forty; at Rosetta, owing to the proximity of the mouth, it only rises to
the height of about three feet and a half. The Nile begins to rise in
the end of June, or the beginning of July; that is to say, about, or
soon after, the summer solstice, and attains its greatest height in the
end of September, or sometimes (but rarely) in the beginning of October;
that is, in other words, about or soon after the autumnal equinox.
During the first three months of its decrease, it loses about half the
height it had attained; and during the remaining six months, it falls
more and more slowly. It generally remains not longer than three or four
days at its maximum, and the same length of time at its minimum: it may
therefore be said to be three months on the increase, and nine months
gradually falling. It often remains without any apparent increase or
diminution, at other times than those of its greatest or least
elevation, and is subject to other slight irregularities. The Nile
becomes turbid a little before its rise is apparent, and soon after it
assumes a green hue, which it retains more than a fortnight. Its water
is extremely delicious even when it is most impregnated with earth; but
_then_ the Egyptians (excepting the lower orders) usually leave it to
settle before they drink it, and put it in porous earthen bottles, which
cool it by evaporation. While the Nile is green, the people generally
abstain from drinking the water fresh from the river, having recourse to
a supply previously drawn, and kept in cisterns.
The width of the Nile where there are no islands is in few parts more
than half a mile. The branches which enclose the Delta are not so wide,
generally speaking, as the undivided stream above; and the river is as
wide in most parts of Upper Egypt as in the lower extremity of the
valley.
The rapidity of the current when the waters are low is not greater than
the rate of a mile and a quarter in an hour; but during the higher state
of the river, the current is very rapid, and while vessels with furled
sails are carried down by the stream with great speed, others ascend the
river at an almost equal rate, favoured by the strong northerly winds,
which prevail most when the current is most rapid. When the river is
low, the wind from the north is often more powerful than the current,
and vessels cannot then descend the stream even with the help of oars.
I believe that I shall have occasion to add a few more words on the Nile
some days hence, when I hope to send you the remainder of the general
sketch.
Meanwhile, believe me to remain, &c.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
LETTER VI.
October 13th, 1842.
MY DEAR FRIEND,
Since I last wrote to you, the weather has continued intensely hot; but
during the last three days almost constant lightning throughout the
evening, though succeeded by excessive heat during the nights, has given
us hope of speedy relief. This heat is attributed to the present state
of the Nile, which has continued most unusually increasing up to this
time (the 13th of October), and given rise to serious apprehensions; for
unless the water drain quickly off the land when the river begins to
fall, it is feared that a severe plague may ensue. In such a case, we
propose going up to Thebes for four months, but we earnestly hope it may
please Almighty God to avert so dreadful a calamity as a pestilence must
inevitably prove. I now resume the sketch I left unfinished in my last
letter.
The climate of Egypt is generally very salubrious. The extraordinary
dryness of the atmosphere (excepting in the maritime parts) is proved by
the wonderful state of preservation in which bread, meal, fruits, &c.,
have been found in the tombs of ancient Thebes, after having been
deposited there two or three thousand years. The ancient monuments of
Egypt have suffered very little from the weather: the colours with which
some of them are adorned retain almost their pristine brightness. There
arises from the waters of the fields a considerable exhalation (though
not often visible), during the inundation, and for some months
afterwards; but even then it seems perfectly dry immediately within the
skirts of the desert, where most of the monuments of antiquity are
situated.[11]
The heat in Egypt is very great; but not so oppressive as might be
imagined, on account of that extreme dryness of the atmosphere of which
I have spoken, and the prevalence of northerly breezes.[12]
Footnote 11:
The damp at this period, slight as it is, occasions ophthalmia,
diarrhœa, and dysentery, to be more prevalent now than at other times.
Footnote 12:
The general height of the thermometer (Fahrenheit’s) in Lower Egypt
during the hot season, at noon, and in the shade, is from 90° to 100°;
in Upper Egypt, from 100° to 110°; and in Nubia, from 110° to 120°,
and even 130°, though in few years. In the latter country, if placed
in the sand and exposed to the sun, the thermometer often rises to
150° or more. The temperature of Lower Egypt in the depth of winter is
from 50° to 60°.
