other star which

is obscured in the same manner, while a figure of this kind always

terminates in a point. The flight of birds, when very lofty, shows that

shadows do not extend beyond a certain distance; their limit appears to

be the termination of the air and the commencement of the æther. Above

the moon everything is pure and full of an eternal light. The stars are

visible to us in the night, in the same way that other luminous bodies

are seen in the dark. It is from these causes that the moon is eclipsed

during the night[176]. The two kinds of eclipses are not, however, at

the stated monthly periods, on account of the obliquity of the zodiac,

and the irregularly wandering course of the moon, as stated above;

besides that the motions of these stars do not always occur exactly at

the same points[177].

CHAP. 8. (11.)—OF THE MAGNITUDE OF THE STARS.

This kind of reasoning carries the human mind to the heavens, and by

contemplating the world as it were from thence, it discloses to us the

magnitude of the three greatest bodies in nature[178]. For the sun

could not be entirely concealed from the earth, by the intervention of

the moon, if the earth were greater than the moon[179]. And the vast

size of the third body, the sun, is manifest from that of the other

two, so that it is not necessary to scrutinize its size, by arguing

from its visible appearance, or from any conjectures of the mind; it

must be immense, because the shadows of rows of trees, extending for

any number of miles, are disposed in right lines[180], as if the sun

were in the middle of space. Also, because, at the equinox, he is

vertical to all the inhabitants of the southern districts at the same

time[181]; also, because the shadows of all the people who live on this

side of the tropic fall, at noon, towards the north, and, at sunrise,

point to the west. But this could not be the case unless the sun were

much greater than the earth; nor, unless it much exceeded Mount Ida in

breadth, could he be seen when he rises, passing considerably beyond

it to the right and to the left, especially, considering that it is

separated by so great an interval[182].

The eclipse of the moon affords an undoubted argument of the sun’s

magnitude, as it also does of the small size of the earth[183]. For

there are shadows of three figures, and it is evident, that if the body

which produces the shadow be equal to the light, then it will be thrown

off in the form of a pillar, and have no termination. If the body be

greater than the light, the shadow will be in the form of an inverted

cone[184] the bottom being the narrowest part, and being, at the same

time, of an infinite length. If the body be less than the light, then

we shall have the figure of a pyramid[185], terminating in a point. Now

of this last kind is the shadow which produces the eclipse of the moon,

and this is so manifest that there can be no doubt remaining, that the

earth is exceeded in magnitude by the sun, a circumstance which is

indeed indicated by the silent declaration of nature herself. For why

does he recede from us at the winter half of the year[186]? That by

the darkness of the nights the earth may be refreshed, which otherwise

would be burned up, as indeed it is in certain parts; so great is his

size.

CHAP. 9. (12.)—AN ACCOUNT OF THE OBSERVATIONS THAT HAVE BEEN MADE ON

THE HEAVENS BY DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS.

The first among the Romans, who explained to the people at large the

cause of the two kinds of eclipses, was Sulpicius Gallus, who was

consul along with Marcellus; and when he was only a military tribune

he relieved the army from great anxiety the day before king Perseus

was conquered by Paulus[187]; for he was brought by the general into

a public assembly, in order to predict the eclipse, of which he

afterwards gave an account in a separate treatise. Among the Greeks,

Thales the Milesian first investigated the subject, in the fourth

year of the forty-eighth olympiad, predicting the eclipse of the sun

which took place in the reign of Alyattes, in the 170th year of the

City[188]. After them Hipparchus calculated the course of both these

stars for the term of 600 years[189], including the months, days, and

hours, the situation of the different places and the aspects adapted

to each of them; all this has been confirmed by experience, and could

only be acquired by partaking, as it were, in the councils of nature.

These were indeed great men, superior to ordinary mortals, who having

discovered the laws of these divine bodies, relieved the miserable

mind of man from the fear which he had of eclipses, as foretelling

some dreadful events or the destruction of the stars. This alarm is

freely acknowledged in the sublime strains of Stesichorus and Pindar,

as being produced by an eclipse of the sun[190]. And with respect to

the eclipse of the moon, mortals impute it to witchcraft, and therefore

endeavour to aid her by producing discordant sounds. In consequence of

this kind of terror it was that Nicias, the general of the Athenians,

being ignorant of the cause, was afraid to lead out the fleet, and

brought great distress on his troops[191]. Hail to your genius, ye

interpreters of heaven! ye who comprehend the nature of things, and who

have discovered a mode of reasoning by which ye have conquered both

gods and men[192]! For who is there, in observing these things and

seeing the labours[193] which the stars are compelled to undergo (since

we have chosen to apply this term to them), that would not cheerfully

submit to his fate, as one born to die? I shall now, in a brief and

summary manner, touch on those points in which we are agreed, giving

the reasons where it is necessary to do so; for this is not a work of

profound argument, nor is it less wonderful to be able to suggest a

probable cause for everything, than to give a complete account of a few

of them only.

CHAP. 10. (13.)—ON THE RECURRENCE OF THE ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND THE

MOON.

It is ascertained that the eclipses complete their whole revolution

in the space of 223 months[194], that the eclipse of the sun takes

place only at the conclusion or the commencement of a lunation, which

is termed conjunction[195], while an eclipse of the moon takes place

only when she is at the full, and is always a little farther advanced

than the preceding eclipse[196]. Now there are eclipses of both these

stars in every year, which take place below the earth, at stated days

and hours; and when they are above it[197] they are not always visible,

sometimes on account of the clouds, but more frequently, from the

globe of the earth being opposed to the vault of the heavens[198]. It

was discovered two hundred years ago, by the sagacity of Hipparchus,

that the moon is sometimes eclipsed after an interval of five months,

and the sun after an interval of seven[199]; also, that he becomes

invisible, while above the horizon, twice in every thirty days, but

that this is seen in different places at different times. But the most

wonderful circumstance is, that while it is admitted that the moon is

darkened by the shadow of the earth, this occurs at one time on its

western, and at another time on its eastern side. And farther, that

although, after the rising of the sun, that darkening shadow ought

to be below the earth, yet it has once happened, that the moon has

been eclipsed in the west, while both the luminaries have been above

the horizon[200]. And as to their both being invisible in the space

of fifteen days, this very thing happened while the Vespasians were

emperors, the father being consul for the third time, and the son for

the second[201].

CHAP. 11. (14.)—OF THE MOTION OF THE MOON.

It is certain that the moon, having her horns always turned from the

sun, when she is waxing, looks towards the east; when she is waning,

towards the west. Also, that, from the second day after the change,

she adds 47-1/2 minutes[202] each day, until she is full, and again

decreases at the same rate, and that she always becomes invisible when

she is within 14 degrees of the sun. This is an argument of the greater

size of the planets than of the moon, since these emerge when they

are at the distance of 7 degrees only[203]. But their altitude causes

them to appear much smaller, as we observe that, during the day, the

brightness of the sun prevents those bodies from being seen which are

fixed in the firmament, although they shine then as well as in the

night: that this is the case is proved by eclipses, and by descending

into very deep wells.

CHAP. 12. (15.)—OF THE MOTIONS OF THE PLANETS AND THE GENERAL LAWS OF

THEIR ASPECTS[204].

The three planets, which, as we have said, are situated above the

sun[205], are visible when they come into conjunction with him.

