farming, modern agriculture, handicrafts, a wide range of modern
industries, and a multitude of support services. 67% of India's
labor force work in agriculture, which contributes 25% of the
country's GDP. Production, trade, and investment reforms since 1991
have provided new opportunities for Indian businesspersons and an
estimated 300 million middle class consumers. New Delhi has avoided
debt rescheduling, attracted foreign investment, and revived
confidence in India's economic prospects since 1991. Many of the
country's fundamentals--including savings rates (26% of GDP) and
reserves (now about $30 billion)--are healthy. Even so, the Indian
Government needs to restore the early momentum of reform, especially
by continuing reductions in the extensive remaining government
regulations. India's exports, currency, and foreign institutional
investment were affected by the East Asian crisis in late 1997 and
1998; but capital account controls, a low ratio of short-term debt
to reserves, and enhanced supervision of the financial sector helped
insulate it from near term balance-of-payments problems. Exports
fell 5% in 1998 mainly because of the fall in Asian currencies
relative to the rupee. Energy, telecommunications, and
transportation bottlenecks continue to constrain growth. A series of
weak coalition governments have lacked the political strength to
push reforms forward to address these and other problems. Indian
think tanks project GDP growth of about 4.5% in 1999. Inflation will
remain a worrisome problem.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$1.689 trillion (1998 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: 5.4% (1998 est.)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$1,720 (1998 est.)
GDP--composition by sector:
agriculture: 25%
industry: 30%
services: 45% (1997)
Population below poverty line: 35% (1994 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%: 4.1%
highest 10%: 25% (1994)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 14% (1998 est.)
Labor force: NA
Labor force--by occupation: agriculture 67%, services 18%,
industry 15% (1995 est.)
Unemployment rate: NA%
Budget:
revenues: $42.12 billion
expenditures: $63.79 billion, including capital expenditures of
$13.8 billion (FY98/99 budget est.)
Industries: textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel,
transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery
Industrial production growth rate: 5.5% (1997)
Electricity--production: 404.475 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--production by source:
fossil fuel: 80.35%
hydro: 17.8%
nuclear: 1.83%
other: 0.02% (1996)
Electricity--consumption: 406.02 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--exports: 130 million kWh (1996)
Electricity--imports: 1.675 billion kWh (1996)
Agriculture--products: rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea,
sugarcane, potatoes; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry;
fish
Exports: $32.17 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
Exports--commodities: textile goods, gems and jewelry, engineering
goods, chemicals, leather manufactures
Exports--partners: US 19%, Hong Kong 6%, UK 6%, Japan 6%, Germany
5% (1997)
Imports: $41.34 billion (c.i.f., 1998)
Imports--commodities: crude oil and petroleum products, machinery,
gems, fertilizer, chemicals
Imports--partners: US 10%, Belgium 7%, UK 7%, Germany 7%, Saudi
Arabia 6%, Japan 6% (1997)
Debt--external: $93 billion (1998)
Economic aid--recipient: $1.604 billion (1995)
Currency: 1 Indian rupee (Re) = 100 paise
Exchange rates: Indian rupees (Rs) per US$1--42.508 (January
1999), 41.259 (1998), 36.313 (1997), 35.433 (1996), 32.427 (1995),
31.374 (1994)
Fiscal year: 1 April--31 March
Communications
Telephones: 12 million (1996)
Telephone system: mediocre; local and long distance service
provided throughout all regions of the country, with services
primarily concentrated in the urban areas; major objective is to
continue to expand and modernize long-distance network in order to
keep pace with rapidly growing number of local subscriber lines;
steady improvement is taking place with the recent admission of
private and private-public investors, but demand for communication
services is also growing rapidly
domestic: local service is provided by microwave radio relay and
coaxial cable, with open wire and obsolete electromechanical and
manual switchboard systems still in use in rural areas; starting in
the 1980s, a substantial amount of digital switch gear has been
introduced for local- and long-distance service; long-distance
traffic is carried mostly by coaxial cable and low-capacity
microwave radio relay; since 1985, however, significant trunk
capacity has been added in the form of fiber-optic cable and a
domestic satellite system with 254 earth stations; cellular
telephone service in four metropolitan cities
international: satellite earth stations--8 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean Region); four gateway exchanges
operating from Mumbai, New Delhi, Calcutta, and Chennai; submarine
cables to Malaysia, UAE, Singapore, and Japan
Radio broadcast stations: AM 153, FM 91, shortwave 62 (1998 est.)
