must be remembered that articulation cannot be separated from phonation in
the psychic mechanism. In speaking, we are unconscious of the breath
necessary for the production of the voice. Not so, however, in effective
singing, the management of the breathing being of fundamental importance;
and it is no exaggeration to say that only the individual who knows how to
breathe knows how to sing effectually. A musical ear and sense of rhythm
are innate in some individuals; in others they are not innate and can only
be acquired to a variable degree of perfection by persevering efforts and
practice. The most intelligent persons may never be able to sing in tune,
or even time; the latter (sense of rhythm) is much more easily acquired by
practice than the former (correct intonation). This is easily intelligible,
for rhythmical movement appertains also to speech and other acts of human
beings, e.g. walking, dancing, running, swimming, etc.; moreover,
rhythmical periodicity characterises the beat of the heart and respiration.
But how does a trained singer learn to sing a song or to take part in an
opera? He has to study the performances of two parts for the vocal
instrument--the part written by the composer and the part written by the
poet or dramatist--and in order to present an artistic rendering, the
intellectual and emotional characters of each part must be blended in
harmonious combination. A singer will first read the words and understand
their meaning, then memorise them, so that the whole attention subsequently
may be given to applying the musical part to them and employing with proper
phrasing, which means more than knowing when to breathe; it means imparting
expression and feeling. A clever actor or orator can, if he possess a high
degree of intelligence and a fairly artistic temperament, so modulate his
voice as to convey to his audience the passions and emotions while feeling
none of them himself; so many great singers who are possessed of a good
musical ear, a good memory, and natural intelligence, although lacking in
supreme artistic temperament and conspicuous musical ability, are
nevertheless able to interpret by intonation and articulation the passions
and emotions which the composer has expressed in his music and the poet or
dramatist in his words. The intelligent artist possessed of the musical
ear, the sense of rhythm, and a well-formed vocal organ accomplishes this
by the conscious control and management of his breathing muscles and the
muscles of articulation, which by education and imitation he has brought
under complete control of the will. With him visual symbols of musical
notes are associated with the visual symbols of words in the mind, and the
visual symbols whether of the words or of the musical notes will serve to
revive in memory the sound of the one or the other, or of both. But he
produces that sound by alteration of tension in co-ordinated groups of
muscles necessary for vocalisation, viz. the muscles of phonation in the
larynx, the muscles of articulation in the tongue, lips, jaw, and palate,
and the muscles of costal respiration. _The mind_ of the orator, actor, and
dramatic singer exercises a profound influence upon the respiratory system
of nerves, and thereby produces the necessary variations in the force,
continuance, and volume of air required for vocal expression.
Sir Charles Bell, who discovered the respiratory system of nerves, pointed
out how the lungs, from being in the lower animals merely the means of
oxygenating the blood, become utilised in the act of expelling air from the
body for the production of audible sounds--the elements of human voice and
speech. Likewise he drew attention to the influence which powerful emotions
exercise upon the organ of respiration, including the countenance, e.g. the
dilated nostrils in anger. Again, "when the voice suffers interruption and
falters, and the face, neck, and chest are animated by strong passion
working from within the breast, language exerts its most commanding
influence."
In hemiplegia or paralysis of one half of the body, there is a difference
between the two sides for ordinary automatic unconscious diaphragmatic
breathing and voluntary or costal breathing. Thus in ordinary breathing the
movements are increased on the paralysed side, especially in the upper part
of the chest, while in voluntary breathing they are increased on the sound
side. Hughlings Jackson suggested the following theory to explain these
facts: "_Ordinary breathing_ is an automatic act governed by the
respiratory centre in the medulla. The respiratory centre is double, each
side being controlled or inhibited by higher centres on the opposite side
of the brain. Voluntary costal breathing, such as is employed in singing,
is of cerebral origin, and controlled by centres on the opposite side of
the brain, the impulses being sent down to the respective centres for the
associated movements of the muscles of articulation, phonation, and
breathing, in the same way as they are sent to the centres for the
movements of the arm or leg. With voluntary breathing the respiratory
centre in the medulla has nothing to do. It is in fact out of gear or
inhibited for the time being, so that the impulses from the brain pass by
or evade it. There are thus two sets of respiratory nerve fibres passing
from the brain--the one inhibiting or controlling to the opposite half of
the respiratory centre in the medulla; the other direct, evading the
respiratory centre and running the same course to the spinal centres for
the respiratory movements as the ordinary motor fibres do to the centres
for other movements. Both sets would be affected by the lesion (or damage)
which produced the hemiplegia. The inhibitory fibres being damaged, the
opposite half of the respiratory centre would be under diminished control
and therefore the movements of ordinary breathing on the paralysed side
would be exaggerated. The damage to the direct fibres would prevent the
passage of voluntary stimuli to the groups of respiratory muscles (as it
would do to the rest of the muscles of the paralysed side), and thus the
voluntary movement of respiration would be diminished--diminished only and
not completely abolished as in the limbs; because according to the theory
of Broadbent, in the case of such closely associated bilateral movements
the lower nervous respiratory centres of both sides would be activated from
either side of the brain." This certainly applies also to the muscles of
phonation, but not to the principal muscles of articulation, viz. the
tongue and lips. It is not exactly known what part of the cerebral cortex
controls the associated movements necessary for voluntary costal (rib)
respiration in singing; probably it is localised in the frontal lobe in
front of that part, stimulation of which gives rise to trunk movements
(_vide_ fig. 16). Whatever its situation, it must be connected by
association fibres with the centres of phonation and articulation.
