Co._]
When putting in a background with the pumice stone as described in the
fourth method on page 70, treat the whole surface of the paper with
pumice stone in order to raise the grain of the paper, but go over the
face lightly. Then place the strainer on which the portrait is mounted
on the easel, and put in the shadows with the tortillon stump,
producing the lights with the eraser; finish with the No. 0 crayon. But
instead of producing a diamond effect, as you did with the lines, you
now want to have a stipple effect, which is that of small black and
white spots; the paper producing the white spots, and the crayon the
black ones. To produce this make the lines in the shadows and
half-shadows, but not in the light places, in the manner shown in the
illustration on the following page; instead of crossing them to form
diamonds, using short lines and varying their direction and
intersection with reference to the ultimate effect; then rub them with
the end of the finger. In finishing, gradually divide up all the small
light parts with the pencil and the dark with the eraser: if it is
necessary at any time to rub the crayon, use the end of the finger
instead of the cotton. Be careful not to get too much crayon on the
paper, that is, you must not "force up" or be compelled to make the
shadows too dark by the use of the crayon; they should be made as dark
as necessary with the stump before finishing. Should you find in
finishing that they are not dark enough, use the stump to make them
darker, as the pencil is only intended to give the stipple effect, and
should be used in a very light and delicate way. Continue the process
of finishing according to the directions hereafter given for bromide
enlargements. The foregoing illustration is the first or ground work
for the stipple effect produced by the aid of the fingers. To obtain
this effect without rubbing with the fingers, make small black dots,
instead of the lines shown above, until the desired effect is produced.
The latter method results in a coarser stipple effect, but it requires
a much longer time and is more difficult than the former.
BACKGROUNDS--GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
Always commence the portrait by putting in the background. Among the
four different methods which I have given, the student can make his own
selection. For myself, I prefer the last two mentioned.
There can be no definite rule given for the lights and shadows in the
backgrounds, as every portrait will need a characteristic background
adapted to the subject. There should always be a nice disposition of
light and shade, the light coming against the dark side of the face and
the dark against the light side, and generally a cast shadow. What this
is may be learned by setting a cast (or any other object) near the
wall, letting the light strike it at an angle of 90 degrees, and
noticing the size and position of the shadow thrown on the wall. The
cast shadow in your background must not be too near the head, as
simplicity should be one of the principles of the background, and this
can only be attained by breadth of light and shade. The background is
of secondary importance, and should not intrude itself on the portrait
in its effect of lines or light and shade. Backgrounds for half or full
length figures need especial study in their effect of lines, and one
who intends to succeed in making them properly should study linear
composition in Burnet's essay on Composition,[A] especially the
following passages. "Composition is the art of arranging figures or
objects so as to adapt them to any particular subject. In composition
four requisites are necessary--that the story be well told, that it
possess a good general form, that it be so arranged as to be capable of
receiving a proper effect of light and shade, and that it be
susceptible of an agreeable disposition of color. The form of a
composition is best suggested by the subject or design, as the fitness
of the adaptation ought to appear to emanate from the circumstances
themselves; hence the variety of compositions.
"To secure a good general form in composition, it is necessary that it
should be as simple as possible. Whether this is to be produced by a
breadth of light and shade, which is often the case with Rembrandt,
even on a most complicated outline, or by the simple arrangement of
color, as we often find in Titian, or by the construction of the group,
evident in many of Raphael's works, must depend upon the taste of the
artist. It is sufficient to direct the younger students to this
particular, their minds being generally carried away by notions of
variety and contrasts.
"In giving a few examples of composition, I have confined myself to the
four simple and principal forms, not only from their being most
palpable, but also from their possessing a decided character, which is
at all times desirable. To those who imagine that such rules tend to
fetter genius, I shall merely quote Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose works,
if properly understood, render all other writings on the subject of
painting superfluous: 'It must of necessity be that even works of
genius, like every other effect, as they must have their causes, must
likewise have their rules. It cannot be by chance that excellencies are
produced with any constancy or any certainty, for this is not the
nature of chance; but the rules by which men of extraordinary points,
and such as are called men of genius, work, are either such as they
discover by their own peculiar observations, or are of such nice
texture as not easily to admit being expressed in words; especially as
artists are not very frequently skillful in that mode of communicating
ideas. Unsubstantial, however, as these rules may seem, and difficult
as it may be to convey them in writing, they are still seen and felt in
the mind of the artist, and he works from them with as much certainty
as if they were embodied, as I may say, upon paper. It is true these
refined principles cannot be always palpable, like the more gross rules
of art, yet it does not follow but that the mind may be put in such a
train that it shall perceive, by a kind of scientific sense, that
propriety which words, particularly words of unpractised writers such
as we are, can but very feebly suggest.' (Sixth Discourse)."
