purpose of discussing the theory of animal electricity, great doubts
were entertained respecting two contrary kinds of electricity acting
in animals. The reasoning on this subject, which displays acuteness
and ingenuity, was as follows: If two kinds of electricity, one
positive and the other negative, prevailed in the nerves and muscles
of animals, on applying the muscles of one frog to the armed nerve of
another, we should observe contractions; which however is not found to
be the case. The proposed doubt, however, gave me considerable
uneasiness, as the dispute on that subject seemed to lay a foundation
for many objections against the theory of animal electricity. But the
novelty of this event will excite no astonishment in those who
consider the subject with attention: nay, it would rather seem
astonishing if the matter were otherwise. The phænomena in the above
experiment are perfectly agreeable to the laws of general electricity,
and to the theory of the new animal Leyden flask. For, if we suppose
the muscles of the frog furnished with nerves to represent so many
Leyden flasks, no contractions ought to be expected from them, in
circumstances under which Leyden flasks themselves would produce no
explosion. This we always observe in two electric jars, neither of
which is discharged when the arc is established between the exterior
coating of the one and the interior coating of the other. If the
muscles, therefore, in the above experiment, represent Leyden flasks,
in cases in which no explosion could take place in the latter no
contractions can be observed in the former.
XIX. For the sake of illustrating the proposed analogy, it will be
proper that I should here explain the conditions under which
contractions are produced by the application of two frogs to each
other, and compare them with the phænomena of the Leyden flasks. I
shall therefore show, in a few words, the different methods in which
several frogs are made to contract at the same time, and in which
Leyden jars are discharged. Place on a glass plate two frogs, one of
which has its spinal marrow armed, and let a communication be
established between its muscles and the spinal marrow of another frog,
by means of a small metallic chain. If the arc be formed from the
armed spinal marrow of the one frog to the muscles of the other,
contractions will be produced in both. Let us now apply to Leyden
flasks the arrangement followed with the frogs. If two electric Leyden
jars stand on a glass plate, when an arc is applied, some electricity
will be elicited; but an absolute explosion will never be produced. If
one extremity of a metallic wire, however, be brought in contact with
the inside of one of the Leyden jars, and the other with the exterior
coating of the other, on applying an arc to the other two coatings,
which have no communication with the metallic wire that has been
added, an explosion will take place, and both the jars will be
discharged. But the above contractions may be produced in a manner
still simpler. If the spinal marrow of one frog be united to the
muscles of another, as soon as an arc is formed from the spinal marrow
of the armed frog to the remote muscles of the other, strong
contractions will be produced in both. The analogy between animal and
artificial electricity, which is the object of our research, will
always be apparent in this experiment. Two charged Leyden flasks,
suspended in such a manner from the conductor of the machine that the
exterior coating of the one is connected with the interior coating of
the other, form a very happy representation of the frogs; for, the
same arc being applied, and in the same manner, both to the frogs and
the Leyden flasks, when an explosion is produced by the latter
contractions will take place in the former.
XX. Hitherto the contractions have been produced by establishing the
arc from the nerve of one frog to the muscles of another: but
contractions will take place in both, if the arc be conveyed from the
armed spinal marrow of the one to the armed spinal marrow of the
other, provided care be taken that corresponding muscles communicate
alternately with the conducting body. But it is much more difficult to
reconcile this phænomenon than the former to the general laws of
electricity. This difficulty, however, may be obviated, if we suppose
that the one frog, in consequence of its natural moisture, forms an
arc to the other. This indeed was first confirmed by the experiments
of Galvani; for, having divided a frog lengthwise, both parts were
connected merely by their moisture[12]. Yet, when the arc touched one
of the separated parts, the other was immediately contracted. As this
explanation is so obvious, nothing further needs be said on the
subject. But I was unwilling to leave in a state of uncertainty the
analogy between the phænomena of animal electricity and those of the
Leyden flask, the wonderful agreement of which had so much excited my
astonishment: and indeed I had no cause to repent of my perseverance;
for, though it did not enable me to attain to what I proposed, it
conducted me to some general phænomena of electricity, which no one
perhaps had before made an object of research. I discovered that one
Leyden flask may be applied as an arc to another. I provided two
insulated Leyden jars of the same capacity, one of them charged and
the other uncharged, and established a communication between the
exterior coating of both, by means of a conducting body; and having
then formed an arc from the interior coating of the one to that of the
other, there was an immediate transmission of the electricity with an
explosion; and at the same time the flask which at first was uncharged
became charged. If I formed an arc with my arms and hands, I
experienced a considerable shock during the passage of the electric
fluid. When I observed this effect, I conceived it was not contrary to
the principles of philosophy to suppose that the one frog, in respect
to the other, represented a Leyden flask, and at the same time acted
the part of an arc.
