sect as a party. Church and State being one in the conception of a
theocracy, or government of God, the devotee and the politician were the
same person; the dogmatist was the democrat; the man of narrowest creed
was the man of widest sympathies; the most exclusive theologian was the
most popular partisan. To keep Israel true to the faith, and, in
consequence of that to save it from political decline, was, from the
first, the Pharisee's mission. He never lost it from his view. His eye
was steadily fixed on the issues of the day, as they involved the
destinies of the future. In order that he might be a patriot, he was
anxious to preserve unimpaired his puritanism; and in order that he
might preserve his puritanism unimpaired, he attended diligently to the
duties of patriotism.
The Pharisee cherished the Messianic hope. It was part of his faith in
the destiny of Israel, and the great practical justification of his
belief in the resurrection of the dead; he believed in personal
immortality, because he believed in the Christ who would come to bestow
it. It was an article of the patriot's creed; the joy of the Messianic
felicity being the reward for fidelity to Israel. The hope presented to
him its political aspect, that being the aspect really fascinating to
patriotic contemplation. The moral and spiritual aspects were incidental
to this. In fact the moral and spiritual aspects were scarcely thought
of. It was reserved for Christianity to develop these when the literal
doctrine had lost its interest, and the heavenly kingdom had been
transported from the earth to the skies. A thousand and a half of years
have not spiritualized the belief with the multitude. Still the
Pharisaic doctrine is the accepted faith; a purely rational human faith
in immortality is entertained by the philosophical few. The Pharisees
constituted a sort of Young Men's Hebrew Association, loosely organized
for the maintenance of the faith and the fulfilment of the destiny of
Israel.
But while all Pharisees shared the same general beliefs, all were not of
the same mind on questions of immediate policy. They were divided into
conservative and radical wings. The conservatives, whether from
temperament, position, conviction, or selfish interest, deprecated
sudden or violent measures which would defeat their own ends and make a
bad state of things worse. They counselled moderation, patience,
acquiescence in the actual and inevitable. They discountenanced the open
expressions of discontent, advised submission to law, and preached the
duty of strict religious observance as the proper preparation, on their
part, for the providential advent of the Son of Man. No doubt this
policy was prompted in many cases by timidity, and in many cases by
time-serving craft; but no doubt it was in many cases suggested by sober
statesmanship. The conservative Pharisee was even less popular than the
Sadducee; for the Sadducee pretended to no belief in Israel's
providential destiny, and to no sympathy with Israel's Messianic hope;
while the Pharisee made conspicuous protestation of orthodox zeal.
Evidence of the popular dislike of the conservative Pharisee abounds. He
was looked upon as a renegade. He was called pretender and hypocrite,
wolf in sheep's clothing, a whited sepulchre. He was ridiculed and
lampooned. All manner of heartlessness was charged against him, as being
a monster of inhumanity. "The Talmud," says Deutsch, "inveighs even more
bitterly and caustically than the New Testament, against what it calls
'the plague of Pharisaism;' 'the dyed ones,' 'who do evil deeds, like
Zimri, and require a goodly reward, like Phinehas;' 'who preach
beautifully, but behave unbeautifully.'" Their artificial
interpretations, their divisions and sub-divisions, their attitudes and
posturings were parodied and caricatured. The conventional Pharisee was
classed under one of six categories: he did the will of God, but from
interested motives; he was forever doing the will of God, but never
accomplishing it; he performed absurd penances to avoid imaginary sins;
he accepted office in the character of saint; he sanctimoniously begged
his neighbor to mention some duty he had inadvertently omitted, his
design being to seem faithful in all things when he was faithful in
nothing; or, if sincerely devout, he was devout from fear. He had no
credit given him for his virtues, and more than due discredit for his
vices. In time of peril the conservatives out-numbered the radicals, for
radicalism was dangerous; and the feeling between the two classes was
the bitterer on this account; the conservatives hating the radicals whom
they could not disown, the radicals despising the conservatives who were
their brothers in faith. Each party compromised the other precisely
where misapprehension was most exasperating.
For the radicalism of the time was exclusively, we may say, pharisaic.
There was no other of any considerable account. None but believers in
the restoration of Israel, in the triumphant vindication of her faith in
a new and complete social order and in absolute political independence;
none but believers in divine interposition, and a personal resurrection
of the faithful for the enjoyment of felicity in the Messianic kingdom;
none but devout students of the scripture, recipients of the whole
tradition, visionaries of the literal or spiritual order, could
entertain so audacious a hope; and all these were Pharisees.