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote A: Essays on Art, by John Burnet, New York, E. L. Wilson.]
FIRST METHOD OF MAKING THE BACKGROUND--STUMP EFFECT.
To produce the stump effect, rub the chamois block in the box of crayon
sauce, and then with the large grey paper stump commence by putting in
the darkest parts and the cast shadow. Use the broad end of the stump,
moving it over the surface of the paper with an even and uniform
pressure, so that you will not make any dark spots. Make broad lines
and have them cross each other so as to form diamond shaped spaces,
using considerable care and a very light touch in the lighter places.
Finish with the large rubber eraser, cutting it so that it will make
white lines about the same width as the black lines made with the
stump. Have these light lines run into the dark ones in some places,
and use the rubber so as to produce a dashing effect.
SECOND METHOD OF MAKING THE BACKGROUND.
Take a handful of cotton batting, rub it in the box of crayon sauce,
and then on a piece of paper before applying it to the crayon paper to
make the background, being careful to avoid rubbing harder in some
places than others, as dark spots are likely to be caused in that way.
Commence by rubbing in close to the face and work out towards the edge
of the paper. Let the darkest part be closest to the face, shading out
in the form of a circle about six or eight inches from the face,
according to the subject, the upper line of the arc coming a little
above the head. Then make the cast shadow and finish with the large
rubber eraser, putting the lights, or cloud effect, as it is called, in
the background. When doing this, place the strainer high enough on the
easel to bring the centre of the picture on a level with your eyes,
then standing in front of it and about six feet off, decide upon your
plan of light and shade. After you have put in the first of the lights,
step back to the former position, and see if it gives the proper
effect. Continue this method of working until the background is
entirely completed.
THIRD METHOD OF MAKING THE BACKGROUND--LINE EFFECT.
With the cotton and crayon sauce as in the preceding method, put in the
dark places and cast shadow, but not as dark as you want them when
finished; then with the crayon point No. 2 put in three sets of lines
thus:--
[Illustration: BACKGROUND. LINE EFFECT.
_From the Annual Encyclopedia. Copyrighted, 1891, by D. Appleton &
Co._]
Do not carry out the lines as far as the background will extend when
finished. The lines should be one-quarter of an inch apart in life-size
portraits, and a little closer in smaller sizes. As a rule the lines
are a little further apart in the background than in the face. These
lines need not be horizontal, crossed by oblique ones at obtuse angles,
but they can be curved lines, if desired, provided they cross each
other so as to leave diamond shaped spaces. After the lines are in rub
a piece of clean cotton over them all, using pressure enough to subdue
them to the degree of indistinctness desired; then finish with the
large eraser and crayon point No. 2, putting in the cloud effect. Such
lines as show too prominently you subdue with the nigrivorine eraser.
If there are any light places, make them dark with the crayon.
The background should be very indistinct on the edges, and be vignetted
in the shape of an oblong, having some very light clouds above and on
either side of the head. Let there be a nice contrast between the face
and the background, having light come against dark and dark against
light; that is, when one side of the face is dark and one side light,
have the background light against the dark side, and dark against the
light side; when light and shade are about equal on both sides of the
face, have the background about the same shade on both sides, without
too decided a cast shadow. If you have a subject that has gray hair,
have the background darker than it would be otherwise. The background
should never be darker at any place than the shadows in the face, and
close to the face it must be a shade between the light and half
shadows. Never resort to the practice of leaving the background white,
as this will only give a hard, stiff appearance. Clean off the outside
edges of the background with a clean piece of cotton and the pumice
stone.
FOURTH METHOD OF MAKING THE BACKGROUND--STIPPLE EFFECT.
Lay a piece of manilla paper on the table about twelve inches larger on
each edge than your strainer, placing the strainer on it face up; rub a
handful of cotton batting first in the crayon sauce and then on the
manilla paper to remove any foreign substance. Then apply the cotton
with a circular motion to the crayon paper to make the background
desired. Next sprinkle the pulverized pumice stone over the entire
background, and go over this with the fingers in a circular movement,
using them flat from the second joint to the ends; then lift the
strainer up, and, resting it on the edge, jar off all the pumice stone,
and when this is done, lay it down again and rub it off with a clean
piece of cotton. Now rub the fingers in the crayon sauce, keeping them
flat so that it will adhere evenly to them, and go over the background
lightly as when rubbing in the pumice stone and you will produce a nice
stipple effect. Finally, place the strainer on the easel, and finish
according to the directions given for finishing crayons made on bromide
enlargements.
Of course it will need considerable experience before you can succeed
in doing this perfectly, but patience and perseverance will ultimately
accomplish the desired end. There are two matters of importance to be
borne in mind in making these backgrounds--first, do not have any
small, hard pieces of crayon on the cotton when you rub it on the
paper, and second, use the fingers in as flat a position as possible,
for if you do not have them flat down on the paper you are likely to
make dark spots in the background.
