LUMBERMEN AND RAFTSMEN IN THE PRIMEVAL FOREST
CAPE LOPEZ, _July_ 25_th_-29_th_, 1914
An abscess, for the opening of which the help of the military doctor at
Cape Lopez seemed to be necessary, compelled me about this time to go
down to the coast, but we had scarcely got there when it fortunately
burst, and the risk of further complications was avoided. My wife and
I were kindly entertained at the house of a factory employee called
Fourier, whose wife had spent two months that summer at Lambarene,
awaiting her confinement at our house. Monsieur Fourier is a grandson
of the French philosopher Fourier (1772-1837), in whose social theories
I was much interested when a student in Paris. Now one of his
great-grandchildren has entered the world under our roof!
I cannot yet move about, so spend the whole day in an armchair on the
verandah with my wife, looking out over the sea and inhaling with
enjoyment the fresh sea breezes. That there is a breeze at all is a
delight to us, for in Lambarene there is never any wind except during
the short storms, which are known as tornadoes. This time of leisure I
will employ in writing something about the life of the lumbermen and
the raftsmen on the Ogowe.
{95}
It was only about thirty years ago that attempts were first made to
exploit the great forests of West and Equatorial Africa, but the work
is not as easy as might be thought. Magnificent timber is there in any
quantity, but how fell and transport it? At present the only timber on
the Ogowe that has any commercial value is that which is near the
river. The most magnificent tree a kilometre from the water is safe
from the axe, for what is the good of felling it if it cannot be taken
away?
Why not build light railways, then, to convey the logs to the water?
That question will be asked only by those who do not know what a forest
in Equatorial Africa is like. The ground on which it stands is nothing
but a mass of gigantic roots and swamp. To prepare the ground for even
200 or 300 yards of light railway means cutting down the trees, getting
rid of their roots, and filling up the swamp; and that would cost more
than a hundred tons of the finest timber would fetch at Cape Lopez. It
is, therefore, only at the most favourable spots that light railways
can be built cheaply enough. In these forests one learns how impotent
man is when pitted against Nature!
Work, then, has, as a rule, to be carried on in a primitive way, and
this for the further reason, also, that only primitive men can be got
for labourers, and not a sufficient number even of them. The
introduction of Annamites and Chinese has been talked of, but it is a
hopeless proposal. Foreigners are of no use in the African forest,
because they cannot endure the heat and the camp life in it, and,
moreover, cannot live on the foods produced locally.
[Sidenote: The choice of a site for work]
The first thing to be done is to choose the right place {96} for work.
In the virgin forest the trees grow in the most capricious fashion, and
it pays to fell them only where there is near the water's edge a
considerable number of the kind of trees required. These places are
generally some distance within the forest, but when the river is high,
are usually connected with the latter by some narrow watercourse, or by
a pond, which at such times becomes a lake. The natives know well
enough where these places are, but they keep the knowledge to
themselves, and make a point of misleading any white man who comes into
their neighbourhood to look for them. One European told me that the
natives of a certain village kept taking from him for two months
liberal presents of brandy, tobacco, and cloth while they went out with
him every day on the search for such a place, but not a single one was
discovered which seemed to promise profitable exploitation. At last,
from a conversation which he happened to overhear, he learnt that they
purposely took him past all the favourable spots, and then their
friendly relations came to a sudden end. Of the timber that stands
near enough to the river to be easily transported, nearly the whole has
already been felled.
About half the forest area has been put, through concessions, into the
hands of big European companies. The rest is free, and any one, white
or black, can fell timber there as he pleases. But even in the
woodlands covered by the concessions the companies often allow the
natives to fell trees as freely as they can in the other parts, on the
one condition that they sell the timber to the company itself, and not
to other dealers.
The important thing, after all, is not to own woods, but to have timber
for sale, and the timber which the {97} negroes cut down on their own
account and then offer to the company works out cheaper than what the
latter get through their contract labour. On the other hand, the
supply from the free natives is so uncertain that it cannot be relied
upon for trade purposes. They may take it into their heads to
celebrate a festival, or to have a big fishing expedition just when the
demand for timber is greatest, so the companies, while they buy all
they can from the natives, also keep their own labourers constantly at
work.
* * * * *
When a suitable spot has been discovered, there come to it either the
men of a village who have agreed to exploit it together, or the white
man with his labourers, and huts are erected to live in. The great
difficulty is food. One is faced with the problem of securing supplies
for from sixty to one hundred men for weeks and months together, and
that in the middle of the virgin forest. The nearest village and the
nearest plantations are perhaps twenty-five miles away, and only to be
reached by a weary struggle through jungle and swamp. Unfortunately,
too, the staple foods of banana and manioc[1] are bulky, and therefore
troublesome to transport; moreover, they only keep good for a few days.