Radios: 111 million (1998 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 562 (82 stations have 1 kW or
greater power and 480 stations have less than 1 kW of power) (1997)
Televisions: 50 million (1999 est.)
Transportation
Railways:
total: 62,915 km (12,307 km electrified; 12,617 km double track)
broad gauge: 40,620 km 1.676-m gauge
narrow gauge: 18,501 km 1.000-m gauge; 3,794 km 0.762-m and 0.610-m
gauge (1998 est.)
Highways:
total: 3,319,644 km
paved: 1,517,077 km
unpaved: 1,802,567 km (1996 est.)
Waterways: 16,180 km; 3,631 km navigable by large vessels
Pipelines: crude oil 3,005 km; petroleum products 2,687 km;
natural gas 1,700 km (1995)
Ports and harbors: Calcutta, Chennai (Madras), Cochin, Jawaharal
Nehru, Kandla, Mumbai (Bombay), Vishakhapatnam
Merchant marine:
total: 311 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,627,497
GRT/11,038,723 DWT
ships by type: bulk 126, cargo 63, chemical tanker 11, combination
bulk 2, combination ore/oil 3, container 12, liquefied gas tanker
10, oil tanker 76, passenger-cargo 5, short-sea passenger 1,
specialized tanker 2 (1998 est.)
Airports: 341 (1998 est.)
Airports--with paved runways:
total: 230
over 3,047 m: 11
2,438 to 3,047 m: 48
1,524 to 2,437 m: 82
914 to 1,523 m: 70
under 914 m: 19 (1998 est.)
Airports--with unpaved runways:
total: 111
2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
1,524 to 2,437 m: 8
914 to 1,523 m: 50
under 914 m: 51 (1998 est.)
Heliports: 17 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Army, Navy (including naval air arm), Air
Force, various security or paramilitary forces (includes Border
Security Force, Assam Rifles, and Rashtriya Rifles)
Military manpower--military age: 17 years of age
Military manpower--availability:
males age 15-49: 269,339,985 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--fit for military service:
males age 15-49: 158,141,508 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--reaching military age annually:
males: 10,661,786 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures--dollar figure: $10.012 billion (FY98/99)
Military expenditures--percent of GDP: 2.7% (FY98/99)
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: boundary with China in dispute; status of
Kashmir with Pakistan; water-sharing problems with Pakistan over the
Indus River (Wular Barrage); a portion of the boundary with
Bangladesh is indefinite; dispute with Bangladesh over New
Moore/South Talpatty Island
Illicit drugs: world's largest producer of licit opium for the
pharmaceutical trade, but an undetermined quantity of opium is
diverted to illicit international drug markets; major transit
country for illicit narcotics produced in neighboring countries;
illicit producer of hashish and methaqualone; cultivated 2,050
hectares of illicit opium in 1997, a 34% decrease from 1996, with a
potential production of 30 metric tons, a 36% decrease from 1996
======================================================================
@Indian Ocean
------------
Geography
Location: body of water between Africa, Antarctica, Asia, and
Australia
Geographic coordinates: 30 00 S, 80 00 E
Map references: World
Area:
total: 73.6 million sq km
note: includes Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Great
Australian Bight, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Mozambique Channel,
Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Strait of Malacca, and other tributary water
bodies
Area--comparative: slightly less than eight times the size of the
US; third-largest ocean (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean,
but larger than the Arctic Ocean)
Coastline: 66,526 km
Climate: northeast monsoon (December to April), southwest monsoon
(June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and
October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February
in the southern Indian Ocean
Terrain: surface dominated by counterclockwise gyre (broad,
circular system of currents) in the southern Indian Ocean; unique
reversal of surface currents in the northern Indian Ocean; low
atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer
air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast
winds and currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from
cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and
northeast-to-southwest winds and currents; ocean floor is dominated
by the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge and subdivided by the Southeast Indian
Ocean Ridge, Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge, and Ninetyeast Ridge
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Java Trench -7,258 m
highest point: sea level 0 m
Natural resources: oil and gas fields, fish, shrimp, sand and
gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules
Natural hazards: ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme
south near Antarctica from May to October
Environment--current issues: endangered marine species include the
dugong, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in the Arabian
Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea
Environment--international agreements:
party to: none of the selected agreements
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography--note: major chokepoints include Bab el Mandeb, Strait
of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, southern access to the Suez Canal, and
