_State of Chili towards the end of the Eighteenth Century_[102].
[Footnote 102: The information of Molina appears to have closed about
1787; but in some notes by the translator, interwoven here into the
text, a few short notices to the year 1792 occur.--E.]
From the short deduction of the occurrences in Chili since its
discovery, which has been attempted in the foregoing pages, it will be
seen that the acquisition and maintenance of that interesting and
important colony has cost more expenditure of blood and treasure to
Spain than all the rest of her American possessions. The Araucanians,
though only occupying a small extent of territory, and with far inferior
arms, have not only been able to resist the military power of Spain,
till then reckoned invincible, but have endangered the loss of her best
established possessions. Though most of the Spanish officers employed in
the early period of the Araucanian war had been bred in the low
countries, that excellent school of military knowledge, and her soldiers
were armed with those destructive weapons before which the most
extensive empires of America had so early fallen, and were considered as
the best disciplined and bravest troops in the world; yet has this brave
people been able to resist their utmost efforts, and still maintain
their independence unimpaired. This will appear wonderful, especially
when we consider the decided superiority which European military
discipline and skill have given to its troops in all parts of the world.
The rapidity of the Spanish conquests in America excited universal
astonishment; and a small number of Portuguese gained with almost
incredible facility an extensive territory in the east, even although
the natives were extremely numerous and accustomed to the use of
fire-arms. Yet, in spite of every effort of force and skill, the
Araucanians have valiantly defended their country, evincing that a free
people, however inconsiderable in point of numbers, can perform wonders.
Since losing their possessions in Arancania, the Spaniards have
prudently confined their views to the preservation and improvement of
that part of Chili which lies between the southern confines of Peru and
the river Biobio, extending between the latitudes of 24° and 36° 30' S.
As formerly mentioned this kingdom is divided into _thirteen_ provinces.
Of late years two other provinces have been formed by the disjunction of
Maule, and the provinces of Cauquenes and Cunco are nominally added to
the former number, but without any addition of territory. Besides these,
they possess the fortress and port of Valdivia in the country of the
Cunches, the archipelago of Chiloe, and the island of Juan Fernandez.
This colony or kingdom of Chili is governed by an officer, who combines
the titles and functions of civil governor, president of the court of
audience, and captain-general, and usually holds the rank of
lieutenant-general in the Spanish army. He resides in the city of St
Jago, and is solely dependent upon the king, except that in time of war
he is subject in some points to receive orders from the viceroy of Peru.
In quality of captain-general, he is commander-in-chief of the army,
having under his immediate orders the three principal military officers
of the kingdom, the quarter-master-general, the serjeant-major, and the
commissary-general, besides the four commandants of Chiloe, Valdivia,
Valparaiso, and Juan Fernandez. As president and governor, he has the
supreme administration of justice, and presides in the superior
tribunals established in the capital, whose jurisdiction extends over
all the provinces and dependencies of Chili. The chief of these is the
royal audience, whose decisions are final in all causes both civil and
criminal, and which is divided into two chambers, one for civil and the
other for criminal causes. Both are composed of several respectable
oydors or judges, a regent, fiscal, royal procurator, and protector of
the Indians, all of which officers have high salaries from the crown.
In civil causes where the sum at issue exceeds the value of 10,000
dollars, an appeal lies from their sentence to the supreme council of
the Indies. The other supreme courts are those of Finance, of the
_Cruzada_, of Vacant lands, and the Consulate or tribunal of
commerce.
The provinces of Chili are governed by officers who were formerly called
corregidors, but are now known by the title of sub-delegates, which
ought to be nominated by the crown, but are generally appointed by the
governor, owing to the distance from Spain. These, as lieutenants of the
governor, have jurisdiction both in civil and military affairs, and as
their emoluments are entirely derived from fees, their amount is by no
means regular. In each capital of a province, there is or ought to be a
municipal magistracy denominated the Cabildo, composed of several
regidors appointed for life, of a standard-bearer, a procurator, a
forensic judge called the provincial alcalde, a high sheriff called,
alguazil-mayor, and two alcaldes. These latter officers are nominated
annually by the cabildo from the most respectable inhabitants, and have
jurisdiction both in civil and criminal causes in the first instance.