The great drawback attaching to Equatorial {98} Africa is that none of
its food products keep long. Bananas and manioc ripen the whole year
through, now freely, now sparingly, according to the time of year, but
bananas go bad six days after gathering, and manioc bread ten days
after it is made. The manioc root by itself is unusable, as there are
poisonous species which contain cyanic acid, to get rid of which the
roots are soaked for some days in running water. Stanley lost three
hundred carriers because they too hastily ate manioc root which had not
been washed long enough. When it is taken out of the water it is
crushed and rubbed, and undergoes fermentation, and this produces a
kind of tough, dark dough, which is moulded into thin sticks and
wrapped in leaves for preservation. Europeans find this a very poor
food.
[1] Manioc, better known perhaps to English readers as cassava, belongs
to the Euphorbiaceæ. The two chief kinds are Manihot utilissima, the
bitter, which contains the hydrocyanic acid, and Manihot Aipi, the
sweet, which is harmless. The roots are 3 feet long and 6 to 9 inches
in diameter, filled with milky juice. The starch as prepared for food
is known first as Brazilian arrowroot, and this, when further prepared,
as the tapioca of commerce. (_Encycl. Brit., s.v._)
[Sidenote: Life on the chosen site]
Since, then, the regular provision of local foodstuffs is so difficult,
these native timber workers have to reconcile themselves to living on
rice and preserved foods from Europe. This means mostly cheap tins of
sardines, prepared specially for export to the inland regions of
Africa, and of these the stores always have a big supply in stock.
Variety is secured by means of tinned lobster, tinned asparagus, and
Californian fruits. The expensive tinned stuff which the well-to-do
European denies himself as too expensive, the negro, when felling
timber, eats from necessity!
And shooting? In the real forest shooting is impossible. There is,
indeed, wild life in plenty, but how is it to be discovered and pursued
in the thick jungle? Good shooting is only to be had where grassland
or treeless marshes alternate with the forest, but in such places there
is usually no timber to be felled. Thus, paradox though it seems, it
is nowhere easier to starve {99} than amid the luxurious vegetation of
the game-haunted forests of Equatorial Africa!
How the timber-workers manage to get through the day with the tsetse
fly, and through the night with the mosquito, it is hard to tell.
Often, too, they have to work for days together up to the hips in
water. Naturally they all suffer from fever and rheumatism.
The felling of the trees is very troublesome work because of the
thickness of the trunks. Moreover, the giants of the forest do not
grow up out of the earth round and smooth; they are anchored to the
ground by a row of strong, angular projections, which as they leave the
stems become the main roots, and act as buttresses. Mother Nature, as
though she had studied under the best architects, gives these forest
giants the only sort of protection which could be effective against the
force of the tornadoes.
In many cases the hewing of the trees at ground level is not to be
thought of. The axe can begin its work only at the height of a man's
head, or it may even be necessary to erect a scaffold on which the
hewers can then stand.
Several men must toil hard for days before the axe can finish its work,
and even then the tree does not always fall. It is tangled into a
single mass with its neighbours by powerful creepers, and only when
these have been cut through does it come, with them, to the ground.
Then begins the process of cutting up. It is sawn, or hewn with axes,
into pieces from 12 to 15 feet long, until the point is reached at
which the diameter is less than 2 feet. The rest is left, and decays,
and with it those portions also which are too thick, that is, which
{100} are more than 5 to 5½ feet in diameter, as such huge pieces are
too awkward to handle.
The felling and cutting up of the trees takes place as a rule in the
dry season, that is, between June and October. The next work is to
clear the track by which these mighty logs, weighing sometimes as much
as three tons, are to be rolled to the nearest piece of water. Then
begins a contest with the roots which have been left in the ground and
the huge tree tops which are lying upon it, and not infrequently the
mighty trunk itself has in its fall embedded itself three feet in the
soil. But in time the track is got fairly ready, the portions which
run through swamp being filled up with wood. The pieces--spoken of as
"billets" (French, _billes_)--are rolled on to the track, thirty men,
with rhythmical shouts, pushing and shoving at each one and turning it
slowly over and over on its axis. If a piece is very large, or not
quite round, human strength may not suffice, and the movement is
effected by means of jacks. Then a hillock in the way may present a
difficulty to be overcome; or, again, the wood-packing in the swamp may
give way! The thirty men in an afternoon's work seldom move one of
these "billets" more than eighty to ninety yards.