[Illustration: FIG. 18]
[Description: FIG. 18.--The accompanying diagram is an attempt to explain
the course of innervation currents in phonation.
1. Represents the whole brain sending voluntary impulses _V_ to the regions
of the brain presiding over the mechanisms of voluntary breathing and
phonation. These two regions are associated in their action by fibres of
association _A_; moreover, the corresponding centres in the two halves of
the brain are unified in their action by association fibres _A'_ in the
great bridge connecting the two hemispheres (Corpus Callosum). On each side
of the centre for phonation are represented association fibres _H_ which
come from the centre of hearing; these fibres convey the guiding mental
images of sounds and determine exactly the liberation of innervation
currents from the centre of phonation to the lower centres by which the
required alterations in tension of the laryngeal muscles for the production
of the corresponding sounds are effected. Arrows are represented passing
from the centre of phonation to the lower centres in the medulla which
preside over the muscles of the jaw, tongue, lips, and larynx. Arrows
indicate also the passage of innervation currents from the centres in the
brain which preside over voluntary breathing. It will be observed that the
innervation currents which proceed from the brain pass over to the opposite
side of the spinal cord and are not represented as coming into relation
with the respiratory centre _R_. This centre, as we have seen, acts
automatically, and exercises especially its influence upon the diaphragm,
which is less under the control of the will than the elevators of the ribs
and the abdominal muscles.
The diagram also indicates why these actions of voluntary breathing and
phonation can be initiated in either hemisphere; it is because they are
always bilaterally associated in their action; consequently both the higher
centres in the brain and the lower centres in the medulla oblongata and
spinal cord are united by bridges of association fibres, the result being
that even if there is a destruction of the brain at _a-b_, still the mind
and will can act through both centres, although not so efficiently.
Likewise, if there is a destruction of the fibres proceeding from the brain
centres to the lower medullary and spinal centres, the will is still able
to act upon the muscles of phonation and breathing of both sides of the
body because of the intimate connection of the lower medullary and spinal
centres by association fibres.]
Experiments on animals and observations on human beings show that the
centres presiding over the muscles of the larynx are situated one in each
hemisphere, at the lower end of the ascending frontal convolution in close
association with that of the tongue, lips, and jaw. This is as we should
expect, for they form a part of the whole cerebral mechanism which presides
over the voice in speech and song. But because the muscles of the tongue,
the lower face muscles, and even the muscles of the jaw do not necessarily
and always work synchronously and similarly on the two sides, there is more
independence in their representation in the cerebral cortex. Consequently a
destruction of this region of the brain or the fibres which proceed from it
to the lower executive bulbar and spinal centres is followed by paralysis
of the muscles of the opposite side. Likewise stimulation with an
interrupted electric current applied to this region of the brain in monkeys
by suitable electrodes produces movements of the muscles of the lips,
tongue, and jaw of the opposite side only. Not so, however, stimulation of
the region which presides over the movements of the muscles of the larynx,
for then _both_ vocal cords are drawn together and made tense as in
phonation. It is therefore not surprising if removal or destruction of this
portion of the brain _on one side_ does not produce paralysis of the
muscles of phonation, which, always bilaterally associated in their
actions, are represented as a bilateral group in both halves of the brain.