All the inhabitants able to carry arms are divided into regiments, which
are bound to march to the sea-coast or the frontiers in case of war. In
1792, the militia amounted to 15,856 men, in the two bishoprics of St
Jago and Conception; 10,218 in the former, and 5,638 in the latter. This
force which was established in 1777, during the government of Don
Augustino Jaregui, is only called out on great occasions, and is seldom
obliged to perform the duty of centinels and patroles; but is obliged to
hold itself always in readiness for war, and frequently to exercise in
the use of arms. Besides this regular militia, there are a great number
of city corps, who are commanded by officers named commissaries instead
of Colonels. These are divided into several companies, according to the
extent and population of their respective districts; and the companies
have no fixed numbers, sometimes exceeding a hundred men, and at other
times falling short of that number. This city militia supplies guards
for the prisons and for the escort of prisoners, and performs the duties
required by the police, without being exempted from military service
when occasion requires; and from these companies recruits are drawn to
supply vacancies in the regular militia. Every one capable of bearing
arms is thus enrolled either in these companies or in the regular
militia, except such as are indispensably necessary for cultivating the
land and taking care of the cattle. Besides this militia, the crown
maintains a regular force of veteran troops part at St Jago and part at
Conception for the protection of the Araucanian frontier. In 1792, all
the veteran troops in Chili amounted to 1976 men, divided into two
companies of artillery, nine troops of horse, including a regiment of
dragoons at St Jago, and the rest infantry. The cavalry is commanded by
a brigadier-general, who is quarter-master-general of the kingdom, and
intendant of Conception. The infantry and artillery are under the
command of two lieutenant-colonels. Besides these royal troops, the city
of St Jago keeps several troops of dragoons in constant pay for its
particular protection.
In regard to ecclesiastical polity, Chili is divided into two extensive
bishoprics, those of St Jago and of Conception, the bishops of these
dioceses being suffragans to the archbishop of Lima. The bishopric of St
Jago extends from the confines of Peru to the river Maule, and includes
the province of Cujo on the east side of the Andes. The bishopric of
Conception comprises all the rest of Chili and the islands; but the
greater part of this extent is inhabited by pagans, being the
confederacy of Araucania and its auxiliaries. The two cathedrals have a
competent number of canons or prebendaries, whose revenues as well as
those of the bishops depend upon the tythes. The _holy_ tribunal of the
inquisition at Lima, has a commissary and several subaltern officers or
familiars resident at St Jago. Upon his first coming into Chili,
Valdivia brought with him several monks of the order of Mercy. About the
year 1553, the Dominicans and Franciscans were established in the
country, the Augustins in 1593, and the Hospitallers of St John of God
in 1615. These orders all have a number of convents, and the three first
form distinct jurisdictions under their respective provincials. The
brothers of St John have the charge of the hospitals, under the
direction of a commissary, dependent on the provincial of their order in
Peru. The Jesuits came likewise into Chili in 1593, along with Don
Martin Loyola, nephew to their founder, and formed a separate province,
but were afterwards suppressed along with the rest of their order in all
parts of christendom. Other orders have several times attempted to form
establishments in Chili, but have always been resisted by the
inhabitants. There are several convents of nuns in the cities of St Jago
and Conception, but none are contained in the other cities of the
kingdom.
Though the cities are in general built in the most fertile districts of
the kingdom, many of them might have been more conveniently situated for
trade upon the banks of the navigable rivers; as is more particularly
the case with those of recent erection. The streets in all the cities
are laid out in straight lines, intersecting each other at right angles,
and are generally about forty feet wide. The houses are mostly of one
storey, yet are very commodious, are all whitewashed on the outside, and
handsomely painted within, each being accommodated with a pleasant
garden, irrigated by means of an aqueduct or canal, which likewise
furnishes water for the use of the family. Those houses which belong to
the wealthier classes, particularly the nobility, are splendidly and
tastefully furnished. Noticing that old buildings of two stories had
resisted the most violent earthquakes, many of the inhabitants have of
late years ventured to construct their houses in the European manner,
and to reside in upper rooms; employing bricks and stone in the
construction of their new buildings, instead of clay hardened in the sun
which was formerly supposed less liable to injury. By this change the
cities have a much handsomer appearance than formerly. Cellars, sewers,
and wells, were of old much more common than now; and the want of these
may have contributed to render the buildings more secure from the
effects of earthquakes.