And time presses! All the timber must be got to the pond to be ready
for the high water at the end of November and the beginning of
December, since it is only just then that the pond is in connection
with the rivers. Any timber that misses this connection remains in the
forest, and is reduced to such a condition by the parasitic
wood-insects--especially by a species of Bostrichid beetle--that it is
not worth buying. At best it can be saved when the spring high water
comes, {101} but that is often not high enough to connect all the
ponds, and if the timber has to stay there till the next autumn flood
it is assuredly lost.
[Illustration: STUMP OF A MAHOGANY TREE. The tree was so thick at its
base that it could only be cut through at a height of 13 feet from the
ground. The woodcutters stood on a staging erected around the trunk.]
Occasionally, once perhaps in ten years, even the autumn flood does not
rise high enough, and then the season's work is wholly lost on many
timber-working sites. This happened last autumn (1913), and many
middle-sized and small trading firms are reported to have been nearly
ruined. The male populations of many villages, too, after labouring
for months, did not earn enough to cover their debts for the rice and
tinned foods that they had had to buy.
At last the timber is in the river, moored to the jungle on the bank
with ropes of creepers, and the white trader comes to buy what the
negroes of the different villages have to offer him. And here caution
is necessary. Is the timber really of the kind desired, or have the
negroes smuggled in among it pieces of some other tree with a similar
bark and similar veining which stood at the water's edge? Is it all
freshly cut, or are there some last year's logs, or even some of the
year before last, which have had their ends sawn off to make them look
new? The inventive skill of the negroes with a view to cheating in
timber borders on the incredible! Let the newcomer be on his guard!
For example: In Libreville Bay a young English merchant was to buy for
his firm some ebony, a heavy wood, which comes into the market in short
logs. The Englishman reported with satisfaction that he had secured
some huge pieces of magnificent ebony, but no sooner had his first
purchase reached England than he received a telegram saying that what
he had bought and despatched for ebony was nothing of the kind; that
{102} his expensive stuff was worthless, and he himself responsible for
the loss involved! The fact was that the negroes had sold him some
hard wood which they had allowed to lie for several months in the black
swamp. There it had soaked in the colour so thoroughly that at the
ends and to a certain depth all over it seemed to be the finest ebony;
the inner part, however, was of a reddish colour. The inexperienced
white man had neglected to test his bargain by sawing one of the logs
in two!
The dealer, then, measures and purchases the timber. The measuring is
a difficult job, as he has to jump about on the logs, which turn over
in the water with his weight. Then he pays up half the purchase money,
keeping the rest till the timber, on which the trade mark of his firm
is now cut, has been brought safely down to the coast. Sometimes,
however, it happens that natives sell the timber four or five times
over, pocketing the money each time and then disappearing into the
forest till the transaction has been forgotten, or till the white man
is tired of spending time and money in going after the swindlers, by
whom, indeed, he is not likely to be indemnified, seeing that, long
before he finds them, they will have spent the money in tobacco and
other things.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: The rafts. The voyage]
Next comes the building of the rafts, or floats, for which neither rope
nor wire is needed, as the supple creepers of the forest are cheaper
and better than either, and can be had as thin as a finger or as thick
as one's arm. From 60 to 100 of the 12 to 15 feet trunks are arranged
one behind the other in two rows and bound {103} together, so that the
raft is from 25 to 30 feet broad, and about 130 feet long, and its
weight may be as much as 200 tons. Long planks are also bound upon it
on a regular plan, and these give it the necessary strength and
firmness. Next huts of bamboo and raffia leaves are built upon it, and
a special platform of logs is coated with clay to serve as a fireplace
for cooking. Powerful steering-oars are fixed in front and behind in
strong forks, so that the course of the raft can be to some extent
guided, and as each of these needs at least six men to work it, there
must be a crew of between fifteen and twenty men. Then when all the
bananas and manioc sticks that can be procured have been placed upon
it, the voyage begins.
The crew must know well the whereabouts of the continually shifting
sandbanks, in order to avoid them, and these, covered as they are with
brown water, are very hard to detect at any considerable distance. If
the raft strikes one, there is no way of getting it afloat again but by
releasing from it one by one the logs which have got fixed in the sand,
and putting them back again afterwards. Sometimes the raft has to be
taken entirely to pieces and re-made, a proceeding which under those
conditions takes a week and involves the loss of a certain number of
the logs, which the stream carries away during the work. Time, too, is
precious, for provisions are usually not too abundant, and the further
they get down the Ogowe, the harder it is to get more. For a few
wretched bananas the people of the villages on the lower Ogowe exact
from the hungry raftsmen a franc, or a franc and a half; or they may
refuse to supply anything at all.