They rise visibly[206] in the morning, when they are not more than

11 degrees from the sun[207]; they are afterwards directed by the

contact of his rays[208], and when they attain the trine aspect,

at the distance of 120 degrees, they take their morning stationary

positions[209], which are termed primary; afterwards, when they are

in opposition to the sun, they rise at the distance of 180 degrees

from him. And again advancing on the other side to the 120th degree,

they attain their evening stations, which are termed secondary, until

the sun having arrived within 12 degrees of them, what is called their

evening setting becomes no longer visible[210]. Mars, as being nearer

to the sun, feels the influence of his rays in the quadrature, at the

distance of 90 degrees, whence that motion receives its name, being

termed, from the two risings, respectively the first and the second

nonagenarian[211]. This planet passes from one station to another in

six months, or is two months in each sign; the two other planets do not

spend more than four months in passing from station to station.

The two inferior planets are, in like manner, concealed in their

evening conjunction, and, when they have left the sun, they rise in

the morning the same number of degrees distant from him. After having

arrived at their point of greatest elongation[212], they then follow

the sun, and having overtaken him at their morning setting, they

become invisible and pass beyond him. They then rise in the evening,

at the distances which were mentioned above. After this they return

back to the sun and are concealed in their evening setting. The star

Venus becomes stationary when at its two points of greatest elongation,

that of the morning and of the evening, according to their respective

risings. The stationary points of Mercury are so very brief, that they

cannot be correctly observed.

CHAP. 13.—WHY THE SAME STARS APPEAR AT SOME TIMES MORE LOFTY AND AT

OTHER TIMES MORE NEAR.

The above is an account of the aspects and the occultations of the

planets, a subject which is rendered very complicated by their motions,

and is involved in much that is wonderful; especially, when we observe

that they change their size and colour, and that the same stars at

one time approach the north, and then go to the south, and are now

seen near the earth, and then suddenly approach the heavens. If on

this subject I deliver opinions different from my predecessors, I

acknowledge that I am indebted for them to those individuals who first

pointed out to us the proper mode of inquiry; let no one then ever

despair of benefiting future ages.

But these things depend upon many different causes. The first cause is

the nature of the circles described by the stars, which the Greeks term

_apsides_[213], for we are obliged to use Greek terms. Now each of the

planets has its own circle, and this a different one from that of the

world[214]; because the earth is placed in the centre of the heavens,

with respect to the two extremities, which are called the poles, and

also in that of the zodiac, which is situated obliquely between them.

And all these things are made evident by the infallible results which

we obtain by the use of the compasses[215]. Hence the apsides of the

planets have each of them different centres, and consequently they have

different orbits and motions, since it necessarily follows, that the

interior apsides are the shortest.

(16.) The apsides which are the highest from the centre of the earth

are, for Saturn, when he is in Scorpio, for Jupiter in Virgo, for

Mars in Leo, for the Sun in Gemini, for Venus in Sagittarius, and for

Mercury in Capricorn, each of them in the middle of these signs; while

in the opposite signs, they are the lowest and nearest to the centre

of the earth[216]. Hence it is that they appear to move more slowly

when they are carried along the highest circuit; not that their actual

motions are accelerated or retarded, these being fixed and determinate

for each of them; but because it necessarily follows, that lines drawn

from the highest apsis must approach nearer to each other at the

centre, like the spokes of a wheel; and that the same motion seems to

be at one time greater, and at another time less, according to the

distance from the centre.

Another cause of the altitudes of the planets is, that their highest

apsides, with relation to their own centres, are in different signs

from those mentioned above[217]. Saturn is in the 20th degree of Libra,

Jupiter in the 15th of Cancer, Mars in the 28th of Capricorn, the Sun

in the 19th of Aries, Venus in the 27th of Pisces, Mercury in the 15th

of Virgo, and the Moon in the 3rd of Taurus.

The third cause of the altitude depends on the form of the heavens,

not on that of the orbits; the stars appearing to the eye to mount

up and to descend through the depth of the air[218]. With this cause

is connected that which depends on the latitude of the planets and

the obliquity of the zodiac. It is through this belt that the stars

which I have spoken of are carried, nor is there any part of the world

habitable, except what lies under it[219]; the remainder, which is at

the poles, being in a wild desert state. The planet Venus alone exceeds

it by 2 degrees, which we may suppose to be the cause why some animals

are produced even in these desert regions of the earth. The moon also

wanders the whole breadth of the zodiac, but never exceeds it. Next

to these the planet Mercury moves through the greatest space; yet out

of the 12 degrees (for there are so many degrees of latitude in the

zodiac[220]), it does not pass through more than 8, nor does it go

equally through these, 2 of them being in the middle of the zodiac, 4

in the upper part, and 2 in the lower part[221]. Next to these the Sun

is carried through the middle of the zodiac, winding unequally through

the two parts of his tortuous circuit[222]. The star Mars occupies the

four middle degrees; Jupiter the middle degree and the two above it;

Saturn, like the sun, occupies two[223]. The above is an account of

the latitudes as they descend to the south or ascend to the north[224].

Hence it is plain that the generality of persons are mistaken in

supposing the third cause of the apparent altitude to depend on the

stars rising from the earth and climbing up the heavens. But to refute

this opinion it is necessary to consider the subject with very great

minuteness, and to embrace all the causes.

It is generally admitted, that the stars[225], at the time of their

evening setting, are nearest to the earth, both with respect to

latitude and altitude[226], that they are at the commencement of both

at their morning risings, and that they become stationary at the middle

points of their latitudes, what are called the ecliptics[227]. It is,

moreover, acknowledged, that their motion is increased when they are

in the vicinity of the earth, and diminished when they are removed to

a greater altitude[228]; a point which is most clearly proved by the

different altitudes of the moon. There is no doubt that it is also

increased at the morning risings[229], and that the three superior

planets are retarded, as they advance from the first station to the

second. And since this is the case, it is evident, that the latitudes

are increased from the time of their morning risings, since the motions

afterwards appear to receive less addition; but they gain their

altitude in the first station, since the rate of their motion then

begins to diminish[230], and the stars to recede.

And the reason of this must be particularly set forth. When the planets

are struck by the rays of the sun, in the situation which I have

described, _i. e._ in their quadrature, they are prevented from holding

on their straight forward course, and are raised on high by the force

of the fire[231]. This cannot be immediately perceived by the eye, and

therefore they seem to be stationary, and hence the term station is

derived. Afterwards the violence of the rays increases, and the vapour

being beaten back forces them to recede.

This exists in a greater degree in their evening risings, the sun being

then turned entirely from them, when they are drawn into the highest

apsides; and they are then the least visible, since they are at their

greatest altitude and are carried along with the least motion, as much

less indeed as this takes place in the highest signs of the apsides. At

the time of the evening rising the latitude decreases and becomes less

as the motion is diminished, and it does not increase again until they

arrive at the second station, when the altitude is also diminished;

the sun’s rays then coming from the other side, the same force now

therefore propels them towards the earth which before raised them into

the heavens, from their former triangular aspect[232]. So different is

the effect whether the rays strike the planets from below or come to

them from above. And all these circumstances produce much more effect

when they occur in the evening setting. This is the doctrine of the

superior planets; that of the others is more difficult, and has never

been laid down by any one before me[233].

CHAP. 14. (17.)—WHY THE SAME STARS HAVE DIFFERENT MOTIONS.