XXI. Some, perhaps, will object to this analogy, that in the above
experiments the flask destitute of electricity forms the arc; while,
on the contrary, both flasks ought to be charged to represent properly
the muscles and nerves of frogs, which both possess electricity. But
the very same phænomenon is observed in two charged flasks, provided
one of them is charged with more electricity than the other. Hence, in
support of our analogy, we need only assume, that the quantity of
electricity in the one frog is a little different from that of the
other; a supposition which, in forming an hypothesis, the severest
philosopher may allow. I shall say nothing of the great variety and
connection of the elements of which animal bodies are composed, and
which on this account require a difference in the quantity of the
animal electricity. It appears by some late experiments of Valli[13],
that animal electricity is discharged in the same manner as that which
is collected in non-conducting bodies. It is likewise proved, that the
same arc and the same armatures, according to the various consensus
and connection of the nerves, and according to the different positions
in which they are applied, elicit a larger or smaller quantity of
electricity, and sometimes none at all. Those indeed who consider
these observations will hardly think it possible, when animal Leyden
flasks consist of so many different parts, that there should not be
some difference in the electricity collected. But there is no need of
employing conjecture in regard to a point, which is confirmed not only
in regard to animals, but in all conducting bodies, by the ingenious
observations of Coulomb[14]; for it is fully established that the
electric matter is communicated and accumulated different ways on the
surface of conducting bodies. But if this phænomenon takes place in
conducting bodies the parts of which are homogeneous, there is no
reason to deny that it may appear in animals in which provident nature
has so intermixed conducting with non-conducting parts, in order that
the action of animal electricity might not be short and transient, but
constant and durable.
XXII. But if the diversity in the structure of animal bodies require
that the force and power of the animal electricity, collected in the
corresponding muscles, should be different, a singular agreement will
appear between the phænomena of the Leyden flask and those of animal
electricity. If an insulated person touch two flasks containing equal
quantities of electricity, however great, he will experience no shock;
but if one of the flasks contain a greater charge than the other, he
will receive a shock according to the ratio of the difference of the
electricity of the flasks. Though the frogs therefore represent two
Leyden flasks, one of them may act the part of an arc, and produce an
equilibrium, provided it be allowed that there is a difference between
the quantities of the electricities collected. I have here endeavoured
to establish the proposed analogy, not because I suppose the muscles
to be so many Leyden flasks, such as they are exhibited to us by the
ingenuity of philosophers, but in order to show that many phænomena
are common to both; nor have I applied animal electricity to explain
all the phænomena of muscular motion, with a view of obtaining
applause from those who are zealous advocates for this theory. I must
also observe, that if in the prosecution of this object I have met
with any anomalies, I do not on that account despise the agreement of
the laws of philosophy which have been established by so much labour.
Several of the phænomena observed by Galvani and others have served me
as a foundation for the proposed analogy, and induced me to extend, if
possible, its boundaries. But going back to the origin of animal
electricity, since it belongs to the subject, I shall here take a
general view of the whole, and express the substance of it in a few
corollaries.
XXIII. The corollaries I propose will follow the order of time in
which they arose, and therefore will express the gradual improvement
of animal electricity.
1. Animal electricity passes freely through bodies which possess
nearly the same degree of conducting power, but it does not pass
through non-conducting bodies.
2. It is affected by the obstacles which occur, not only in
non-conducting but in conducting bodies, as well as by their
varieties; and if these obstacles be numerous, its passage is stopped:
but if it be possible to overcome them, the impediment causes it to
make a more powerful effort to attain to a state of equilibrium.
Hence, unlike armatures and arcs are of great effect in exciting a
moderate degree of electricity, when the same electricity resists the
power of a homogeneous metal.
3. Animal electricity obeys the law of equilibrium; for, when the
muscles have been brought to a state of equilibrium with the
corresponding nerves, no contractions are produced by the application
of an arc; but if that which produces the equilibrium be removed, the
contractions immediately take place.
4. Poisons, mephitic air, aëriform fluids, and condensed air, do not
prevent animal electricity from being excited.
5. The influence of a vacuum on animal electricity is various. In dead
animals, if kept a long time in vacuo, the animal electricity is
weakened: in living animals it is considerably increased.
6. Though a vacuum does not prevent the electricity from being
excited, it will not serve as a conductor of it when it has been
excited: if an arc from the nerves to the muscles be intercepted by
the smallest vacuum, no contractions take place.
7. As metallic armatures are of great effect in attracting and
collecting artificial electricity, the case is the same with animal
electricity; but care must be taken not to ascribe to them that
electricity which the muscles naturally possess.
8. Though unlike armatures have a great effect in calling forth animal
electricity, we have reason to conclude from several experiments, that
they do not contain two kinds of electricity capable of producing
muscular motion.