It happens not infrequently during the voyage that {104} the crew sell
some of the good logs in the raft to other negroes, and replace them
with less valuable ones of exactly the same sizes, putting the firm's
trade mark upon these with deceptive accuracy. These inferior pieces
that have been thrown away in the forest have been lying in dozens ever
since the last high water, either on the sandbanks or in the little
bays on the river banks, and there are said to be villages which keep a
big store of them of all possible sizes. The good timber which has
been taken from the raft is later made unrecognisable, and is sold over
again to a white man.
Other reasons, too, the white man has for anxiety about his raft on its
way down. In so many days the ship which is to take the timber will be
at Cape Lopez, and the rafts have till then to come in: the crew have
been promised a handsome bonus if they arrive in good time. But if the
tomtom is sounded in a river-bank village as they pass, they may
succumb to the temptation to moor the raft and join in the
festivities--for two, four, six days! Meanwhile the ship waits at Cape
Lopez and the trader must pay for the delay a fine which turns his
hoped-for profitable stroke of business into a serious loss.
[Illustration: RAFT OF OKOUME WOOD AND MAHOGANY BEING FLOATED DOWN THE
OGOWE RIVER.]
The 200 miles (350 kilometres) from Lambarene to Cape Lopez usually
take such a raft fourteen days. The, at first, comparatively quick
rate of progress slows down towards the end, for about fifty miles from
the river mouth the tide makes itself felt in the river. For this
reason, too, the river water can no longer be drunk, and as there are
no springs within reach, the canoe which is attached to the raft is
filled in good time with fresh water. From now on progress can be made
only with the ebb tide and when the flood tide sets in {105} the raft
is moored to the bank with a creeper as thick as a man's arm, so that
it may not be carried back upstream.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: In Cape Lopez Bay]
The next step is to get the raft into a narrow, winding side stream
about twenty miles long which enters the sea through the southern shore
of Cape Lopez Bay. If it is swept into any of the other arms which
have their outlet in the middle of the bay it is lost, for the strong
current of the rivers, which, after being dammed up by the flood tide,
rushes down at five miles an hour, carries it right out to sea.
Through the southern arm, however, it comes out into a strip of shallow
water which runs along the coast, and over this it can be navigated
with long poles to Cape Lopez. Here again, if the raft gets a few
yards too far from the shore so that the punting-poles cannot touch
bottom, it can no longer be guided and gets swept out to sea, and
within these last ten miles a mighty contest often develops between the
crew and the elements. If a land breeze gets up there is hardly
anything to be done. If, indeed, the position of the raft is noticed
at Cape Lopez, they try to send a boat to it with an anchor and a
cable, and that may save it if the waves are not so strong as to break
it up. But if that happens, there is only one thing for the crew to
do, if they do not wish to be lost also, and that is to leave the raft,
in the canoe--and at the right moment. For once out at the mouth of
the bay, no canoe can make its way back to Cape Lopez in the teeth of
the ebb tide and the regular current of the river. The flat, keelless
vessels which are used in the river are useless in a contest with the
waves.
{106}
In this way more than one raft has been lost, and more than one crew
has disappeared in the waves. One of my white patients once found
himself on one of these unlucky rafts. They were driven out to sea
after dark by a breeze which got up quite unexpectedly, and the force
of the waves made it hopeless to think of escaping in the canoe. The
raft was beginning to break up when a motor longboat came to the
rescue, some one on the shore having noticed the lantern which the
despairing men had waved to and fro as they drove past, and sent the
rescue boat, which happened fortunately to have its steam up, in
pursuit of the moving light.
Brought safely to Cape Lopez, the raft is taken to pieces and the logs
go into "the park." At the most sheltered part of the bay two rows of
tree-trunks are bound together so as to form a sort of double chain.
This is effected by driving into the trunks iron wedges which end in
rings through which strong wire ropes are drawn. This double chain of
logs protects the calm water from the movement of the sea, and behind
this "breakwater," or boom, float as many logs as there is room for.