I must first state the cause, why the star Venus never recedes from the

sun more than 46 degrees, nor Mercury more than 23[234], while they

frequently return to the sun within this distance[235]. As they are

situated below the sun, they have both of them their apsides turned in

the contrary direction; their orbits are as much below the earth as

those of the stars above mentioned are above it, and therefore they

cannot recede any farther, since the curve of their apsides has no

greater longitude[236]. The extreme parts of their apsides therefore

assign the limits to each of them in the same manner, and compensate,

as it were, for the small extent of their longitudes, by the great

divergence of their latitudes[237]. It may be asked, why do they not

always proceed as far as the 46th and the 23rd degrees respectively?

They in reality do so, but the theory fails us here. For it would

appear that the apsides are themselves moved, as they never pass over

the sun[238]. When therefore they have arrived at the extremities

of their orbits on either side, the stars are then supposed to have

proceeded to their greatest distance; when they have been a certain

number of degrees within their orbits, they are then supposed to return

more rapidly, since the extreme point in each is the same. And on this

account it is that the direction of their motion appears to be changed.

For the superior planets are carried along the most quickly in their

evening setting, while these move the most slowly; the former are at

their greatest distance from the earth when they move the most slowly,

the latter when they move the most quickly. The former are accelerated

when nearest to the earth, the latter when at the extremity of the

circle; in the former the rapidity of the motion begins to diminish at

their morning risings, in the latter it begins to increase; the former

are retrograde from their morning to their evening station, while Venus

is retrograde from the evening to the morning station. She begins to

increase her latitude from her morning rising, her altitude follows the

sun from her morning station, her motion being the quickest and her

altitude the greatest in her morning setting. Her latitude decreases

and her altitude diminishes from her evening rising, she becomes

retrograde, and at the same time decreases in her altitude from her

evening station.

Again, the star Mercury, in the same way, mounts up in both

directions[239] from his morning rising, and having followed the

sun through a space of 15 degrees, he becomes almost stationary for

four days. Presently he diminishes his altitude, and recedes from

his evening setting to his morning rising. Mercury and the Moon are

the only planets which descend for the same number of days that they

ascend. Venus ascends for fifteen days and somewhat more; Saturn and

Jupiter descend in twice that number of days, and Mars in four times.

So great is the variety of nature! The reason of it is, however,

evident; for those planets which are forced up by the vapour of the sun

likewise descend with difficulty.

CHAP. 15.—GENERAL LAWS[240] OF THE PLANETS.

There are many other secrets of nature in these points, as well as the

laws to which they are subject, which might be mentioned. For example,

the planet Mars, whose course is the most difficult to observe[241],

never becomes stationary when Jupiter is in the trine aspect, very

rarely when he is 60 degrees from the sun, which number is one-sixth of

the circuit of the heavens[242]; nor does he ever rise in the same sign

with Jupiter, except in Cancer and Leo. The star Mercury seldom has

his evening risings in Pisces, but very frequently in Virgo, and his

morning risings in Libra; he has also his morning rising in Aquarius,

very rarely in Leo. He never becomes retrograde either in Taurus or

in Gemini, nor until the 25th degree of Cancer. The Moon makes her

double conjunction with the sun in no other sign except Gemini, while

Sagittarius is the only sign in which she has sometimes no conjunction

at all. The old and the new moon are visible on the same day or night

in no other sign except Aries, and indeed it has happened very seldom

to any one to have witnessed it. Prom this circumstance it was that the

tale of Lynceus’s quick-sightedness originated[243]. Saturn and Mars

are invisible at most for 170 days; Jupiter for 36, or, at the least,

for 10 days less than this; Venus for 69, or, at the least, for 52;

Mercury for 13, or, at the most, for 18[244].

CHAP. 16. (18.)—THE REASON WHY THE STARS ARE OF DIFFERENT COLOURS.

The difference of their colour depends on the difference in their

altitudes; for they acquire a resemblance to those planets into the

vapour of which they are carried, the orbit of each tinging those

that approach it in each direction. A colder planet renders one that

approaches it paler, one more hot renders it redder, a windy planet

gives it a lowering aspect, while the sun, at the union of their

apsides, or the extremity of their orbits, completely obscures them.

Each of the planets has its peculiar colour[245]; Saturn is white,

Jupiter brilliant, Mars fiery, Lucifer is glowing, Vesper refulgent,

Mercury sparkling, the Moon mild; the Sun, when he rises, is blazing,

afterwards he becomes radiating. The appearance of the stars, which

are fixed in the firmament, is also affected by these causes. At one

time we see a dense cluster of stars around the moon, when she is only

half-enlightened, and when they are viewed in a serene evening; while,

at another time, when the moon is full, there are so few to be seen,

that we wonder whither they are fled; and this is also the case when

the rays of the sun, or of any of the above-mentioned bodies[246], have

dazzled our sight. And, indeed, the moon herself is, without doubt,

differently affected at different times by the rays of the sun; when

she is entering them, the convexity of the heavens[247] rendering them

more feeble than when they fall upon her more directly[248]. Hence,

when she is at a right angle to the sun, she is half-enlightened; when

in the trine aspect, she presents an imperfect orb[249], while, in

opposition, she is full. Again, when she is waning, she goes through

the same gradations, and in the same order, as the three stars that are

superior to the sun[250].

CHAP. 17. (19.)—OF THE MOTION OF THE SUN AND THE CAUSE OF THE

IRREGULARITY OF THE DAYS.

The Sun himself is in four different states; twice the night is equal

to the day, in the Spring and in the Autumn, when he is opposed to the

centre of the earth[251], in the 8th degree of Aries and Libra[252].

The length of the day and the night is then twice changed, when the

day increases in length, from the winter solstice in the 8th degree of

Capricorn, and afterwards, when the night increases in length from the

summer solstice in the 8th degree of Cancer[253]. The cause of this

inequality is the obliquity of the zodiac, since there is, at every

moment of time, an equal portion of the firmament above and below the

horizon. But the signs which mount directly upwards, when they rise,

retain the light for a longer space, while those that are more oblique

pass along more quickly.

CHAP. 18. (20.)—WHY THUNDER IS ASCRIBED TO JUPITER.

It is not generally known, what has been discovered by men who are the

most eminent for their learning, in consequence of their assiduous

observations of the heavens, that the fires which fall upon the earth,

and receive the name of thunder-bolts, proceed from the three superior

stars[254], but principally from the one which is situated in the

middle. It may perhaps depend on the superabundance of moisture from

the superior orbit communicating with the heat from the inferior, which

are expelled in this manner[255]; and hence it is commonly said, the

thunder-bolts are darted by Jupiter. And as, in burning wood, the burnt

part is cast off with a crackling noise, so does the star throw off

this celestial fire, bearing the omens of future events, even the part

which is thrown off not losing its divine operation. And this takes

place more particularly when the air is in an unsettled state, either

because the moisture which is then collected excites the greatest

quantity of fire, or because the air is disturbed, as if by the

parturition of the pregnant star.

CHAP. 19. (21.)—OF THE DISTANCES OF THE STARS.

Many persons have attempted to discover the distance of the stars

from the earth, and they have published as the result, that the

sun is nineteen times as far from the moon, as the moon herself is

from the earth[256]. Pythagoras, who was a man of a very sagacious

mind, computed the distance from the earth to the moon to be 126,000

furlongs, that from her to the sun is double this distance, and that

it is three times this distance to the twelve signs[257]; and this was

also the opinion of our countryman, Gallus Sulpicius[258].

CHAP. 20. (22.)—OF THE HARMONY OF THE STARS.