Rain is a very rare phenomenon in the valley of Egypt. In the Sa’eed, a
heavy rain falls not oftener, on the average, than once in four or five
years. My brother witnessed such an occurrence at Thebes, a tremendous
storm of lightning and rain, in the autumn of 1827. Lightning is
frequently seen, but thunder is seldom heard. On that occasion it was
quite terrific, and lasted throughout a whole night. The torrents which
pour down the sides and ravines of the naked mountains which hem in the
valley of Egypt, on these occasions, though so rare, leave very
conspicuous traces. Here, in Cairo, and in the neighbouring parts, there
fall on the average four or five smart showers in the year, and those
generally during the winter and spring. Most unusually (but this is in
every respect an unusual season), it rained heavily on the night of the
30th of September. A heavy rain very rarely falls, and when it does,
much damage is done to the houses. In the maritime parts of Egypt, rain
is not so unfrequent.
The prevalence of the northwesterly wind is one of the most remarkable
advantages of climate the Egyptians enjoy. The northwest breeze is ever
refreshing and salubrious, beneficial to vegetation, and of the greatest
importance in facilitating the Nile at almost every season of the year,
and particularly during that period when the river is rising, and the
current consequently the most rapid. During the first three months of
the decrease of the river, that is, from the autumnal equinox to the
winter-solstice, the wind is rather variable; sometimes blowing from the
west, south, or east; but still the northerly winds are most frequent.
During the next three months the wind is more variable; and during the
last three months of the decrease of the river, from the vernal equinox
to the summer solstice, winds from the south, or southeast, often hot
and very oppressive, are frequent, but of short duration.
During a period called “El-Khamáseen,” hot southerly winds are very
frequent, and particularly noxious. This period is said to commence on
the day after the Coptic festival of Easter-Sunday, and to terminate on
Whit-Sunday; thus continuing forty-nine days. It generally begins in the
latter part of April, and lasts during the whole of May. This is the
most unhealthy season in Egypt; and while it lasts the inhabitants are
apprehensive of being visited by the plague; but their fears cease on
the termination of that period. It is remarkable that we have already
suffered much from the hot wind, for it is most unusual at this season.
During July and August it was frequently distressing; and I can only
compare it to the blast from a furnace, rendering every article of
furniture literally hot, and always continuing three days. Having,
happily, glass windows, we closed them in the direction of the wind, and
found the close atmosphere infinitely more bearable than the heated
blast. This was a season of extreme anxiety, being quite an unexpected
ordeal for my children; but, I thank God, excepting slight
indisposition, they escaped unhurt.
The “Samoom,” which is a very violent, hot, and almost suffocating wind,
is of more rare occurrence than the Khamáseen winds, and of shorter
duration; its continuance being more brief in proportion to the
intensity of its parching heat, and the impetuosity of its course. Its
direction is generally from the southeast, or south-southeast. It is
commonly preceded by a fearful calm. As it approaches, the atmosphere
assumes a yellowish hue, tinged with red; the sun appears of a deep
blood colour, and gradually becomes quite concealed before the hot blast
is felt in its full violence. The sand and dust raised by the wind add
to the gloom, and increase the painful effects of the heat and rarity of
the air. Respiration becomes uneasy, perspiration seems to be entirely
stopped; the tongue is dry, the skin parched, and a prickling sensation
is experienced, as if caused by electric sparks. It is sometimes
impossible for a person to remain erect, on account of the force of the
wind; and the sand and dust oblige all who are exposed to it to keep
their eyes closed. It is, however, most distressing when it overtakes
travellers in the desert. My brother encountered at Koos, in Upper
Egypt, a samoom which was said to be one of the most violent ever
witnessed. It lasted less than half an hour, and a very violent samoom
seldom continues longer. My brother is of opinion that, although it is
extremely distressing, it can never prove fatal, unless to persons
already brought almost to the point of death by disease, fatigue,
thirst, or some other cause. The poor camel seems to suffer from it
equally with his master; and will often lie down with his back to the
wind, close his eyes, stretch out his long neck upon the ground, and so
remain until the storm has passed over.