the Lombok Strait
Government
Data code: none; the US Government has not approved a standard
for hydrographic codes--see the Cross-Reference List of Hydrographic
Codes appendix
Economy
Economy--overview: The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes
connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and
the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum
and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and
Indonesia. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the
bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing
fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the
Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Large reserves of
hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia,
Iran, India, and western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's
offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands
rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively
exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, South Africa,
Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
Communications
Telephone system:
international: submarine cables from India to UAE and Malaysia and
from Sri Lanka to Djibouti and Indonesia
Transportation
Ports and harbors: Calcutta (India), Chennai (Madras; India),
Colombo (Sri Lanka), Durban (South Africa), Jakarta (Indonesia),
Melbourne (Australia), Mumbai (Bombay; India), Richards Bay (South
Africa)
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: some maritime disputes (see littoral
states)
======================================================================
@Indonesia
---------
Introduction
Background: Indonesia declared its independence in 1945 from the
Netherlands, a claim disputed, then recognized by the Dutch in 1949.
In 1975 Indonesian troops occupied Portuguese East Timor. Current
issues include implementing IMF-mandated reforms (particularly
restructuring and recapitalizing the insolvent banking sector),
effecting a transition to a popularly elected government, addressing
longstanding grievances over the role of the ethnic Chinese business
class and charges of cronyism and corruption, alleged human rights
violations by the military, the role of the military and religion in
politics, and growing pressures for some form of independence or
autonomy by Aceh, Irian Jaya, and East Timor.
Geography
Location: Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Indian Ocean
and the Pacific Ocean
Geographic coordinates: 5 00 S, 120 00 E
Map references: Southeast Asia
Area:
total: 1,919,440 sq km
land: 1,826,440 sq km
water: 93,000 sq km
Area--comparative: slightly less than three times the size of Texas
Land boundaries:
total: 2,602 km
border countries: Malaysia 1,782 km, Papua New Guinea 820 km
Coastline: 54,716 km
Maritime claims: measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: tropical; hot, humid; more moderate in highlands
Terrain: mostly coastal lowlands; larger islands have interior
mountains
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Puncak Jaya 5,030 m
Natural resources: petroleum, tin, natural gas, nickel, timber,
bauxite, copper, fertile soils, coal, gold, silver
Land use:
arable land: 10%
permanent crops: 7%
permanent pastures: 7%
forests and woodland: 62%
other: 14% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 45,970 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: occasional floods, severe droughts, tsunamis,
earthquakes, volcanoes
Environment--current issues: deforestation; water pollution from
industrial wastes, sewage; air pollution in urban areas; smoke and
haze from forest fires
Environment--international agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertication, Endangered
Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone
Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical
Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life
Conservation
Geography--note: archipelago of 17,000 islands (6,000 inhabited);
straddles Equator; strategic location astride or along major sea
lanes from Indian Ocean to Pacific Ocean
People
Population: 216,108,345 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure:
0-14 years: 30% (male 33,367,287; female 32,411,786)
15-64 years: 65% (male 70,541,893; female 70,866,972)
65 years and over: 5% (male 3,936,415; female 4,983,992) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 1.46% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 22.78 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 8.14 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.79 male(s)/female
total population: 1 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 57.3 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:
total population: 62.92 years
male: 60.67 years
female: 65.29 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 2.57 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality:
noun: Indonesian(s)
adjective: Indonesian
Ethnic groups: Javanese 45%, Sundanese 14%, Madurese 7.5%,
coastal Malays 7.5%, other 26%
Religions: Muslim 88%, Protestant 5%, Roman Catholic 3%, Hindu
2%, Buddhist 1%, other 1% (1998)
Languages: Bahasa Indonesia (official, modified form of Malay),
English, Dutch, local dialects, the most widely spoken of which is
Javanese
Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 83.8%
male: 89.6%
female: 78% (1995 est.)