Pythagoras, employing the terms that are used in music, sometimes names

the distance between the Earth and the Moon a tone; from her to Mercury

he supposes to be half this space, and about the same from him to

Venus. From her to the Sun is a tone and a half; from the Sun to Mars

is a tone, the same as from the Earth to the Moon; from him there is

half a tone to Jupiter, from Jupiter to Saturn also half a tone, and

thence a tone and a half to the zodiac. Hence there are seven tones,

which he terms the diapason harmony[259], meaning the whole compass

of the notes. In this, Saturn is said to move in the Doric time,

Jupiter in the Phrygian[260], and so forth of the rest; but this is a

refinement rather amusing than useful.

CHAP. 21. (23.)—OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE WORLD.

The stadium is equal to 125 of our Roman paces, or 625 feet[261].

Posidonius[262] supposes that there is a space of not less than 40

stadia around the earth, whence mists[263], winds and clouds[263]

proceed; beyond this he supposes that the air is pure and liquid,

consisting of uninterrupted light; from the clouded region to the

moon there is a space of 2,000,000 of stadia, and thence to the sun

of 500,000,000[264]. It is in consequence of this space that the sun,

notwithstanding his immense magnitude, does not burn the earth. Many

persons have imagined that the clouds rise to the height of 900 stadia.

These points are not completely made out, and are difficult to explain;

but we have given the best account of them that has been published, and

if we may be allowed, in any degree, to pursue these investigations,

there is one infallible geometrical principle, which we cannot reject.

Not that we can ascertain the exact dimensions (for to profess to do

this would be almost the act of a madman), but that the mind may have

some estimate to direct its conjectures. Now it is evident that the

orbit through which the sun passes consists of nearly 366 degrees,

and that the diameter is always the third part and a little less than

the seventh of the circumference[265]. Then taking the half of this

(for the earth is placed in the centre) it will follow, that nearly

one-sixth part of the immense space, which the mind conceives as

constituting the orbit of the sun round the earth, will compose his

altitude. That of the moon will be one-twelfth part, since her course

is so much shorter than that of the sun; she is therefore carried

along midway between the sun and the earth[266]. It is astonishing to

what an extent the weakness of the mind will proceed, urged on by a

little success, as in the above-mentioned instance, to give full scope

to its impudence! Thus, having ventured to guess at the space between

the sun and the earth, we do the same with respect to the heavens,

because he is situated midway between them; so that we may come to know

the measure of the whole world in inches. For if the diameter consist

of seven parts, there will be twenty-two of the same parts in the

circumference; as if we could measure the heavens by a plumb-line!

The Egyptian calculation, which was made out by Petosiris and

Necepsos, supposes that each degree of the lunar orbit (which, as

I have said, is the least) consists of little more than 33 stadia;

in the very large orbit of Saturn the number is double; in that of

the sun, which, as we have said, is in the middle[267], we have

the half of the sum of these numbers. And this is indeed a very

modest calculation[268], since if we add to the orbit of Saturn the

distance from him to the zodiac, we shall have an infinite number of

degrees[269].

CHAP. 22. (24.)—OF THE STARS WHICH APPEAR SUDDENLY, OR OF COMETS[270].

A few things still remain to be said concerning the world; for stars

are suddenly formed in the heavens themselves; of these there are

various kinds.

(25.) The Greeks name these stars _comets_[271]; we name them Crinitæ,

as if shaggy with bloody locks, and surrounded with bristles like hair.

Those stars, which have a mane hanging down from their lower part, like

a long beard, are named Pogoniæ[272]. Those that are named Acontiæ[273]

vibrate like a dart with a very quick motion. It was one of this kind

which the Emperor Titus described in his very excellent poem, as having

been seen in his fifth consulship; and this was the last of these

bodies which has been observed. When they are short and pointed they

are named Xiphiæ[274]; these are the pale kind; they shine like a

sword and are without any rays; while we name those Discei[275], which,

being of an amber colour, in conformity with their name, emit a few

rays from their margin only. A kind named Pitheus[276] exhibits the

figure of a cask, appearing convex and emitting a smoky light. The kind

named Cerastias[277] has the appearance of a horn; it is like the one

which was visible when the Greeks fought at Salamis. Lampadias[278]

is like a burning torch; Hippias[279] is like a horse’s mane; it has

a very rapid motion, like a circle revolving on itself. There is also

a white comet, with silver hair, so brilliant that it can scarcely be

looked at, exhibiting, as it were, the aspect of the Deity in a human

form. There are some also that are shaggy, having the appearance of

a fleece, surrounded by a kind of crown. There was one, where the

appearance of a mane was changed into that of a spear; it happened in

the 109th olympiad, in the 398th year of the City[280]. The shortest

time during which any one of them has been observed to be visible is 7

days, the longest 180 days.

CHAP. 23.—THEIR NATURE, SITUATION, AND SPECIES.

Some of them move about in the manner of planets[281], others remain

stationary. They are almost all of them seen towards the north[282],

not indeed in any particular portion of it, but generally in that

white part of it which has obtained the name of the Milky Way.

Aristotle informs us that several of them are to be seen at the same

time[283], but this, as far as I know, has not been observed by any

one else; also that they prognosticate high winds and great heat[284].

They are also visible in the winter months, and about the south pole,

but they have no rays proceeding from them. There was a dreadful one

observed by the Æthiopians and the Egyptians, to which Typhon, a king

of that period, gave his own name; it had a fiery appearance, and

was twisted like a spiral; its aspect was hideous, nor was it like a

star, but rather like a knot of fire[285]. Sometimes there are hairs

attached to the planets and the other stars. Comets are never seen

in the western part of the heavens. It is generally regarded as a

terrific star, and one not easily expiated; as was the case with the

civil commotions in the consulship of Octavius, and also in the war

of Pompey and Cæsar[286]. And in our own age, about the time when

Claudius Cæsar was poisoned and left the Empire to Domitius Nero, and

afterwards, while the latter was Emperor[287], there was one which was

almost constantly seen and was very frightful. It is thought important

to notice towards what part it darts its beams, or from what star

it receives its influence, what it resembles, and in what places it

shines. If it resembles a flute, it portends something unfavourable

respecting music; if it appears in the parts of the signs referred to

the secret members, something respecting lewdness of manners; something

respecting wit and learning, if they form a triangular or quadrangular

figure with the position of some of the fixed stars; and that some one

will be poisoned, if they appear in the head of either the northern or

the southern serpent.

Rome is the only place in the whole world where there is a temple

dedicated to a comet; it was thought by the late Emperor Augustus to

be auspicious to him, from its appearing during the games which he

was celebrating in honour of Venus Genetrix, not long after the death

of his father Cæsar, in the College which was founded by him[288].

He expressed his joy in these terms: “During the very time of these

games of mine, a hairy star was seen during seven days, in the part of

the heavens which is under the Great Bear. It rose about the eleventh

hour of the day[289], was very bright, and was conspicuous in all

parts of the earth. The common people supposed the star to indicate,

that the soul of Cæsar was admitted among the immortal Gods; under

which designation it was that the star was placed on the bust which

was lately consecrated in the forum[290].” This is what he proclaimed

in public, but, in secret, he rejoiced at this auspicious omen,

interpreting it as produced for himself; and, to confess the truth, it

really proved a salutary omen for the world at large[291].

Some persons suppose that these stars are permanent, and that they

move through their proper orbits, but that they are only visible when

they recede from the sun. Others suppose that they are produced by an

accidental vapour together with the force of fire, and that, from this

circumstance, they are liable to be dissipated[292].