Another very remarkable phenomenon is the “Zóba’ah,” and very common in
Egypt, and in the adjacent deserts. It is a whirlwind, which raises the
sand or dust in the form of a pillar, generally of immense height.[13]
These whirling pillars of sand (of which my brother has seen more than
twelve in one day, and often two or three at a time during the spring)
are carried sometimes with great rapidity across the deserts and fields
of Egypt, and over the river. My brother’s boat was twice crossed by a
zóba’ah; but on each occasion its approach was seen, and necessary
precautions were taken: both the sails were let fly a few moments before
it reached the boat; but the boxes and cushions in the cabin were thrown
down by the sudden heeling of the vessel, and every thing was covered
with sand and dust.
Footnote 13:
“I measured” (says my brother) “the height of a zóba’ah, with a
sextant, at Thebes, under circumstances which insured a very near
approximation to perfect accuracy (observing its altitude from an
elevated spot, at the precise moment when it passed through, and
violently agitated, a distant group of palm-trees), and found it to be
seven hundred and fifty feet. I think that several zóba’ahs I have
seen were of greater height. Others which I measured at the same place
were between five and seven hundred feet in height.”—_Modern
Egyptians_, 3d Edition, Part I. chap. x.
The “Saráb,” called by Europeans “mirage,” which resembles a lake, and
is so frequently seen in the desert, tantalizing the thirsty traveller,
I mentioned to you in a former letter. The illusion is often perfect,
the objects within and beyond the apparent lake being reflected by it
with the utmost precision. You probably know that the reflection is
produced by a heated stratum of air upon the glowing surface of a plain,
and you may have seen something of the same kind in England.
The fields in the vicinity of the river, and of the great canals, are
irrigated by means of machines at all seasons of the year, if not
subject to the natural inundation. For a description of these, I refer
you to the “Modern Egyptians,” 3d edition, Part II., chap. i.; and I
will now conclude this letter with a concise physical and agricultural
_calendar_ of Egypt, drawn up by my brother from Arabic works, and from
his own observations.
_January._—The mean temperature in the afternoon during this month at
Cairo is about 60°. The waters which, during the season of the
inundation, had been retained upon the fields by means of dams, have now
sunk into the soil; but water still remains in some of the large canals,
their mouths having been stopped up. The river has lost about half the
height it had attained; that is to say, it had sunk about twelve feet in
and about the latitude of Cairo. The wind at this season, and throughout
the winter, is very variable; but the northerly winds are most frequent.
People should now abstain from eating fowls, and all crude and cold
vegetables. The poppy is sown. It is unwholesome to drink water during
the night at this season, and throughout the winter. The fifth Coptic
month (Toobeh) begins on the 8th or 9th of January.[14] Now is the
season of extreme cold. Beef should not be eaten at this period. The
fields begin to be covered with verdure. The vines are trained. Carrots
are plentiful. Onions sown. The date-plum sown. The ripe sugar-canes
cut.
Footnote 14:
See a note on the beginning of the first Coptic month, in September.
The Egyptians (Muslims as well as Christians) still divide the seasons
by the Coptic months; but for dates, in their writings, they generally
use the lunar Mohammedan months.
_February._—The mean temperature in the afternoon during this month at
Cairo is about 66°. End of the season of extreme cold.[15] The fields
every where throughout Egypt are covered with verdure. The sixth Coptic
month (Amsheer) begins on the 7th or 8th of February. Warm water should
be drunk fasting at this season. The wind very variable. The harvest of
beans. The pomegranate tree blossoms. Vines are planted. Trees put forth
their leaves. The season of the winds which bring rain, called
el-Cawákeh. The cold ceases to be severe.
Footnote 15:
Such is the statement of the Egyptian almanacs; but there are
generally as cold days in the month of Amsheer as in Toobeh, and
sometimes colder.
_March._—Mean temperature in the afternoon during this month, at Cairo,
about 68°. End of the season for planting trees. The seventh Coptic
month (Barmahát) begins on the 9th of March, Variable and tempestuous
winds. THE VERNAL EQUINOX. During the quarter now commencing the river
continues decreasing; the wind often blows from the south or southeast;
and the samoom winds (from the same quarters) occur most frequently
during this period; the plague also generally visits Egypt at this
season, if at all. The weather becomes mild. Northerly winds become
prevalent. The wheat-harvest begins. Lentils are reaped; cotton, sesame,
and indigo sown; and the sugar-cane planted. The barley-harvest begins.