The Essenes, a mystical and secluded sect, dwelt apart, took no interest
in public affairs, and exerted no influence on public opinion. Peculiar
in their usages, secret in their proceedings, contemplative in their
habits, quietists and dreamers, they so transfigured and sublimated the
views which they shared with their compatriots, that no point of
practical contact was visible. From them no prophet or reformer came.
The soul of the Hebrew faith was all they recognized; the body of it
they were indifferent to. That in many respects their doctrines,
precepts, social usages and religious practices corresponded with those
held by conscientious Jews, need not be questioned. It does not follow
that they originated or communicated them. Such opinions were simply
adopted as a common inheritance. The Essenes rather withdrew than
imparted their belief. All the ingenuity of DeQuincey is unavailing to
establish a practical relation between the Essenes and any popular
movement in Judaea. These movements were led by the more enthusiastic of
the Pharisees, and followed by the multitude that shared their ideas.
The "lawyers" and "scribes," Pharisees for the most part by profession,
were in consequence of their profession, conservative. Men of learning,
well balanced in mind, carefully educated, good linguists, masters often
in theology, philosophy, moral science, familiar as any were with
natural history, the mathematics, botany, engaged in the study and
exposition of the sacred books, they were from the scholastic nature of
their pursuits, disinclined to take part in popular reforms. There were
no zealots among them; they were men of moderate opinions and calm
tempers, capable of stubborn resistance to the elements of agitation,
but incapable of vehement sympathies with enthusiasm.
The "Herodians," were a limited and never a popular party, who hoped
that, in some way, the deliverance of Israel might come through the
family of Herod, as being Jews but not bigots, of foreign extraction but
of oriental genius, whose dynasty had been, and might again be,
independent of Rome. These men were interested in public affairs,
watched narrowly the signs of the times in politics, but were as jealous
on the one side, of popular outbreaks, as they were on the other, of
imperial domination. Deliverance, in their judgment, was to come by
diplomacy, not by enthusiasm. They had no religious creed that
distinguished them as a party. Some may have been Sadducees; more,
probably were Pharisees; but whether Pharisees or Sadducees, they were
in no danger of being demagogues or the dupes of demagogues. The party
was in existence at the period of Jesus; but it could not have been
strong. Its influence, if it ever had any, was declining with the
decreasing significance of the Herodian line. We hear little of them in
the literature of the time; with the final and absolute supremacy of
Rome, they disappeared. The casual mention of them, once in Matthew and
once in Mark, on the same occasion, and in connection with the
Pharisees, is evidence that they were still in existence late in the
first century. That is their last appearance.
IV.
THE MESSIAH IN THE NEW TESTAMENT.
The earliest writings of the New Testament, the genuine letters of Paul,
written not far from the year 60, thirty years more or less after the
received date of the crucifixion of Jesus, take up and continue the line
of Jewish tradition. No traces exist of literature produced between the
opening of the century and the epistolary activity of the apostle of the
Gentiles. The times were unfavorable to the production and the
preservation of literary work. The earliest gospels, even granting their
genuineness and authenticity, cannot be assigned to so early a period,
cannot be crowded back beyond the year 70, and must probably be placed
later by ten, fifteen, twenty years. They bear evidently on their pages
the impress of ideas which Paul made current. Their authors, when not
disciples of his school, respected it and had regard to its claim. The
gospel of Luke betrays, in its whole structure the shaping hand of a
Pauline adherent. Its catholicity, its anti-Judaic spirit, its frequent
and approving mention of Samaritans, its doctrine of demons and powers
of the infernal world, its constant recognition in precept and parable
of the claims of the heathen on the salvation of the Christ, are a few
of the plain marks of a genius foreign to that of Palestine. The gospel
of Mark is similarly though not so eminently or so minutely
characterized. Even the gospel of Matthew contains deposits from this
formation. The language of one verse in the eleventh chapter,--"All
things are delivered unto me of My Father; and no man knoweth the Son,
but the Father, neither knoweth any man the Father, save the Son, and he
to whom the Son will reveal him," confesses in every word, its Pauline
origin. The passage lies like a boulder on a common.
Though concerned with a period anterior to the apostle's conversion,
with events whereof he had no knowledge, and with a life from which he
professed to derive only his impulse, the gospels are written, not in
the style of chronicles or memoirs, but in the style of disquisitions
rather. Far from being the artless, guileless, unstudied compositions
they have passed for, they are imbued with an atmosphere of reflection,
are ingeniously elaborate and, in parts painfully studied. They are
meditated biographies, in which the biographical material is selected
and qualified by speculative motives. Nevertheless, these are the only
fragments presumably of historical character that we possess. The
period that Paul's ministry supposes must be searched for in these
after-minded books. Hence arise grave literary difficulties. Several
points must be borne in mind; the absence of any contemporaneous account
of the ministry of Jesus; the utter dearth of early memoranda; the
advanced age of the evangelists at the time they wrote, even on the
common reckoning, and the effect of age in weakening recollection,
suggesting fancies, raising queries, inflaming imaginations, making the
mind receptive of theories and marvels; the influence on the disciples
and on the intellectual world of a man so powerful as Paul, and the
altered speculative climate of the later apostolic age. The literary
laws forbid under these circumstances our reading the gospel narratives
as authentic histories--constrain us in fact to read them, in some sort,
as disquisitions, making allowance as we go along, for the infusion of
doctrinal elements.