CHAP. 24. (26.)—THE DOCTRINE OF HIPPARCHUS[293] ABOUT THE STARS.

This same Hipparchus, who can never be sufficiently commended, as one

who more especially proved the relation of the stars to man, and that

our souls are a portion of heaven, discovered a new star that was

produced in his own age, and, by observing its motions on the day in

which it shone, he was led to doubt whether it does not often happen,

that those stars have motion which we suppose to be fixed. And the same

individual attempted, what might seem presumptuous even in a deity,

viz. to number the stars for posterity and to express their relations

by appropriate names; having previously devised instruments[294], by

which he might mark the places and the magnitudes of each individual

star. In this way it might be easily discovered, not only whether they

were destroyed or produced, but whether they changed their relative

positions, and likewise, whether they were increased or diminished;

the heavens being thus left as an inheritance to any one, who might be

found competent to complete his plan.

CHAP. 25.—EXAMPLES FROM HISTORY OF CELESTIAL PRODIGIES; _FACES_,

_LAMPADES_, AND _BOLIDES_[295].

The _faces_ shine brilliantly, but they are never seen excepting when

they are falling[296]; one of these darted across the heavens, in

the sight of all the people, at noon-day, when Germanicus Cæsar was

exhibiting a show of gladiators[297]. There are two kinds of them;

those which are called _lampades_ and those which are called _bolides_,

one of which latter was seen during the troubles at Mutina[298]. They

differ from each other in this respect, that the _faces_ produce a long

train of light, the fore-part only being on fire; while the _bolides_,

being entirely in a state of combustion, leave a still longer track

behind them.

CHAP. 26.—_TRABES CELESTES_; _CHASMA CŒLI._

The _trabes_ also, which are named δοκοὶ[299], shine in the same

manner; one of these was seen at the time when the Lacedæmonians, by

being conquered at sea, lost their influence in Greece. An opening

sometimes takes place in the firmament, which is named _chasma_[300].

CHAP. 27. (27.)—OF THE COLOURS OF THE SKY AND OF CELESTIAL FLAME.

There is a flame of a bloody appearance (and nothing is more dreaded

by mortals) which falls down upon the earth[301], such as was seen in

the third year of the 103rd olympiad, when King Philip was disturbing

Greece. But my opinion is, that these, like everything else, occur at

stated, natural periods, and are not produced, as some persons imagine,

from a variety of causes, such as their fine genius may suggest. They

have indeed been the precursors of great evils, but I conceive that

the evils occurred, not because the prodigies took place, but that

these took place because the evils were appointed to occur at that

period[302]. Their cause is obscure in consequence of their rarity, and

therefore we are not as well acquainted with them as we are with the

rising of the stars, which I have mentioned, and with eclipses and many

other things.

CHAP. 28. (28.)—OF CELESTIAL CORONÆ.

Stars are occasionally seen along with the sun, for whole days

together, and generally round its orb, like wreaths made of the ears

of corn, or circles of various colours[303]; such as occurred when

Augustus, while a very young man, was entering the city, after the

death of his father, in order to take upon himself the great name which

he assumed[304]. (29.) The same _coronæ_ occur about the moon and also

about the principal stars, which are stationary in the heavens.

CHAP. 29.—OF SUDDEN CIRCLES.

A bow appeared round the sun in the consulship of L. Opimius and L.

Fabius[305], and a circle in that of C. Porcius and M. Acilius. (30.)

There was a little circle of a red colour in the consulship of L.

Julius and P. Rutilius.

CHAP. 30.—OF UNUSUALLY LONG ECLIPSES OF THE SUN.

Eclipses of the sun also take place which are portentous and unusually

long, such as occurred when Cæsar the Dictator was slain, and in the

war against Antony, the sun remained dim for almost a whole year[306].

CHAP. 31. (31.)—MANY SUNS.

And again, many suns have been seen at the same time[307]; not above

or below the real sun, but in an oblique direction, never near nor

opposite to the earth, nor in the night, but either in the east or

in the west. They are said to have been seen once at noon in the

Bosphorus, and to have continued from morning until sunset. Our

ancestors have frequently seen three suns at the same time[308], as

was the case in the consulship of Sp. Postumius and L. Mucius, of L.

Marcius and M. Portius, that of M. Antony and Dolabella, and that of M.

Lepidus and L. Plancus. And we have ourselves seen one during the reign

of the late Emperor Claudius, when he was consul along with Corn.

Orfitus. We have no account transmitted to us of more than three having

been seen at the same time.

CHAP. 32. (32.)—MANY MOONS.

Three moons have also been seen, as was the case in the consulship of

Cn. Domitius and C. Fannius; they have generally been named nocturnal

suns[309].

CHAP. 33. (33.)—DAYLIGHT IN THE NIGHT.

A bright light has been seen proceeding from the heavens in the

night time, as was the case in the consulship of C. Cæcilius and Cn.

Papirius, and at many other times, so that there has been a kind of

daylight in the night[310].

CHAP. 34. (34.)—BURNING SHIELDS[311].

A burning shield darted across at sunset, from west to east, throwing

out sparks, in the consulship of L. Valerius and C. Marius[312].

CHAP. 35. (35.)—AN OMINOUS APPEARANCE IN THE HEAVENS, THAT WAS SEEN

ONCE ONLY.

We have an account of a spark falling from a star, and increasing as it

approached the earth, until it became of the size of the moon, shining

as through a cloud[313]; it afterwards returned into the heavens and

was converted into a _lampas_; this occurred in the consulship of Cn.

Octavius and C. Scribonius. It was seen by Silanus, the proconsul, and

his attendants[314].

CHAP. 36. (36.)—OF STARS WHICH MOVE ABOUT IN VARIOUS DIRECTIONS.

Stars are seen to move about in various directions, but never without

some cause, nor without violent winds proceeding from the same

quarter[315].

CHAP. 37. (37.)—OF THE STARS WHICH ARE NAMED CASTOR AND POLLUX[316].

These stars occur both at sea and at land. I have seen, during the

night-watches of the soldiers, a luminous appearance, like a star,

attached to the javelins on the ramparts. They also settle on the

yard-arms and other parts of ships while sailing, producing a kind

of vocal sound, like that of birds flitting about. When they occur

singly they are mischievous, so as even to sink the vessels, and if

they strike on the lower part of the keel, setting them on fire[317].

When there are two of them they are considered auspicious, and are

thought to predict a prosperous voyage, as it is said that they drive

away that dreadful and terrific meteor named Helena. On this account

their efficacy is ascribed to Castor and Pollux, and they are invoked

as gods. They also occasionally shine round the heads of men in the

evening[318], which is considered as predicting something very

important. But there is great uncertainty respecting the cause of all

these things, and they are concealed in the majesty of nature.

CHAP. 38. (38.)—OF THE AIR AND ON THE CAUSE OF THE SHOWERS OF STONES.

So far I have spoken of the world itself and of the stars. I must now

give an account of the other remarkable phænomena of the heavens. For

our ancestors have given the name of heavens, or, sometimes, another

name, air, to all the seemingly void space, which diffuses around us

this vital spirit. It is situated beneath the moon, indeed much lower,

as is admitted by every one who has made observations on it, and is

composed of a great quantity of air from the upper regions, mixed with

a great quantity of terrestrial vapour, the two forming a compound.