These centres may be regarded as a part of the physiological mechanism, but
the brain acts as a whole in the psychic mechanism of speech and song. From
these facts it appears that there is: (1) An automatic mechanism for
respiration and elemental phonation (the cry) in the medulla oblongata
which can act independently of the higher centres in the brain and even
without them (_vide_ p. 18). (2) A cerebral conscious voluntary mechanism
which controls phonation either alone or associated with articulation. The
opening of the glottis by contraction of the abductor (posterior
ring-pyramid muscles) is especially associated with descent of the
diaphragm in inspiration in ordinary breathing; whereas the voluntary
breathing in singing is associated with contraction of the adductor and
tensor muscles of the vocal cords.
A perfect psychic mechanism is as necessary as the physiological mechanism
for the production of perfect vocalisation, especially for dramatic
singing. A person, on the one hand, may be endowed with a grand vocal
organ, but be a failure as a singer on account of incorrect intonation, of
uncertain rhythm or imperfect diction; on the other hand, a person only
endowed with a comparatively poor vocal instrument, but knowing how to use
it to the best advantage, is able to charm his audience; incapable of
vigorous sound production, he makes up for lack of power by correct
phrasing and emotional expression. We see then that the combination of a
perfect physiological and psychological mechanism is essential for
successful dramatic singing, the chief attributes of which are: (1) Control
of the breath, adequate volume, sustaining power, equality in the force of
expulsion of air to avoid an unpleasant vibrato, and capability of
producing and sustaining loud or soft tones throughout the register. (2)
Compass or range of voice of not less than two octaves with adequate
control by mental perception of the sounds of the necessary variation in
tension of the laryngeal muscles for correct intonation. (3) Rich quality
or timbre, due partly to the construction of the resonator, but in great
measure to its proper use under the control of the will. Something is
lacking in a performance, however perfect the vocalisation as regards
intonation and quality, if it fails to arouse enthusiasm or to stir up the
feelings of an audience by the expression of passion or sentiment through
the mentality of the singer.
The general public are becoming educated in music and are beginning to
realise that shouting two or three high-pitched chest notes does not
constitute dramatic singing--"a short _beau moment_ does not compensate for
a _mauvais quart d'heure_." It would be hard to describe or define the
qualities that make a voice appeal to the multitude. Different singers with
a similar timbre of voice and register may sing the same song correctly in
time, rhythm, and phrasing, and yet only one of them may produce that
sympathetic quality necessary to awaken not only the intellectual but the
affective side of the mind of the hearers. Undoubtedly the effects produced
upon the mind by dramatic song largely depend upon circumstances and
surroundings, also upon the association of ideas. Thus I was never more
stirred emotionally by the human voice than upon hearing a mad Frenchman
sing at my request the Marseillaise. Previously, when talking to him his
eyes had lacked lustre and his physiognomy was expressionless; but when
this broad-chested, six foot, burly, black-bearded maniac rolled out in a
magnificent full-chested baritone voice the song that has stirred the
emotions and passions of millions to their deepest depth, and aroused in
some hope, in others despair, as he made the building ring with "Aux armes,
citoyens, formez vos bataillons" I felt an emotional thrill down the spine
and a gulp in the throat, while the heart and respirations for an instant
stayed in their rhythmical course. Not only was I stirred by the effect of
the sounds heard, but by the change in the personality of the singer. It
awakened in my mind the scenes in the French Revolution so vividly
described by Carlyle. The man's facial expression and whole personality
suddenly appeared changed; he planted his foot firmly forward on the
ground, striking the attitude of a man carrying a musket, a flag, or a
pike; his eyes gleamed with fire and the lack-lustre expression had changed
to one of delirious excitement. A pike in his hand and a red cap on his
head would have completed the picture of a _sans culotte_. Dramatic song
therefore that does not evoke an emotional response is _vox et præterea
nihil_.
INDEX
A
Abductors and Adductors of Vocal cords, 30 _seq._
Aikin, Dr., 33, 45, 46, 47
Classification of Consonants, 54
"The Voice," 44
Aphasia, Motor and Sensory, 72 _seq_.