The churches in Chili are in general more remarkable for their wealth
than their architecture; but the cathedral and the church of the
Dominicans in St Jago are both built of stone and in a handsome style.
The cathedral was recently constructed at the royal expence, under the
direction of the bishop Don Manuel Alday. The plan was drawn by two
_English_ architects, who superintended the work. It is built in a
masterly style, and extends 384 French feet in length. When about half
finished, the architects refused to proceed unless their wages were
augmented; but two Indians who had worked under the _Englishmen_ had
privately made themselves acquainted with every branch of the art, and
offered to complete the fabric, which they did with as much skill as
their masters. The following edifices in the capital are also deserving
of notice. The barracks for the dragoons; the mint, lately built by a
Roman architect; and the hospital for orphans, founded by the Marquis of
Monte-pio, and endowed by the crown.
In consequence of the free trade lately granted to Chili, it is
increasing in population with a rapidity proportional to the salubrity
of its climate and the fertility of its soil. The Europeans mostly
consist of emigrants from the southern provinces of Spain, with a few
French, English, and Italians. The Creoles, or descendents of European
settlers are still more numerous. The character of that race, with some
slight differences owing to climate and government, is similar to that
of other American Creoles descended from Europeans. "The Creoles are
generally well made, and are rarely found with those deformities which
are so common in other countries. Their courage has frequently
signalized itself in war, by a series of brilliant exploits, nor would
there be better soldiers in the world if less averse from submission to
discipline. Their history furnishes no examples of that cowardice,
treachery, and baseness which dishonour the annals of all nations, and
scarcely can an instance be adduced of a Creole having committed a
disgraceful action. Untainted by the mean vices of dissimulation,
artifice, and suspicion, they possess great frankness and vivacity of
character, joined to a high opinion of themselves, and their intercourse
with the world is not stained by that mysterious reserve so common in
Europe, which obscures the most amiable characters, depresses the social
spirit, and chills sensibility of disposition. Possessed of an ardent
imagination and impatient of restraint, they are prone to independence
yet inconstant in their inclinations and pursuits. By the warmth of
their temperature, they are impelled to the pursuit of pleasure with an
eagerness to which they sacrifice their fortunes and often their lives.
They possess keen penetration, and a remarkable facility of conceiving
and expressing their ideas with force and clearness, together with a
happy talent of observation, combined with all those qualities of mind
and character, which render men capable of conceiving and executing the
greatest enterprises, especially when stimulated by oppression[103]."
[Footnote 103: This character of the Creoles is inserted by the original
translator, in a note, from the Abbe Raynal.--E.]
Whatever intelligent and unprejudiced travellers have observed
respecting the characters of the French and English Creoles, will
perfectly apply to those of Chili. The same modes of thinking and the
same moral qualities are discernible in them all. They generally have
respectable talents, and succeed in all the arts to which they apply.
Had they the same motives to stimulate them as are found in Europe, they
would make as great progress in the useful sciences as they have
already made in metaphysics. They do not readily imbibe prejudices, and
are not tenacious in retaining them. As however, scientific books and
philosophical instruments are very scarce and difficultly attainable in
Chili, their talents have no opportunity of being developed, and are
mostly employed in trifling pursuits; and as the expence of printing is
enormous, they are discouraged from literary exertion, so that few among
them aspire to the reputation of becoming authors. The knowledge of the
civil and canon law is held in high estimation, so that many of the
youth of Chili, after completing their academical education in their own
country, proceed to Lima to study law. The fine arts are in a low state
in Chili, and even the mechanical arts are far from perfection. The arts
of carpentry, of working in iron, and in the precious metals, are
however to be excepted, in which they have made considerable progress,
in consequence of the information and example of some German artists,
who were introduced into Chili by that worthy ecclesiastic Father
Carlos, a native of Hainhausen in Bavaria. The important changes which
the beneficence of an enlightened administration in Spain have lately
introduced into the American colonies, by directing the attention of the
subjects to useful improvements, have extended their influence even to
Chili. Arts and sciences, formerly unknown or but very imperfectly, now
engage the attention of the inhabitants, and there is reason to hope
that the country will soon assume a better aspect.