The actual Jesus is, thus understood, inaccessible to scientific
research. His image cannot be recovered. He left no memorial in writing
of himself; his followers were illiterate; the mind of his age was
confused. Paul received only traditions of him, how definite we have no
means of knowing, apparently not significant enough to be treasured, nor
consistent enough to oppose a barrier to his own speculations. The
character of Jesus is a fair subject for discussion and conjecture; but
at this stage in a literary study such discussion and conjecture would
be out of place. We have at present simply to inquire into the character
of the Messianic hope as it was illustrated in the ante-Pauline period.
This task is less difficult, and may be accomplished without detriment
to moral or spiritual qualities which Jesus may have possessed.
The earliest phase of the Messianic hope in the New Testament must have
corresponded with prevalent expectations of Israel in the early period
of our first century. What that was has been described. The "Son of Man"
of Matthew, Mark and Luke, their Pauline elements being eliminated,
meets the requirements in every respect, and in no particular transcends
them. He is a radical Pharisee who has at heart the enfranchisement of
his people. He is represented as being a native of Galilee, the
insurgent district of the country; nurtured, if not born in Nazareth,
one of its chief cities; reared as a youth amid traditions of patriotic
devotion, and amid scenes associated with heroic dreams and endeavors.
The Galileans were restless, excitable people, beyond the reach of
conventionalities, remote from the centre of power ecclesiastical and
secular, simple in their lives, bold of speech, independent in thought,
thorough-going in the sort of radicalism that is common among people who
live "out of the world," who have leisure to discuss the exciting topics
of the day, but too little knowledge, culture, or sense of social
responsibility to discuss them soundly. Their mental discontent and
moral intractability were proverbial. They were belligerents. The Romans
had more trouble with them than with the natives of any other province.
The Messiahs all started out from Galilee, and never failed to collect
followers round their standard. The Galileans more than others, lived in
the anticipation of the Deliverer. The reference of the Messiah to
Galilee is therefore already an indication of the character he is to
assume.
Another indication, equally pointed, is the brief association with
Bethlehem, the city of David, and the pains taken to connect the Messiah
with the royal line. The early traditions go out of their way to prove
this. A labored genealogy is invented to show the path of his descent.
Prophecy and song are called in to ratify his lineage. Inspired lips
repeat ancient psalms announcing the glory that is to come to the House
of David. An angel promises Mary that her son shall have given unto him
"the throne of his father, David, and shall reign over the house of
Jacob for ever." The Messiah is called the "Son of David;" an
appellation that carried the idea of temporal dominion and no other. The
legends respecting the massacre of the children in Bethlehem and the
flight into Egypt, belong to the same circle of prediction.
Another indication to the same purpose is the patient effort to
represent the Messiah as fulfilling Old Testament anticipations. "That
the scripture might be fulfilled" is the reiterated explanation of his
ordinary actions. The earliest records miss no occasion for declaring
the Messiah's fidelity to the law of Moses. Among the first words put
into his mouth is the earnest protestation: "Think not that I am come to
destroy the law and the prophets; I am not come to destroy but to
establish;" and this statement is followed by a detailed contrast
between the literal and the spiritual interpretation of the law,
precisely in the vein of the prophets who held themselves to be the true
friends of the code which the priests and formalists perverted. There is
nothing in this criticism disrespectful to the commandments, or beyond
the mark of orthodox scripture.
The visit to the Baptist, who, entertaining the popular notion of the
Messiah, and believing in his speedy advent, welcomed Jesus to the
vacant position; Jesus' response to the call, and acceptance of the
_role_, are in the same vein. Let it not be forgotten that the later
misgivings of the Baptist were raised by the apparent failure of the
Messiah to justify expectation; that John, from his prison, sends a
sharp message, and that the Messiah, instead of correcting the
precursor's crude idea, simply bids him be patient and construe the
signs in faith.
The story of the Temptation in the Wilderness, closely patterned after
incidents in the career of Moses, is calculated to join the two closely
by similarity of experience. That the Messiah should be tempted is quite
within the circle of later Jewish conceptions, as the literature of the
Talmud proves.