Hence proceed clouds, thunder and lightning of all kinds; hence also

hail, frost, showers, storms and whirlwinds; hence proceed many of the

evils incident to mortals, and the mutual contests of the various parts

of nature. The force of the stars keeps down all terrestrial things

which tend towards the heavens, and the same force attracts to itself

those things which do not go there spontaneously. The showers fall,

mists rise up, rivers are dried up, hail-storms rush down, the rays of

the sun parch the earth, and impel it from all quarters towards the

centre. The same rays, still unbroken, dart back again, and carry with

them whatever they can take up. Vapour falls from on high and returns

again to the same place. Winds arise which contain nothing, but which

return loaded with spoils. The breathing of so many animals draws down

the spirit from the higher regions; but this tends to go in a contrary

direction, and the earth pours out its spirit into the void space of

the heavens. Thus nature moving to and fro, as if impelled by some

machine[319], discord is kindled by the rapid motion of the world.

Nor is the contest allowed to cease, for she is continually whirled

round and lays open the causes of all things, forming an immense globe

about the earth, while she again, from time to time, covers this

other firmament with clouds[320]. This is the region of the winds.

Here their nature principally originates, as well as the causes of

almost all other things[321]; since most persons ascribe the darting

of thunder and lightning to their violence. And to the same cause are

assigned the showers of stones, these having been previously taken up

by the wind, as well as many other bodies in the same way. On this

account we must enter more at large on this subject.

CHAP. 39. (39.)—OF THE STATED SEASONS.

It is obvious that there are causes of the seasons and of other things

which have been stated, while there are some things which are casual,

or of which the reason has not yet been discovered. For who can doubt

that summer and winter, and the annual revolution of the seasons are

caused by the motion of the stars[322]? As therefore the nature of

the sun is understood to influence the temperature of the year, so

each of the other stars has its specific power, which produces its

appropriate effects. Some abound in a fluid retaining its liquid state,

others, in the same fluid concreted into hoar frost, compressed into

snow, or frozen into hail; some are prolific in winds, some in heat,

some in vapours, some in dew, some in cold. But these bodies must not

be supposed to be actually of the size which they appear, since the

consideration of their immense height clearly proves, that none of them

are less than the moon. Each of them exercises its influence over us

by its own motions; this is particularly observable with respect to

Saturn, which produces a great quantity of rain in its transits. Nor is

this power confined to the stars which change their situations, but is

found to exist in many of the fixed stars, whenever they are impelled

by the force of any of the planets, or excited by the impulse of their

rays; as we find to be the case with respect to the Suculæ[323],

which the Greeks, in reference to their rainy nature, have termed the

Hyades[324]. There are also certain events which occur spontaneously,

and at stated periods, as the rising of the Kids[325]. The star

Arcturus scarcely ever rises without storms of hail occurring.

CHAP. 40. (40.)—OF THE RISING OF THE DOG-STAR.

Who is there that does not know that the vapour of the sun is kindled

by the rising of the Dog-star? The most powerful effects are felt on

the earth from this star. When it rises, the seas are troubled, the

wines in our cellars ferment, and stagnant waters are set in motion.

There is a wild beast, named by the Egyptians Oryx, which, when the

star rises, is said to stand opposite to it, to look steadfastly at it,

and then to sneeze, as if it were worshiping it[326]. There is no doubt

that dogs, during the whole of this period, are peculiarly disposed to

become rabid[327].

CHAP. 41. (41.)—OF THE REGULAR INFLUENCE OF THE DIFFERENT SEASONS.

There is moreover a peculiar influence in the different degrees of

certain signs, as in the autumnal equinox, and also in the winter

solstice, when we find that a particular star is connected with

the state of the weather[328]. It is not so much the recurrence of

showers and storms, as of various circumstances, which act both upon

animals and vegetables. Some are planet-struck[329], and others, at

stated times, are affected in the bowels, the sinews, the head, or

the intellect. The olive, the white poplar, and the willow turn

their leaves round at the summer solstice. The herb pulegium, when

dried and hanging up in a house, blossoms on the very day of the

winter solstice, and bladders burst in consequence of their being

distended with air[330]. One might wonder at this, did we not observe

every day, that the plant named heliotrope always looks towards the

setting sun, and is, at all hours, turned towards him, even when he

is obscured by clouds[331]. It is certain that the bodies of oysters

and of whelks[332], and of shell-fish generally, are increased in size

and again diminished by the influence of the moon. Certain accurate

observers have found out, that the entrails of the field-mouse[333]

correspond in number to the moon’s age, and that the very small animal,

the ant, feels the power of this luminary, always resting from her

labours at the change of the moon. And so much the more disgraceful

is our ignorance, as every one acknowledges that the diseases in the

eyes of certain beasts of burden increase and diminish according to the

age of the moon. But the immensity of the heavens, divided as they are

into seventy-two[334] constellations, may serve as an excuse. These are

the resemblances of certain things, animate and inanimate, into which

the learned have divided the heavens. In these they have announced

1600 stars, as being remarkable either for their effects or their

appearance; for example, in the tail of the Bull there are seven stars,

which are named Vergiliæ[335]; in his forehead are the Suculæ; there

is also Bootes, which follows the seven northern stars[336].

CHAP. 42. (42.)—OF UNCERTAIN STATES OF THE WEATHER.

But I would not deny, that there may exist showers and winds,

independent of these causes, since it is certain that an exhalation

proceeds from the earth, which is sometimes moist, and at other times,

in consequence of the vapours, like dense smoke; and also, that clouds

are formed, either from the fluid rising up on high, or from the air

being compressed into a fluid[337]. Their density and their substance

is very clearly proved from their intercepting the sun’s rays, which

are visible by divers, even in the deepest waters[338].

CHAP. 43. (43.)—OF THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

It cannot therefore be denied, that fire proceeding from the stars

which are above the clouds, may fall on them, as we frequently observe

on serene evenings, and that the air is agitated by the impulse, as

darts when they are hurled whiz through the air. And when it arrives

at the cloud, a discordant kind of vapour is produced, as when hot

iron is plunged into water, and a wreath of smoke is evolved. Hence

arise squalls. And if wind or vapour be struggling in the cloud,

thunder is discharged; if it bursts out with a flame, there is a

thunderbolt; if it be long in forcing out its way, it is simply a

flash of lightning[339]. By the latter the cloud is simply rent, by

the former it is shattered. Thunder is produced by the stroke given

to the condensed air, and hence it is that the fire darts from the

chinks of the clouds. It is possible also that the vapour, which has

risen from the earth, being repelled by the stars, may produce thunder,

when it is pent up in a cloud; nature restraining the sound whilst

the vapour is struggling to escape, but when it does escape, the

sound bursting forth, as is the case with bladders that are distended

with air. It is possible also that the spirit, whatever it be, may be

kindled by friction, when it is so violently projected. It is possible

that, by the dashing of the two clouds, the lightning may flash out,

as is the case when two stones are struck against each other. But

all these things appear to be casual. Hence there are thunderbolts

which produce no effect, and proceed from no immediate actual cause;

by these mountains and seas are struck, and no injury is done. Those

which prognosticate future events proceed from on high and from stated

causes, and they come from their peculiar stars[340].

CHAP. 44.—THE ORIGIN OF WINDS.

In like manner I would not deny that winds, or rather sudden gusts,

are produced by the arid and dry vapours of the earth; that air may

also be exhaled from water, which can neither be condensed into a mist,

nor compressed into a cloud; that it may be also driven forward by

the impulse of the sun, since by the term ‘wind’ we mean nothing more

than a current of air, by whatever means it may be produced[341]. For

we observe winds to proceed from rivers and bays, and from the sea,

even when it is tranquil; while others, which are named _Altani_, rise

up from the earth; when they come back from the sea they are named

_Tropæi_, but if they go straight on, _Apogæi_[342].