FACE--LINE EFFECT.
[Illustration: LINE EFFECT FOR FACE.
_From the Annual Encyclopedia. Copyrighted, 1891, by D. Appleton &
Co._]
Commence on the hair with the crayon point No. 2, and put in all the
shadows and half-shadows, carefully preserving the lines of direction,
but avoid working over the lights more than necessary; then with the
crayon point No. 1 strengthen all the shadows about the eyebrows, the
eyes, the mouth, the chin and the ears. Next put the lines in the face.
The following illustration shows the lines before they are rubbed. It
will be well to remember that only two sets of lines are used in the
face, as shown in the illustration, and the same number in the dress,
while there are three sets required in the background. The lines in the
face should be a little closer than those in the background, while
those in the dress are about the same as those in the background.
In the effect of the lines in the face lie the chief merit and beauty
of this method of crayon work. When properly drawn, the lines represent
and give the grain of the flesh in a very beautiful broken effect. They
are drawn so as to leave spaces shaped like diamonds, but in the
finishing should be so treated as to lose their regularity, and to have
the effect of "broken diamonds." If you will examine the back of the
wrist joint when your hand is bent slightly backward, you will see more
clearly what is meant by the term "broken diamonds" in the slight
ridges which show the grain of the flesh. Begin with the forehead,
using the crayon point No. 1, and put in one set of lines straight
across, but curving downwards as the forehead commences to round off
towards the hair at the sides; then one more set of lines in the
direction that will produce the diamond spaces, continuing these two
sets of lines throughout the face. These lines intersecting at the
proper angles will indicate the grain of the flesh, if the line of
direction be carefully followed. Remembering that the face is not a
flat surface, make the lines darker in the shadows and lighter as they
approach the lights. The high lights on the forehead, the nose, the
highest point of the chin, and around the mouth, should, however, have
no lines over them.
Having put in these lines take a small handful of cotton, and rub the
hair and face over both the high lights and shadows, the motion
following the line of direction; that is, being straight across the
forehead, curving towards the hair at the sides, and circular on the
cheeks. Care should be exercised not to rub too hard, it being a common
fault of the beginner to rub the paper too much, and produce a dirty
effect. The lines should be merely rubbed until they are somewhat
blurred and indistinct. Remember that the crayon portrait is made on
the surface of the paper, and not rubbed into it. After it has thus
been treated with the cotton, go over the shadows with the crayon point
No. 1, and rub again with the cotton.
The face of the crayon will now be about three shades darker in the
lights than it should be when finished, and not quite dark enough in
the shadows. Finish it with the No. 0 crayon and nigrivorine eraser,
using the latter wherever a lighter effect is required; also break up
the regularity of the diamond spaces, and whenever a line shows too
prominently subdue it with the eraser.
If you would succeed in making good crayon portraits, it will be
necessary for you to cultivate a light touch with the crayon in
finishing.
The eraser is one of the principal instruments employed in making
crayon portraits, and is used the same as if it were a crayon pencil,
that is, on that principle, the difference being that you make white
lines with it instead of black ones. Keep the eraser to a sharp point
in the following manner: take a piece of emery paper about three inches
square, and place it in the left hand between the index and second
fingers, holding the fingers about half an inch apart, and bending the
paper to fit between them; then rub the eraser in the crease thus
formed, holding it at an acute angle. Sometimes it is necessary to
sharpen the eraser with a knife or a pair of scissors before rubbing it
on the emery paper. In working with the eraser on the crayon paper do
not rub hard enough to remove all the crayon from the surface of the
paper, except in producing the high lights and the white of drapery.
Notice in particular in finishing the hair that where it touches the
forehead there are no lines, as the light and shade should blend
together so nicely as to leave no decided line between them.
DRESS--LINE EFFECT.
[Illustration: LINE EFFECT FOR DRESS.
_From the Annual Encyclopedia. Copyrighted, 1891, by D. Appleton &
Co._]
The above illustration represents the effect of the lines in the dress.
In putting them in let every fold, sleeve and lapel have lines of its
own, that is, lines differing in direction so as to discriminate it
from the other parts of the clothing. These distinctive lines will lose
themselves in the wrinkles, in shadows, and in the next fold, where the
lines will have a different direction. The illustration is very crude,
as it shows the lines before they are rubbed with cotton; after that
process they have quite a different appearance. In men's clothing the
lines may be drawn a little farther apart than in the treatment of the
finer texture of ladies' garments. After you have put in the lines with
the crayon point No. 2, go over them with a piece of cotton previously
rubbed in the crayon sauce, and then complete this part of the work by
the use of a dull eraser for the smaller lights, and the chamois for
the broad lights.