_April._—Mean temperature in the afternoon during this month, at Cairo,
about 76°. Time for taking medicine. The eighth Coptic month (Barmoodeh)
begins on the 8th of April. Samoom winds. Time for the fecundation of
the date-palm. Rice sown. The wheat-harvest in Lower Egypt. Beginning of
the first season for sowing millet. The Khamáseen winds generally
commence in this month.
_May._—Mean temperature in the afternoon during this month, at Cairo,
about 85°. The Khamáseen winds prevail principally during this month;
and the season is consequently unhealthy. Winter clothing disused. The
ninth Coptic month (Beshens) begins on the 8th of May. Time for taking
medicine, and losing blood. Season of the yellow water-melon. Cucumbers
sown. The apricot bears; and the mulberry. Turnips sown. End of the
first season for sowing millet. The apricot ripens. Beginning of the
season of great heat. Beginning also of the season of hot winds, called
“el-bawáreh,” which prevail during forty days.
_June._—Mean temperature in the afternoon during this month, at Cairo,
about 94°. Strong northerly winds prevail about this time. The water of
the Nile becomes turbid, but does not yet begin to rise. The tenth
Coptic month (Ba-ooneh) begins on the 7th of June. The banana sown.
Samoom winds. Strong perfumes (as musk, &c.) are disused now, and
throughout the summer. The yellow water-melon abundant. The plague, if
any existed previously, now ceases. Honey collected. People should
abstain from drinking the water of the Nile at this season for fifteen
days,[16] unless first boiled. “The drop” (en nuktah) descends into the
Nile, and, according to popular belief, causes it to increase soon
after;[17] this is said to happen on the 11th of Ba-ooneh, which
corresponds with the 17th of June: it is the day before the Coptic
festival of Michael the Archangel. The flesh of the kid is preferred at
this season, and until the end of summer. Samoom winds blow occasionally
during a period of seventy days now commencing. THE SUMMER SOLSTICE;
when the day is fourteen hours long in Lower Egypt. During the quarter
now beginning (_i. e._ during the period of the increase of the Nile)
northerly winds prevail almost uninterruptedly, excepting at night, when
it is generally calm. Though the heat is great, this quarter is the most
healthy season of the year. The Nile begins to rise now, or a few days
earlier or later. The season for grapes and figs commences. Peaches
plentiful.
Footnote 16:
Commencing from the 10th of Ba-ooneh (or the 16th of June).
Footnote 17:
It is really a heavy dew which falls about this time.
_July._—Mean temperature in the afternoon during this month, at Cairo,
about 98°. The rise of the Nile is now daily proclaimed in the
metropolis. Locusts die, or disappear, in every part of Egypt. The
eleventh Coptic month (Ebeeb) begins on the 7th of July. Violent
northerly winds prevail for fifteen days.[18] Honey abundant. People
should abstain from eating plentifully at this season. The noonday heat
is now excessive. Ophthalmia prevails now, but not so much now as in the
autumn. The bawáheer, or seven days of extreme heat, fall at the end of
this month.[19] Grapes and figs abundant. Maize is now sown. Harvest of
the first crop of millet. The date ripens.
Footnote 18:
Fleas disappear now; and if you can form a just idea of the annoyance
they occasion, you will not think the insertion of this information
unimportant.
Footnote 19:
They are said to commence on the 20th of Ebeeb, or 26th of July.
_August._—Mean temperature in the afternoon during this month, at Cairo,
about 92°. Season for pressing grapes. The last Coptic month (Misra)
begins on the 6th of August. Onions should not be eaten at this time.
Radishes and carrots sown. Cold water should be drunk, fasting.
Water-melons plentiful. The season for gathering cotton. The pomegranate
ripens. Violent northerly winds. Sweetmeats should not be eaten at this
time. “The wedding of the Nile” takes place on the 14th, or one of the
five following days of the month of Misra (the 19th to the 24th of
August); this is when the dam of earth which closes the entrance of the
canal of Cairo is broken down; it having been first announced that the
river has risen (in the latitude of the metropolis) sixteen cubits,
which is an exaggeration.[20] Second season for sowing millet.