The logs are further fastened together by other wire ropes, running
through iron rings which have been driven into them, and every two or
three hours a watchman goes round to see whether the boom is all right,
whether the rings are still holding, and whether the continual rubbing
in the rings and the frequent bending with the up and down movement of
the water has not made the wire ropes worn and unsafe. But often the
utmost foresight and care is useless. A rope in the breakwater gives
way during the night without any one noticing it, and when in the
morning the owner of the logs comes to inspect them, they have
journeyed out {107} to sea, never to return. Some months ago an
English firm lost in this way, in a single night, timber worth
something like £1,600 (40,000 francs). But if a tornado comes there is
no controlling anything. The huge trunks in the park plunge about like
dolphins bewitched, and finally make an elegant jump over the boom into
the free water beyond.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: Loading. Chief kinds of timber]
Thus every day that the raft lies in the bay brings a risk, and
anxiously is the ship awaited which is to take the logs away. No
sooner has it arrived than the motor boats tow raft after raft to its
landward side, those that are to be shipped having been prepared first
by having wire ropes run through a line of rings at each end. Negroes
jump about on the tossing raft, and knock the two rings out of the log
that is to be shipped next, so that it floats free of the raft, and
then they slip round it the chain with which it is to be hoisted on
board. This needs a tremendous amount of skill, for if a labourer
falls into the water from the wet and slippery surface of a rolling log
he will probably get his legs crushed between these two or three-ton
masses of wood which are continually dashing against one another.
From the verandah I can watch through my glasses some negroes occupied
with this work, which is made much harder for them by the delightful
breeze I am enjoying, and I know that if a tornado comes, or even a
really stiff breeze, the rafts which are lying along the ship's side
will certainly be lost.
The losses in timber, then, between the places where it is felled and
its successful hoisting on board ship, are {108} tremendous, and the
lagoons near the mouth of the Ogowe are veritable timber graveyards.
Hundreds and hundreds of gigantic tree trunks stick out of the mud
there, the majority being trees which could not be got away at the
right time and were left to rot, till a bigger flood than usual carried
them out to the river. When they got to the bay, wind and tide carried
them into the lagoons, from which they will never emerge. At this
present minute I can count, with the help of my glasses, some forty
trunks which are tossing about in the bay, to remain the plaything of
ebb and flood and wind till they find a grave either in the lagoons or
in the ocean.
As soon as the raft has been safely delivered the crew make haste to
get back up the river, either in their canoe or in a steamer, in order
that they may not starve in Cape Lopez, for all the fresh provisions in
the port town have to be brought some 125 miles down the river from the
interior, since nothing of the kind can be grown in the sands of the
coast or the marshes of the river mouth. When they have got back home,
and have been paid off by the purchaser of the timber, quantities of
tobacco, brandy, and all sorts of goods are bought by them at the
latter's store. As rich men, according to native notions, they return
to their villages, but in a few weeks, or even earlier, the whole of
the money has run through their fingers, and they look out for a new
place at which to begin their hard work over again.
[Illustration: PREMISES OF A TIMBER MERCHANT AT LAMBARENE.]
The export of timber from Cape Lopez is increasing steadily; at the
present time (1914) it amounts to about 150,000 tons a year. The chief
sorts dealt in are mahogany, which the natives call _ombega_, and
okoume {109} (_Aucoumea klaineana_), the so-called false mahogany. The
latter is softer than real mahogany, and is used mostly for making
cigar-boxes, but it is employed also for furniture, and has a great
future before it. Many species of it are almost more beautiful than
the real mahogany.
If the timber is left too long in the water it is attacked by the
boring mollusc, the _teredo navalis_ (French _taret_). This is a small
worm-like creature, really a kind of mussel, which eats a passage for
itself straight to the centre of the log. For this reason any timber
that has to wait a long time for the ship is rolled on to the shore,
and advantage is usually taken of this to hew off the sap wood, so that
the trunk becomes a square beam.
But besides the okoume and mahogany there are many other valuable kinds
of wood on the Ogowe. I will mention the _ekewasengo_, or rosewood
(_bois de rose_), and coralwood (_bois de corail_), both of which have
a beautiful red colour, and the ironwood, which is so hard that in the
sawmill at N'Gômô there are cog-wheels in use that are made of it.
There grows here also a wood which, when planed, looks like white
_moiré_ silk.
The finest woods, however, are not exported, because they are not yet
known in European markets, and are, therefore, not in demand. When
they do become known and sought after, the Ogowe timber trade will
become even more important than it is to-day. The reputation of being
the best wood expert on the Ogowe belongs to Mr. Haug, one of the
missionaries at N'Gômô, who has a valuable collection of specimens of
every kind of it. At first I could not understand how it is that
everybody {110} here, even people who have nothing to do with the
timber trade, is so interested in the different kinds of wood. In the
course of time, however, and thanks to continual intercourse with
timber merchants, I have myself become, as my wile says, a timber
fanatic.
{111}