The crayon is now in good condition for finishing, which you will
proceed to do by the use of No. 0 Conte crayon and the nigrivorine
eraser, softening the lights with the former and the shadows with the
latter, until you have the whole portrait subdued, and no decided lines
of light and shade. Of course throughout these processes you must pay
close attention to all the characteristic points in the likeness, so
that the crayon will be a true and life-like reproduction. Do not sit
too close to the crayon in finishing; if you do, you will be
disappointed when you come to look at it from a slight distance, and
will not find at all that enchantment which distance is said to lend to
the view, as the crayon will disclose a spotty effect, and too great a
contrast between the lights and shadows.
BROMIDE CRAYONS.
In the bromide enlargement, while the paper has to undergo all the
different manipulations of development, fixing and washing, that the
platinum and silver enlargements do, yet the gelatin is not removed,
and, when dry, remains as a strong sizing to the surface of the
paper--in fact, so strong, that in some of the different kinds of
bromide paper the surface is very nearly as hard as glass, and,
therefore, the crayon cannot be used upon it with good results until it
has received a special treatment, as the crayon would only make a black
scratchy mark.
It has been said that the bromide paper and enlargement were entirely
different from the platinum or silver enlargement and the crayon paper.
While there is not as much difference between the bromide and other
enlargements as there is between the former and the crayon paper, there
should be this difference: the silver or platinum enlargement should
only be printed strong enough to give the form and the larger details
in the negative, while the bromide enlargement must be as nearly a
perfect photograph as can be produced from the negative.
[Illustration: FROM CRAYON EXECUTED OVER A BROMIDE ENLARGEMENT MADE
FROM THE ORIGINAL NEGATIVE--STIPPLE EFFECT THROUGHOUT. BY J. A.
BARHYDT.]
From the fact that, on account of the difference in the surface of
the paper, there cannot be as much crayon put on the bromide
enlargement as on the other kinds of paper, and that, therefore, it
cannot be strengthened to the same degree in the shadows without
spoiling the nice transparent effect that a bromide should have there,
it follows that the best bromide crayons are those on which the least
crayon is used to produce the desired effect. The bromide paper, on
account of the gelatin surface, will not take the crayon from the stump
as readily as the other kinds of paper; but after the surface has been
treated with the pumice stone this objection is removed, and the paper
can be worked on with the stump readily. I can say from my own
experience, that for producing a crayon over a photographic enlargement
with the stipple effect, it has no equal in the beauty of finish and
rapidity of execution.
The illustration facing this page was made from a crayon executed over
a bromide enlargement from the original negative. Better results can
always be reached in a bromide enlargement when it is thus made from
the original negative. The student will notice in particular the
stipple effect in the reproduction.
FINISHING BROMIDE ENLARGEMENTS.
Examine the enlargement mounted on the strainer, looking at it from the
side, to learn if there is any starch on the surface of the paper
before commencing work on it. If there is any, carefully wash it off
with a sponge and some clean water, and then set the enlargement aside
until it has thoroughly dried. Then lay it down on the table with a
piece of manilla paper under the strainer about 12 inches longer on
each edge than the latter; take a handful of cotton, first rubbing it
thoroughly in the crayon sauce, then on the manilla paper, and finally
going over the surface of the enlargement with it in a circular motion.
Then sprinkle pumice stone over the portrait, and using the ends of the
fingers flat, rub it over the entire surface of the paper. This
treatment cuts through the gelatin surface and prepares it for the
stipple effect. Now stand the strainer on its edge and jar the pumice
stone off, after which lay it down on the table, and with a piece of
clean cotton lightly brush off the surface; then, having rubbed the
finger ends in the crayon sauce, go over the entire surface of the
enlargement, holding them flat, and you will produce a fine stipple
effect.
If the shadows need to be darker, use a little more crayon on the
fingers; also put the cast shadow in the background, applying the
crayon with the fingers.
Before proceeding further it will be well to note that the crayon is
entirely on the gelatin surface, and that the photographic image is on
this surface also, and not on the paper itself; therefore, under the
image and the gelatin you have the pure white paper. I call attention
to this in order that you may work with a better comprehension of the
materials you are using.
You now have four surfaces. First, the muslin cloth of the strainer;
second, the starch; third, the white paper; fourth, the gelatin.
Knowing that the gelatin has a hard surface, you are prepared to learn
that the crayon will come off from the bromide much more easily than
from the other kinds of paper. These had but three surfaces, while the
bromide has a fourth--a very hard one--between the crayon and the
paper, and on account of its hardness it will need different treatment
in its manipulation. Therefore you use the fingers in applying the
crayon sauce, and, when it is necessary to make a place light, you do
so with the cotton, chamois or eraser. Should you find it necessary to
make a place white where it is dark, you can remove the photograph
entirely, as this is on the gelatin, scraping it off down to the white
paper with a sharp knife.