Musquitoes abound now. End of the seventy days in which samoom winds
frequently occur.
Footnote 20:
The true rise at this period is about 19 or 20 feet; the river,
therefore, has yet to rise about 4 or 5 feet more, on the average.
_September._—Mean temperature in the afternoon during this month, at
Cairo, about 88°. White beet and turnip sown. Windy weather. The
beginning of the month Toot—the first of the Coptic year; corresponding
with the 10th or 11th of September, according as five or six intercalary
days are added at the end of the Coptic year preceding.[21] Ripe dates
abundant, and limes. Windy weather. THE AUTUMNAL EQUINOX.; The Nile is
now, or a few days later, at its greatest height; and all the canals are
opened. During the quarter now commencing (_i. e._ during the first
three months of the decrease of the river), the wind is very variable;
often blowing from the west, and sometimes from the south. The
exhalations from the alluvial soil, in consequence of the inundation,
occasion ophthalmia, diarrhœa, and dysentery to be more prevalent in
this quarter than at other seasons. Harvest of sesame.
Footnote 21:
“Five intercalary days are added at the end of three successive years;
and six at the end of the fourth year. The Coptic leap-year
immediately precedes ours: therefore, the Coptic year begins on the
11th of September, only when it is the next after their leap-year; or
when our next ensuing year is a leap-year: and consequently after the
following February, the corresponding days of the Coptic and our
months will be the same as in other years. The Copts begin their
reckoning from the era of Diocletian, A. D. 284.”—_Modern Egyptians_,
Part I., chap. ix.
_October._—Mean temperature in the afternoon during this month, at
Cairo, about 80°. The leaves of trees become yellow. Green sugar-canes
cut, to be sucked. Drinking water at night, after sleep, is pernicious
at this season. The henna-leaves gathered. Winter vegetables sown. The
second Coptic month (Bábeh) begins on the 10th or 11th of October.
Wheat, barley, lentils, beans, lupins, chick-peas, kidney-beans,
trefoil, fenugreek, colewort, lettuce, and safflower are sown now, or a
little later. Bleeding is injurious now. The dews resulting from the
inundation increase.
_November._—Mean temperature in the afternoon during this month, at
Cairo, about 72°. The cold during the latter part of the night is now
pernicious. The third Coptic month (Katoor) begins on the 9th or 10th of
November. Rain is now expected in Lower Egypt. The “mereesee,” or south
wind, prevalent. The rice-harvest. The maize-harvest, and second harvest
of millet. Winter-clothing assumed. Bananas plentiful.
_December._—Mean temperature in the afternoon during this month, at
Cairo, about 68°. Tempestuous and cloudy weather. Strong perfumes, as
musk, ambergris, &c., are agreeable now. The fourth Coptic month
(Kiyahk) begins on the 9th or 10th of December. The leaves of trees
fall. THE WINTER SOLSTICE; when the day is ten hours long in Lower
Egypt. The wind is variable during this quarter. Beginning of the season
for planting trees. Fleas multiply. The vines are pruned. Beef is not
considered wholesome food at this season.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
LETTER VII.
October 18th, Ramadán, 1842.
MY DEAR FRIEND,
The leading topic of conversation in this country, at the present time,
is the state of the Nile, which has hitherto (to the 18th of October)
continued rising, and occasioned a general fear that a severe plague
will ensue on the subsiding of the inundation. In 1818, it rose until
the 16th of October; but never so late since that time, nor for a
considerable period before. Our house is flooded in the lower part; and
in some of the streets of Cairo, the water is within a foot of the
surface, while it has entered many of the houses.
This is the 12th day of Ramadán, or the month of abstinence; and I do
heartily pity those who observe the fast, for the weather is again
intensely hot, and it is marvellous how any person can observe the law,
denying himself from daybreak to sunset even a draught of water. I
really think there are very many conscientious fasters; and it would
interest you exceedingly to walk through the streets of Cairo during
this month, and observe the varieties of deportment visible among the
people. Some are sitting idly, holding an ornamented stick, or with a
string of beads in their hands. Boys, fasting for the first time, and
even men, are endeavouring to distract their attention with the most
childish toys; while many are exhibiting, in various ways, that fasting
does not improve their tempers.