Articulation and phonation, 57 _seq_., 92, 94 _seq_., fig. 18
Assyria, clay records, 70
B
Ballet, 78
Bastian, Dr., 72, 78
Beethoven, symphonies, 40
Bell, Sir Charles, 97
Bouillaud, M., 68
Brain:--
How developed, 10
Localisation of Speech Centres, 72 _seq_., fig. 17
Primary Revival of Sensations, 90
Primary Site of Revival of words in Silent thought, 80 _seq._
Relation to the Voice, 61 _et passim_
Structure, 63 _seq_., figs. 15, 16, 17
Breathing, art of, 16 _seq_., 22, 26, 27, 94 _seq._
Broadbent, Sir W., 99
Broca, 72, 76
C
Charcot, 78
Consonants, 50 _seq._
Classifications, 54
Cunningham, Professor, 71
D
Darwin, 83
"Expression of the Emotions," 3
Dax, Marc, 69
Deaf Mutes, 62, 71, 82
Deafness causing loss of speech, 84 _seq._
Diaphragm, 20 _seq_., 103, fig. 2
E
Ear in Music, 39
English, difficult to sing, 55
Epiglottis, 28, 31
F
Flame Manometer, 48, fig. 14
French, Dr., 32, 37
G
Gall, founder of Phrenology, 67, 68
Galton, 78, 79
Garcia, 34
Gibbon, the, 3
Glottis, 30, 35, 44, 103, fig. 10
Goltz's dog, 18
Gowers, on Bulbar Paralysis, 57
Grieger, 5
H
Harmonics, 14, 47 _seq_.
Hearing and Speech, 78, 82 _seq_.
Helmholtz, 45, 47, 48, 50, 55
Hermann, on Articulate Sounds, 50
Groups of Consonants, 54
Huxley, 8
I
Italian, easy to sing, 55
J
Jackson, Hughlings, 97
K
Keller, Helen, 40, 89, 90
Kingsley, Miss, 6
Klang, 13
König, flame manometer, 48, fig. 14
L
Language, a human attribute, 61
Of Gesture, 6, 7, 71
Written, 8
Laryngoscope, 34, 35, 37, fig. 9
Larynx, 28 _seq_., figs. 4-8
M
Macaulay, Lord, 79
Mach, "Analysis of Sensations," 79, 90
Marie, M., 73, 76
Marseillaise, 106
Memory, visual, 79, 80
Mouth, 43, 44
Müller, Max, "Chips from a German Workshop," 8
N
Nerves of Respiration, 21
Neurologists, 73
O
Overtones, 14, 47 _seq_.
P
Paget, Sir James, 79
Paralysis:--
Bulbar, 57
Hemiplegia, 97
Of the Insane, 58
Paris Academy of Science, 68
Parrot, Speech, 60
Phonation and Articulation, 57 _seq_., 92, 94 _seq._., fig. 18
Phrenology, 67, 68
Pitch, 34, 36, 37, 39, 46, 50, 55
R
Reading and Thinking by Articulating Words, 77
Resonator, 15 _seq_., 41 _seq_.
Rhythmical Movement, 94
Ribot, 79
On Words, 5
Right-handedness and Speech, 69 _seq_., 80
Rodents, 3
Romanes, "Mental Evolution in Man," 1, 3, 83
S
Sayce, 6
Semon, Sir Felix, 32, 37
Singing, 95, 98 _seq_.
Chief Attributes, 104 _seq_.
Hearing and, 91
Sound-pipe, 33
Sounds, articulate, 50 _seq_., 60 _seq_.
Sounds, musical, three qualities, 11 _seq._
Speech:--
Cerebral Mechanism of song and, 60 _seq._
Defects, 57 _seq_., 73
Hearing and, 78, 82 _seq_.
Localisation centres in the brain, 72 _seq_., fig. 17
Loss of, caused by deafness, 84 _seq_.
Right-handedness, 69 _seq_., 80
Theories on the origin of, 1 _seq._
Three stages, 4
Spencer, Herbert, 76
Stricker, 77, 78, 80, 82, 90
T
Thorax, 18 _seq_., fig. 3
Throat, 43
Timbre, 13
Tuning-forks, 12, 13, 37
Tylor, 6
V
Ventricle, 33
Vocal cords, 29 _seq_., 35, 36, 37, 43, 93, figs. 10, 11
Vocal instrument, three parts 15 _seq_., 62 _et passim_
Bellows, 18 _seq_., fig. 1
Reed, 28 _seq_., _See also_ Larynx
Resonator, 41 _seq_.
Vocal Muscle, 31
Vocalisation. _See_ Singing
Voice, compass of, 34, 37
Voice, psychic mechanism, 94 _seq_.
W
Wernicke's sensory aphasia, 84
Word-memory, 78
Words, defined, 82