(44.) The windings and the numerous peaks of mountains, their ridges,

bent into angles or broken into defiles, with the hollow valleys, by

their irregular forms, cleaving the air which rebounds from them (which

is also the cause why voices are, in many cases, repeated several times

in succession), give rise to winds.

(45.) There are certain caves, such as that on the coast of Dalmatia,

with a vast perpendicular chasm, into which, if a light weight only be

let down, and although the day be calm, a squall issues from it like a

whirlwind. The name of the place is Senta. And also, in the province

of Cyrenaica, there is a certain rock, said to be sacred to the south

wind, which it is profane for a human hand to touch, as the south wind

immediately rolls forwards clouds of sand[343]. There are also, in many

houses, artificial cavities, formed in the walls[344], which produce

currents of air; none of these are without their appropriate cause.

CHAP. 45.—VARIOUS OBSERVATIONS RESPECTING WINDS.

But there is a great difference between a gale and a wind[345]. The

former are uniform and appear to rush forth[346]; they are felt, not

in certain spots only, but over whole countries, not forming breezes

or squalls, but violent storms[347]. Whether they be produced by the

constant revolution of the world and the opposite motion of the stars,

or whether they both of them depend on the generative spirit of the

nature of things, wandering, as it were, up and down in her womb, or

whether the air be scourged by the irregular strokes of the wandering

stars[348], or the various projections of their rays, or whether they,

each of them, proceed from their own stars, among which are those that

are nearest to us, or whether they descend from those that are fixed

in the heavens, it is manifest that they are all governed by a law of

nature, which is not altogether unknown, although it be not completely

ascertained.

(46.) More than twenty old Greek writers have published their

observations upon this subject. And this is the more remarkable, seeing

that there is so much discord in the world, and that it is divided into

different kingdoms, that is into separate members, that there should

have been so many who have paid attention to these subjects, which are

so difficult to investigate. Especially when we consider the wars and

the treachery which everywhere prevail; while pirates, the enemies of

the human race, have possession of all the modes of communication,

so that, at this time, a person may acquire more correct information

about a country from the writings of those who have never been there,

than from the inhabitants themselves. Whereas, at this day, in the

blessed peace which we enjoy, under a prince who so greatly encourages

the advancement of the arts, no new inquiries are set on foot, nor

do we even make ourselves thoroughly masters of the discoveries of

the ancients. Not that there were greater rewards held out, from the

advantages being distributed to a greater number of persons, but that

there were more individuals who diligently scrutinized these matters,

with no other prospect but that of benefiting posterity. It is that the

manners of men are degenerated, not that the advantages are diminished.

All the seas, as many as there are, being laid open, and a hospitable

reception being given us at every shore, an immense number of people

undertake voyages; but it is for the sake of gain, not of science. Nor

does their understanding, which is blinded and bent only on avarice,

perceive that this very thing might be more safely done by means of

science. Seeing, therefore, that there are so many thousands of persons

on the seas, I will treat of the winds with more minuteness than

perhaps might otherwise appear suitable to my undertaking.

CHAP. 46. (47.)—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WINDS[349].

The ancients reckoned only four winds (nor indeed does Homer mention

more[350]) corresponding to the four parts of the world; a very poor

reason, as we now consider it. The next generation added eight others,

but this was too refined and minute a division; the moderns have

taken a middle course, and, out of this great number, have added four

to the original set. There are, therefore, two in each of the four

quarters of the heavens. From the equinoctial rising of the sun[351]

proceeds Subsolanus[352], and, from his brumal rising, Vulturnus[353];

the former is named by the Greeks Apeliotes[354], the latter Eurus.

From the south we have Auster, and from the brumal setting of the

sun, Africus; these were named Notos and Libs. From the equinoctial

setting proceeds Favonius[355], and from the solstitial setting,

Corus[356]; these were named Zephyrus and Argestes. From the seven

stars comes Septemtrio, between which and the solstitial rising we have

Aquilo, named Aparctias and Boreas[357]. By a more minute subdivision

we interpose four others, Thrascias, between Septemtrio and the

solstitial setting; Cæcias, between Aquilo and the equinoctial rising;

and Phœnices, between the brumal rising and the south. And also, at

an equal distance from the south and the winter setting, between Libs

and Notos, and compounded of the two, is Libonotos. Nor is this all.

For some persons have added a wind, which they have named Meses,

between Boreas and Cæcias, and one between Eurus and Notos, named

Euronotus[358].

There are also certain winds peculiar to certain countries, which do

not extend beyond certain districts, as Sciron in Attica, deviating a

little from Argestes, and not known in the other parts of Greece. In

other places it is a little higher on the card and is named Olympias;

but all these have gone by the name of Argestes. In some places Cæcias

is named Hellespontia, and the same is done in other cases. In the

province of Narbonne the most noted wind is Circius; it is not inferior

to any of the winds in violence, frequently driving the waves before

it, to Ostia[359], straight across the Ligurian sea. Yet this same

wind is unknown in other parts, not even reaching Vienne, a city in

the same province; for meeting with a high ridge of hills, just before

it arrives at that district, it is checked, although it be the most

violent of all the winds. Fabius also asserts, that the south winds

never penetrate into Egypt. Hence this law of nature is obvious, that

winds have their stated seasons and limits.

CHAP. 47.—THE PERIODS OF THE WINDS[360].

The spring opens the seas for the navigators. In the beginning of this

season the west winds soften, as it were, the winter sky, the sun

having now gained the 25th degree of Aquarius; this is on the sixth day

before the Ides of February[361]. This agrees, for the most part, with

all the remarks that I shall subsequently make, only anticipating the

period by one day in the intercalary year, and again, preserving the

same order in the succeeding lustrum[362]. After the eighth day before

the Calends of March[363], Favonius is called by some Chelidonias[364],

from the swallows making their appearance. The wind, which blows for

the space of nine days, from the seventy-first day after the winter

solstice[365], is sometimes called Ornithias, from the arrival of

the birds[366]. In the contrary direction to Favonius is the wind

which we name Subsolanus, and this is connected with the rising of

the Vergiliæ, in the 25th degree of Taurus, six days before the Ides

of May[367], which is the time when south winds prevail: these are

opposite to Septemtrio. The dog-star rises in the hottest time of the

summer, when the sun is entering the first degree of Leo[368]; this

is fifteen days before the Calends of August. The north winds, which

are called Prodromi[369], precede its rising by about eight days. But

in two days after its rising, the same north winds, which are named

Etesiæ[370], blow more constantly during this period; the vapour

from the sun, being increased twofold by the heat of this star, is

supposed to render these winds more mild; nor are there any which are

more regular. After these the south winds become more frequent, until

the appearance of Arcturus[371], which rises eleven days before the

autumnal equinox. At this time Corus sets in; Corus is an autumnal

wind, and is in the opposite direction to Vulturnus. After this, and

generally for forty-four days after the equinox, at the setting of the

Vergiliæ, the winter commences, which usually happens on the third

of the Ides of November[372]. This is the period of the winter north

wind, which is very unlike the summer north wind, and which is in

the opposite direction to Africus. For seven days before the winter

solstice, and for the same length of time after it, the sea becomes

calm, in order that the king-fishers may rear their young; from this

circumstance they have obtained the name of the halcyon days[373]; the

rest of the season is winterly[374]. Yet the severity of the storms

does not entirely close up the sea. In former times, pirates were

compelled, by the fear of death, to rush into death, and to brave the

winter ocean; now we are driven to it by avarice[375].