The story of the Transfiguration derives its point from the circumstance
that the spirits with whom the chosen one held communion were Moses and
Elias, the law-giver and the prophet of the old dispensation.
The phrase "Kingdom of Heaven," so frequent on the Messiah's lips, had
but one meaning, which was universally understood. It described a
temporal rule, the reign of a prince of David's line. No class of people
accepted the phrase in any different sense. The Christ nowhere corrects
the vulgar opinion, or places his own in opposition to it. The
evangelist intends to convey the idea that he is in full accord with the
general feeling.
The questions put to the Messiah and the answers given to them are
additional evidence of this assent; the question, for example,
concerning the obligation to pay tribute to the Roman government, a test
question touching the very heart of Jewish patriotism, and the cautious
reply, calculated to evade the peril of a categorical declaration which
was felt to be called for, and to be due. The rejoinder of the Christ is
designed to satisfy the popular expectation without raising popular
uproar. It is the answer of a patriot, but not of a zealot. Had the
Messiah not corresponded to the image in the Jewish imagination, the
inquiry might have been summarily dismissed. Its evasion proves not that
the Christ transcended the average expectation, but that he shared it.
The version of the incident given in Matthew XVII, confirms this
judgment; for according to that account the Messiah privately admits the
exemption from tribute, and then provides miraculously for its payment,
"lest we should give offence."
The nature of the excitement caused by the Messiah is another evidence
of the spirit in which he wrought. Everywhere he is greeted as the
Messiah, the son of David; everywhere the multitudes flock to him, as to
the expected king. His intimate friends are never disabused of the
notion that they, if they continue firm in their allegiance, will hold
places of honor at his right hand. He reminds them of the stringency of
the conditions, but does not condemn the idea. An ambitious mother
presents her two sons as candidates for preferment, asking for them
seats at his right and left hand, on his coming to glory. He rebukes the
selfishness of the ambition, says that seats of honor are for those that
earn them, not for those that desire them, adding that he has no
authority to assign places even to the worthiest; but he does not
discountenance the notion that he shall sit in glory, that there will
be places of honor on either side of him, or that the faithful servants
will occupy them. Indeed, his reply confirms that anticipation.
The multitude, impressed by his claim, desire to make him a king. He
removes himself; not because he repudiates all right to the office, he
nowhere hints that, and in places he more than hints the contrary,--but
because he is not prepared to avow his pretension. The time is not ripe
for a manifesto.
The writers about this period take especial pains to limit the
conception of the Messiah within the boundaries of the average patriotic
ideal. They make him declare to the twelve disciples, as he sends them
forth, that before they shall have carried their message to the cities
of Israel the Son of Man would announce himself. On a later occasion he
is made to say: "There are some here who will not taste of death till
they see the Son of Man coming in his glory." Declarations like these
are pointedly inconsistent with an intellectual or moral idea of the
kingdom. The notion of progress, instruction, regenerating influence,
gradual elevation through the power of character, is precluded. The
kingdom is to come in time, suddenly, unexpectedly, by a shock of
supernatural agency, at the instant the Lord wills; the Son of Man
himself knows not when, for it is not dependent on his activity as a
reformer, his success as a teacher, or his influence as a person, but on
the decree of Jehovah.
The attempt on the popular feeling in Jerusalem, strangely called the
triumphal entrance of the Messiah into the holy city, is unintelligible
except as a political demonstration; whether projected by the Christ or
by his followers, or by the Christ urged by the importunate expectations
of his followers, whether undertaken hopefully or in desperation, it
nowhere appears that it was made in any moral or spiritual interest. All
the incidents of the narrative point to a political end, the public
assertion of the Christ's Messianic claim. The ass, used instead of the
chariot or the horse by royalty on state occasions, and especially
alluded to by the prophet Zechariah in connexion with the coming of
Zion's King; the palm branches and hosannahs, emblems of sacred majesty;
the cries of the attendant throng loudly proclaiming the Messiah; the
Galileaan composition of the crowd, marking the revolutionary temper of
it; the blank reception of the pageant by the citizens who were too wary
to commit themselves to the chances of collision with the Roman
authorities; the complete failure of the demonstration in the heart of
conservative Judaea; the bearing of the Christ himself as of one
conscious of a sublime but perilous mission; all these things find ready
explanation by the popular conception of the Messiah, as a national
deliverer, but are unintelligible on any other theory.
The unspiritual character of the Messiah's attitude is made yet more
apparent as the history draws to a close. The violent purging of the
temple can only by great vigor of interpretation be made to bear any
save a national complexion. It was the assertion of Jehovah's right to
his own domain; an indignant, passionate assertion; the declaration of a
zealot whose zeal overrode considerations of wisdom.