Government
Country name:
conventional long form: Republic of Indonesia
conventional short form: Indonesia
local long form: Republik Indonesia
local short form: Indonesia
former: Netherlands East Indies; Dutch East Indies
Data code: ID
Government type: republic
Capital: Jakarta
Administrative divisions: 24 provinces (propinsi-propinsi,
singular--propinsi), 2 special regions* (daerah-daerah istimewa,
singular--daerah istimewa), and 1 special capital city district**
(daerah khusus ibukota); Aceh*, Bali, Bengkulu, Irian Jaya, Jakarta
Raya**, Jambi, Jawa Barat, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur, Kalimantan
Barat, Kalimantan Selatan, Kalimantan Tengah, Kalimantan Timur,
Lampung, Maluku, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Riau,
Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Tengah, Sulawesi Tenggara, Sulawesi
Utara, Sumatera Barat, Sumatera Selatan, Sumatera Utara, Timor
Timur, Yogyakarta*
Independence: 17 August 1945 (proclaimed independence; on 27
December 1949, Indonesia became legally independent from the
Netherlands)
National holiday: Independence Day, 17 August (1945)
Constitution: August 1945, abrogated by Federal Constitution of
1949 and Provisional Constitution of 1950, restored 5 July 1959
Legal system: based on Roman-Dutch law, substantially modified by
indigenous concepts and by new criminal procedures code; has not
accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 17 years of age; universal and married persons
regardless of age
Executive branch:
note: on 21 May 1998--less than three months after being selected for
a seventh five-year term--President Gen. (Ret.) SOEHARTO resigned
from office; immediately following his resignation he announced that
Vice President HABIBIE would assume the presidency for the remainder
of the term which expires in 2003; on 28 May 1998, HABIBIE and
legislative leaders announced an agreement to select a new president
in 1999
chief of state: President Bacharuddin J. HABIBIE (since 21 May
1998); note--the president is both the chief of state and head of
government
head of government: President Bacharuddin J. HABIBIE (since 21 May
1998); note--the president is both the chief of state and head of
government
cabinet: Cabinet
election: president and vice president selected by consensus by the
People's Consultative Assembly for five-year terms; selection last
held 10 March 1998 (next to be held by 10 November 1999)
election results: Gen. (Ret.) SOEHARTO selected president by
consensus by the People's Consultative Assembly; Bacharuddin J.
HABIBIE selected vice president by consensus by the People's
Consultative Assembly; note--Vice President HABIBIE assumed the
presidency after SOEHARTO's resignation
Legislative branch: unicameral House of Representatives or Dewan
Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR) (500 seats; 425 elected by popular vote, 75
are appointed military representatives; members serve five-year
terms)
elections: last held 29 May 1997 (next to be held 7 June 1999)
election results: percent of vote by party--Golkar 74.5%, PPP 22.43%,
PDI 3.07%; seats by party--Golkar 325, PPP 89, PDI 11
note: the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan
Rakyat or MPR) includes the DPR plus 200 indirectly selected
members; it meets every five years to elect the president and vice
president and to approve the broad outlines of national policy
Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung), the judges are
appointed by the president
Political parties and leaders: Golkar (de facto ruling political
Indonesia Democracy Party or PDI (federation of former Nationalist
chairman]
International organization participation: APEC, AsDB, ASEAN, CCC,
CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU,
ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat,
Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW,
OPEC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMOP, UNMOT,
UNOMIG, UNPREDEP, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
Diplomatic representation in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador DORODJATUN Kuntoro-Jakti
chancery: 2020 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and
San Francisco
Diplomatic representation from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador J. Stapleton ROY
embassy: Medan Merdeka Selatan 5, Jakarta
mailing address: Unit 8129, Box 1, APO AP 96520