The peasantry of Spanish Chili, though for much the greater part of
Spanish descent, dress after the manner of the Araucanians. Thinly
dispersed over an extensive country, and unincumbered by restraint, they
enjoy complete liberty, and lead a tranquil and happy life, amidst the
enjoyment of abundance, in a delightful climate and fertile soil. The
principal part of these healthy and vigorous men live dispersedly upon
their respective possessions, and cultivate with their own hands a
greater or less extent of ground. They are naturally gay, and fond of
all kinds of diversion. They have likewise a strong taste for music, and
even compose verses, which, though rude and inelegant, possess much
pleasing native simplicity, often more interesting than the laboured
compositions of cultivated poets. Extemporary rhymers are common among
them, like the _improvisatori_ of Italy, and are called _Palladores_,
who are held in great estimation, and devote themselves entirely to
that occupation. In the Spanish provinces of Chili, no other language
than Spanish is spoken, except upon the frontiers, where the peasants
speak both Araucanian and Spanish. The men dress in the fashion of
Spain, and the women in that of Peru; only that the women in Chili wear
their garments longer than is usual in Peru. Lima prescribes the
fashions for Chili, as is done by Paris for the rest of Europe; and the
inhabitants of Chili and Peru are equally luxurious, as in both
countries the wealthy make a splendid display in their dress, titles,
coaches, and servants. Chili enjoys alone of all the American colonies,
the high honour of having two of its citizens exalted to the dignity of
grandees of Spain: Don Fernando Irrazabel, Marquis of Valparaiso, born
in St Jago, who was viceroy of Navarre, and generalissimo of the Spanish
army in the reign of Philip IV. and Don Fermin Caravajal, Duke of San
Carlos, a native of Conception, who resides at present[104] at the court
of Madrid. Don Juan de Covarrubias, a native of St Jago, who went into
the service of France in the beginning of the eighteenth century, was
rewarded with the title of marquis, the order of the Holy Ghost, and the
rank of Marshal in the French army.
[Footnote 104: This refers to 1787, when Molina published his work.--E.]
The salubrity of the climate, and the constant exercise on horseback to
which the natives of Chili are accustomed from their infancy, render
them strong and active, and preserve them from many diseases. The
small-pox is not so common as in Europe, but makes terrible ravages when
it appears[105]. In the year 1766, it was first introduced into the
province of Maule, where it proved exceedingly fatal. At this time, a
countryman who had recovered from this loathsome disease, conceived the
idea of curing those unhappy persons who were deemed in a desperate
situation, by means of cows milk, which he gave to his patients to
drink, or administered in clysters. By this simple remedy, he cured all
whom he attended; while the physicians saved very few by their
complicated prescriptions. I mention this circumstance, as it strongly
confirms the practice of M. Lassone, physician to the queen of France,
published in the Medical Transactions of Paris for 1779, who was
successful in curing the small-pox with cows milk, mixed with a
decoction of parsley roots. From these instances it would appear, that,
milk has the power of lessening the virulence of this terrible disease.
[Footnote 105: Several years ago, before that terrible French eruption
which now desolates Spain, the Spanish government communicated to all
her colonies, however distant, the inestimable benefit of vaccination.
It may be here mentioned that it has been long known among the
illiterate cow-herds in the mountains of Peru, all either native
Peruvians or Negroes, that a disease of the hands which they are liable
to be infected with on handling diseased cow udders, the _cow-pox_,
effectually arms all who have been subjected to it against the infection
of the _small-pox_.--E.]
The Creole inhabitants of Chili are in general generous and benevolent.
Contented with a comfortable subsistence, so easily acquired in that
country, they are rarely infected with the vice of avarice, and even
scarcely know what parsimony is. Their houses are universally open to
all travellers, whom they entertain with much hospitality, without any
idea of being paid; and this virtue is even exercised in the cities.