CHAP. 48.—NATURE OF THE WINDS[376].

Those are the coldest winds which are said to blow from the seven

stars, and Corus, which is contiguous to them; these also restrain the

others and dispel the clouds. The moist winds are Africus, and, still

more, the Auster of Italy. It is said that, in Pontus, Cæcias attracts

the clouds. The dry winds are Corus and Vulturnus, especially when

they are about to cease blowing. The winds that bring snow are Aquilo

and Septemtrio; Septemtrio brings hail, and so does Corus; Auster is

sultry, Vulturnus and Zephyrus are warm. These winds are more dry than

Subsolanus, and generally those which blow from the north and west

are more dry than those which blow from the south and east. Aquilo is

the most healthy of them all; Auster is unhealthy, and more so when

dry; it is colder, perhaps because it is moist. Animals are supposed

to have less appetite for food when this wind is blowing. The Etesiæ

generally cease during the night, and spring up at the third hour

of the day[377]. In Spain and in Asia these winds have an easterly

direction, in Pontus a northerly, and in other places a southerly

direction. They blow also after the winter solstice, when they are

called Ornithiæ[378], but they are more gentle and continue only for

a few days. There are two winds which change their nature with their

situation; in Africa Auster is attended with a clear sky, while Aquilo

collects the clouds[379]. Almost all winds blow in their turn, so

that when one ceases its opposite springs up. When winds which are

contiguous succeed each other, they go from left to right, in the

direction of the sun. The fourth day of the moon generally determines

their direction for the whole of the monthly period[380]. We are able

to sail in opposite directions by means of the same wind, if we have

the sails properly set; hence it frequently happens that, in the

night, vessels going in different directions run against each other.

Auster produces higher winds than Aquilo, because the former blows,

as it were, from the bottom of the sea, while the latter blows on the

surface; it is therefore after south winds that the most mischievous

earthquakes have occurred. Auster is more violent during the night,

Aquilo during the day; winds from the east continue longer than from

the west. The north winds generally cease blowing on the odd days, and

we observe the prevalence of the odd numbers in many other parts of

nature; the male winds are therefore regulated by the odd numbers[381].

The sun sometimes increases and sometimes restrains winds; when

rising and setting it increases them; while, when on the meridian, it

restrains them during the summer. They are, therefore, generally lulled

during the middle of the day and of the night, because they are abated

either by excessive cold or heat; winds are also lulled by showers. We

generally expect them to come from that quarter where the clouds open

and allow the clear sky to be seen. Eudoxus[382] supposes that the same

succession of changes occurs in them after a period of four years,

if we observe their minute revolutions; and this applies not only to

winds, but to whatever concerns the state of the weather. He begins his

lustrum at the rising of the dog-star, in the intercalary year. So far

concerning winds in general.

CHAP. 49. (48.)—ECNEPHIAS AND TYPHON.

And now respecting the sudden gusts[383], which arising from the

exhalations of the earth, as has been said above, and falling down

again, being in the mean time covered by a thin film of clouds, exist

in a variety of forms. By their wandering about, and rushing down

like torrents, in the opinion of some persons, they produce thunder

and lightning[384]. But if they be urged on with greater force and

violence, so as to cause the rupture of a dry cloud, they produce a

squall[385], which is named by the Greeks Ecnephias[386]. But, if these

are compressed, and rolled up more closely together, and then break

without any discharge of fire, i. e. without thunder, they produce

a squall, which is named Typhon[387], or an Ecnephias in a state of

agitation. It carries along a portion of the cloud which it has broken

off, rolling it and turning it round, aggravating its own destruction

by the weight of it, and whirling it from place to place. This is very

much dreaded by sailors, as it not only breaks their sail-yards, but

the vessels themselves, bending them about in various ways. This may

be in a slight degree counteracted by sprinkling it with vinegar, when

it comes near us, this substance being of a very cold nature[388].

This wind, when it rebounds after the stroke, absorbs and carries up

whatever it may have seized on.

CHAP. 50.—TORNADOES; BLASTING WINDS; WHIRLWINDS[389], AND OTHER

WONDERFUL KINDS OF TEMPESTS.

But if it burst from the cavity of a cloud which is more depressed,

but less capacious than what produces a squall, and is accompanied

by noise, it is called a whirlwind, and throws down everything which

is near it. The same, when it is more burning and rages with greater

heat, is called a blasting wind[390], scorching and, at the same time,

throwing down everything with which it comes in contact. (49.) Typhon

never comes from the north, nor have we Ecnephias when it snows, or

when there is snow on the ground. If it breaks the clouds, and, at the

same time, catches fire or burns, but not until it has left the cloud,

it forms a thunder-bolt. It differs from Prester as flame does from

fire; the former is diffused in a gust, the latter is condensed with a

violent impulse[391]. The whirlwind, when it rebounds, differs from the

tornado in the same manner as a loud noise does from a dash.

The squall differs from both of them in its extent, the clouds being

more properly rent asunder than broken into pieces. A black cloud

is formed, resembling a great animal, an appearance much dreaded by

sailors. It is also called a pillar, when the moisture is so condensed

and rigid as to be able to support itself. It is a cloud of the same

kind, which, when drawn into a tube, sucks up the water[392].

CHAP. 51. (50.)—OF THUNDER[393]; IN WHAT COUNTRIES IT DOES NOT FALL,

AND FOR WHAT REASON.

Thunder is rare both in winter and in summer[394], but from different

causes; the air, which is condensed in the winter, is made still more

dense by a thicker covering of clouds, while the exhalations from the

earth, being all of them rigid and frozen, extinguish whatever fiery

vapour it may receive. It is this cause which exempts Scythia and the

cold districts round it from thunder. On the other hand, the excessive

heat exempts Egypt; the warm and dry vapours of the earth being very

seldom condensed, and that only into light clouds. But, in the spring

and autumn, thunder is more frequent, the causes which produce summer

and winter being, in each season, less efficient. From this cause

thunder is more frequent in Italy, the air being more easily set in

motion, in consequence of a milder winter and a showery summer, so that

it may be said to be always spring or autumn. Also in those parts of

Italy which recede from the north and lie towards the south, as in the

district round our city, and in Campania, it lightens equally both in

winter and in summer, which is not the case in other situations.

CHAP. 52. (51.)—OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF LIGHTNING[395] AND THEIR

WONDERFUL EFFECTS.

We have accounts of many different kinds of thunder-storms. Those which

are dry do not burn objects, but dissipate them; while those which

are moist do not burn, but blacken them. There is a third kind, which

is called bright lightning[396], of a very wonderful nature, by which

casks are emptied, without the vessels themselves being injured, or

there being any other trace left of their operation[397]. Gold, copper,

and silver are melted, while the bags which contain them are not in the

least burned, nor even the wax seal much defaced. Marcia, a lady of

high rank at Rome, was struck while pregnant; the fœtus was destroyed,

while she herself survived without suffering any injury[398]. Among

the prognostics which took place at the time of Catiline’s conspiracy,

M. Herennius, a magistrate of the borough of Pompeii, was struck by

lightning when the sky was without clouds[399].

CHAP. 53. (52.)—THE ETRURIAN[400] AND THE ROMAN OBSERVATIONS ON THESE

POINTS.