consulate(s) general: Surabaya
Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and
white; similar to the flag of Monaco, which is shorter; also similar
to the flag of Poland, which is white (top) and red
Economy
Economy--overview: The collapse of the rupiah in late 1997 and
early 1998 caused GDP to contract by an estimated 13.7% in 1998
because of Indonesian firms' reliance on short-term
dollar-denominated debt and high levels of nonperforming loans in
the banking sector. The Indonesian Government initially wavered on
meeting the conditions it agreed to in exchange for a $42 billion
IMF assistance package, contributing to further loss in investor
confidence and outflows of capital. Riots that in many cases
targeted ethnic Chinese business owners also set back chances that
Indonesia would quickly stabilize its financial crisis and
contributed to President SOEHARTO's resignation on 21 May 1998. His
successor, B.J. HABIBIE, improved cooperation with the IMF. The
money supply--which expanded rapidly early in the year to prop up
banks hit by deposit runs--was tightened within a few months, and by
October, inflation--which reached a 77% annual rate--was significantly
dampened. The government also announced a bank recapitalization
program in late 1998, but by early 1999 the plan faced growing
challenges over its reliance on public funds. Doubts about whether
the program is adequate underlie forecasts of continued--although
much less severe--GDP contraction for 1999. Signs of spreading unrest
and sectarian violence and concern that social instability will
increase as the 7 June 1999 national election approaches also
contribute to pessimism about the economy, particularly because
foreign investors remain reluctant to begin to increase capital
inflows again. The next government will face the challenge of
establishing a macroeconomic policy framework that addresses
longstanding grievances and inequities underlying much of the
current unrest without hampering an economic recovery.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$602 billion (1998 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: -13.7% (1998 est.)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$2,830 (1998 est.)
GDP--composition by sector:
agriculture: 18.8%
industry: 40.3%
services: 40.9% (1998 est.)
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%: 3.6%
highest 10%: 28.3% (1995)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 77% (1998 est.)
Labor force: 87 million (1997 est.)
Labor force--by occupation: agriculture 41%, trade, restaurant,
and hotel 19.8%, manufacturing 14%, construction 4.8%, transport and
communications 4.75%, other 15.65% (1997)
Unemployment rate: 15%-20% (1998 est.)
Budget:
revenues: $35 billion (of which $15 billion is from international
financial institutions)
expenditures: $35 billion, including capital expenditures of $12
billion (FY98/99 est.)
Industries: petroleum and natural gas; textiles, apparel, and
footwear; mining, cement, chemical fertilizers, plywood; rubber;
food; tourism
Industrial production growth rate: -13.7% (1998 est.)
Electricity--production: 66.8 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--production by source:
fossil fuel: 82.34%
hydro: 14.97%
nuclear: 0%
other: 2.69% (1996)
Electricity--consumption: 66.8 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--exports: 0 kWh (1996)
Electricity--imports: 0 kWh (1996)
Agriculture--products: rice, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, rubber,
cocoa, coffee, palm oil, copra; poultry, beef, pork, eggs
Exports: $49 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
Exports--commodities: garments 7.9%, textiles 7.3%, gas 6.4%,
electrical appliances 5.9%, pulp and paper 5.3%, oil 4.7%, plywood
4.7%
Exports--partners: Japan 18%, EU 15%, US 14%, Singapore 13%, South
Korea 5%, Hong Kong 4%, China 3.9%, Taiwan 3.4% (1998 est.)
Imports: $24 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
Imports--commodities: manufactures 75.3%, raw materials 9.0%,
foodstuffs 7.8%, fuels 7.7%
Imports--partners: Japan 20%, US 13%, Germany 9%, Singapore 9%,
Australia 6.4%, South Korea 5.4%, Taiwan 3.4%, China 3.1% (1998 est.)
Debt--external: $136 billion (yearend 1997 est.)
Economic aid--recipient: $43 billion from IMF program and other
official external financing (1997-2000)
Currency: Indonesian rupiah (Rp)