Hence, they have not hitherto attended to the erection of inns and
public lodging-houses, or hotels, which will become necessary when the
commerce of the interior becomes more active. The inhabitants of Chili
are very dexterous in using the _laqui_, which they constantly carry
with them on their excursions. It consists of a strap of leather several
fathoms in length, twisted like a cord, one end of which is fastened to
the girth under the horses belly, and the other end terminates in a
strong noose, which they throw over any animal they wish to catch with
so much dexterity as hardly ever to miss their aim[106]. It is used
likewise on foot, in which case one end is fixed to the girdle. The
peasants of Chili employed this singular weapon with success against
certain English pirates who landed on their coast. Herodotus makes
mention of the employment of a similar noose in battle by the Sagartii,
a nation of Persian descent, who used no offensive weapons except
daggers, depending principally upon cords of twisted leather, with a
noose at one extremity, with which they used in battle to entangle their
enemies, and then easily put them to death with their daggers. The
inhabitants of Chili are likewise very expert in the management of
horses; and, in the opinion of travellers who have seen and admired
their dexterity and courage on horseback, they might soon be formed into
the best body of cavalry in the world. From their attachment to horses,
they are particularly fond of horse-races, which they conduct in the
English manner.
[Footnote 106: The _laqui_ in use to the east of the Andes, at least so
far as employed in war, has either a ball or stone at one or both
ends.--E.]
The negroes, who have been introduced into Chili by contraband means,
are subjected to a much more tolerable servitude than in other parts of
America, where the interested motives of the planters have stifled every
sentiment of humanity. As the cultivation of sugar and other West Indian
produce has not been introduced into Chili, the negro slaves are
employed only in domestic services, where by attention and diligence
they acquire the favour of their masters. Those most esteemed are either
born in the country, or mulattoes, as they become attached to the
families to which they belong. By the humanity of government, excellent
regulations have been introduced in favour of this unfortunate race.
Such as have been able by their industry to save a sum of money
sufficient to purchase a slave, are entitled to ransom themselves by
paying it to their masters, who are obliged to receive it and grant them
their liberty; by which means many of them have obtained their freedom.
Those who are ill treated by their masters, can demand _a letter of
sale_, which entitles them to seek for a purchaser; and if the master
refuses, they apply to the judge of the town or district, who examines
into their complaint, and grants the required permission, if well
founded. Such instances are however rare, as the masters are careful not
to reduce their slaves to this necessity on account of their own
reputation, and because the slaves are generally so much attached to
their masters, that the greatest punishment which could be inflicted on
them were to sell them to others. It even frequently happens that those
who have received their freedom in reward of good conduct, do not avail
themselves of it, that they may not lose the protection of the family
they belong to, from which they are always sure of subsistence. Masters
however have the right to correct their slaves, and the kind and degree
of punishment is left with them, except in capital crimes.
The internal commerce of Chili has hitherto been of small importance,
notwithstanding the many advantages possessed by this fertile country.
Its principal source, industry, or necessity rather, is still wanting.
An extensive commerce requires a large population, and in proportion as
the one increases, the other will necessarily advance. A communication
by water, which greatly facilitates the progress of commerce, has
already been opened. In several of the Chilese ports, barks are now
employed in the transportation of merchandise, which had formerly to be
carried by land on the backs of mules, with great trouble and expence;
and this beneficial alteration will probably be followed with others of
greater importance. Several large ships have been already built in the
harbour of Conception, and at the mouth of the river Maule, in the port
of Huachapure; by which the external commerce of the kingdom is carried
on with Peru and Spain. In the trade with Peru, twenty-three or
twenty-four ships are employed, of five or six hundred tons each, part
of which belong to Chili and part to Peru. These usually make three
voyages yearly, and carry from Chili wheat, wine, pulse, almonds, nuts,
cocoa-nuts, conserves, dried meat, tallow, lard, cheese, bend-leather,
timber for building, copper, and a variety of other articles; and bring
back return cargoes of silver, sugar, rice, and cotton. The ships which
trade directly from Spain to Chili, receive gold, silver, copper,
Vicugna wool, and hides, in exchange for European commodities. A
permission to trade to the East Indies would be very profitable to the
Chilese, as their most valuable articles are either scarce or not
produced in these wealthy regions of Asia, and the passage across the
Pacific Ocean would be easy and expeditious, in consequence of the
prevalence of southerly winds. The only money current in Chili is of
gold and silver, which is considerably embarrassing to internal
commerce, as the smallest silver coin is the sixteenth of a dollar, or
4-1/4d. The weights and measures are the same with those of Madrid.
"Of the two great sources of commerce, agriculture and manufacturing
industry, the former alone hitherto animates the internal trade of
Chili, or even the commercial intercourse between that country and
Peru[107]. The working of mines also occupies the attention of many of
the colonists, especially in the provinces of Copaipo, Coquimbo, and
Quillota. Manufacturing industry is hitherto so trifling as not to
deserve notice. Notwithstanding the abundance of raw materials for this
purpose, such as flax, wool, hemp, skins, and metals, which might give
employment to a flourishing manufacturing industry, it is still in a
languid condition. The inhabitants however manufacture _ponchos_,
stockings, carpets, blankets, skin-coats, saddles, hats, and other small
articles, chiefly for the use of the poorer people, as those used by the
middle and higher ranks are from the manufactures of Europe. These
enumerated articles, with the sale of hides and leather, grain and
wine, form the whole internal commerce of Chili. The external commerce
is principally with the ports of Peru, and particulary with that of
Callao, the port of Lima. To the amount of about 700,000 dollars is
yearly sent to Peru in the productions of Chili, serving not only to
counterbalance the importations from that country, but leaving an annual
balance of 200,000 dollars in favour of Chili. The trade between Chili
and Buenos Ayres is on the contrary in favour of the latter, as Chili
has to pay about 300,000 dollars yearly in cash for the herb _Paraguay_
alone. The other articles received from Buenos Ayres are probably paid
for by those which are sent to that place. In the trade with Spain, the
productions of Chili go but a short way in payment of the European goods
which are annually imported to the value of more than a million of
dollars. Gold, silver, and copper, form the whole of the articles sent
from Chili to Spain, as the hides and Vicugna wool are of too little
importance to be considered."
[Footnote 107: These observations on the trade of Chili, distinguished
by inverted commas, are inserted into the text from a long note in this
part of the work of Molina--E.]
"Gold to the extent of 5200 marks[108], and as the amounts which are
coined and shipped are nearly equal, there does not appear to be any
clandestine extraction. But a considerable quantity is expended in
bullion, in works of use or ornament. The silver extracted from the
mines of Chili is estimated at 30,000 marks yearly[109]. Of this about
25,000 marks are coined annually, and the residue is employed in the
fabrication of plate. Yet a considerably larger amount is shipped every
year, arising from the coined silver, which is transmitted from Lima.
The remittances of gold and silver from Chili to Spain passes usually
through Buenos Ayres. The gold, being less bulky, is carried by land, by
the monthly packets, in sums of two or three thousand ounces. The silver
is sent by two ships every summer, which likewise carry a part of the
gold. The remittances of gold amount annually to 656,000 dollars[110],
the silver to 244,000[111]; and the copper annually extracted from the
mines of Chili is estimated at from eight to ten thousand quintals[112].
From these data it will not be difficult to form a general estimate of
the value of yearly produce from Chili[113]."
[Footnote 108: The mark being eight ounces may be valued at L.4; hence
the yearly production of gold in Chili is equal to about L.166,400
sterling.--E.]
[Footnote 109: At eight ounces the mark, and 6s. _per_ ounce, this
amounts only to the yearly value of L.72,000 sterling.--E.]
[Footnote 110: At 4s. 6d. the dollar, equal to L.147,600 sterling.--E.]
[Footnote 111: Or L.54,900 sterling.--E.]
[Footnote 112: The quintal of 100 pounds, at 1s. 6d. a pound, gives an
average value of L.67,500 sterling for the yearly produce of
copper.--E.]
[Footnote 113: The entire value of the three enumerated articles amounts
to L.270,000 sterling; but the other articles of export from Chili,
formerly enumerated, are not here included.--E.]