9. As natural electricity issues with great force from sharp-pointed
bodies, and proceeds to them more readily than to others, the case is
the same in regard to animal electricity, as it issues more readily
from the pointed parts of the metallic arming applied to the nerves
and muscles.
10. The nervo-electric fluid is propagated with that rapidity which is
required in restoring to an equilibrium two opposite kinds of
electricity.
11. The same conditions which cause two flasks to be discharged when
an arc is established from the exterior coating of the one to the
interior coating of the other, excite contractions in two frogs, when
an arc is formed from the nerve of one to the muscles of the other.
12. The arc applied as above mentioned to the interior coating of two
phials, and to the nerves of two frogs, seems to give more force to
the proposed analogy; for the electric explosions have a great
similarity to the muscular motions excited in the frogs.
I might have enlarged the number of these corollaries, had not the
well-known fate of various opinions, now consigned to oblivion,
rendered me more timid in hazarding conjectures. I, however, did not
allow myself to think that I ought so far to give way to my timidity
as to check the spirit of inquiry, or to abandon the hope of one day
attaining to the truth. But it would be unreasonable to expect in
animal electricity, which is yet in its infancy, that precision and
those satisfactory results which can be the work only of time, and of
the continued labour of philosophers.
[7] As this term is improperly used by philosophers, I must
here observe, that I shall in future understand by it air
highly rarefied by the usual means.
[8] In the description of a new air-pump of his invention,
where he shows that electricity cannot pass through a
vacuum, he adds: “There can be little doubt, from the above
experiment, of the non-conducting power of a perfect vacuum;
and this fact is still more strongly confirmed by the
phænomena, which appear upon the admission of a very minute
particle of air into the inside of the gauge. In this case,
the whole becomes immediately luminous upon the slightest
application of electricity; and a charge takes place, which
continues to grow more and more powerful, in proportion as
fresh air is admitted, till the density of the conducting
medium arrives at its maximum. _An Essay on Electricity,
explaining the Theory and Practice of that useful Science._
Third edit. London, 1787.
[9] Josephi Gardini de Electrici Ignis Natura Dissertatio,
Regiæ Scientiarum Academiæ Mantuanæ exhibita, Mantuæ 1792,
p. 100.
[10] This may be accomplished in a much more simple manner,
without the aid of a magnet, by connecting a wire with the
lower part of the nerves, and applying the wire to the
muscles by turning the rod round.
[11] Précis historique et expérimental des Phénomènes
électriques, par M. Sigaud de la Fond, Paris 1781, sect. i.
art. 4.
[12] Aloysii Galvani de Viribus Electricitatis in Motu
musculari Commentarius, Mutinæ iterum editus, p. 29.
[13] M. Valli Cinquième et Huitième Lettre sur l’Electricité
Animale, dans Observations sur la Physique, par M. l’Abbé
Rozier, tom. xlii. Paris, 1792.
[14] Recherches sur la Distribution de Fluide Electrique
entre plusieurs Corps Conducteurs, et la Détermination de la
Densité Electrique dans les différens Parties de la Surface
de ces Corps. _Mem. de l’Acad. Royale des Sciences, An.
1788._
CONCLUSION.
I publish my experiments respecting muscular contractions
produced by one metal with the greater confidence, as they were
repeated different ways by the celebrated Humboldt, who has
adopted my opinion. In his work on Galvanism, under the head
which he entitles “Answer to the Objections made by Volta to the
Experiments of Aldini,” he says, “J. Aldini of Bologna invented a
very ingenious apparatus, by means of which he was enabled to
refute the supposition of Professor Volta. For this purpose he
had recourse to mercury: every thing relating to his experiments
is very well represented in the plate which accompanies his
memoir. Volta, in reply to these experiments, observes, that they
can impose only on those who have not thoroughly examined them.
He denies the facts related by Aldini, and persists in his
opinion that the phænomena of Galvanism may all be referred to
the laws of heterogeneity. In regard to the experiments made with
mercury, he says that there is a great difference between the
surface of this metal and the interior of its mass; because the
surface becomes oxidated by the contact of the atmospheric air;
that consequently, in the experiment of Aldini, the conducting
arc is not really but apparently homogeneous, the organs being
immersed to different depths in the metal: besides, that the
mercury in these experiments produces a shock; and that, as this
shock is not the same at both extremities of the arc, the result
is an unequal development of electricity. Volta, therefore,
opposes to the phænomena described by Aldini nothing but
hypothesis. We might reply in the same manner; but as it is much
better in philosophical disputes to have recourse to experiments,
I undertook some researches for the purpose of removing all doubt
in regard to this subject.
“I purified mercury by all the known means employed for that
purpose. I strained it several times through a piece of
chamois leather; I washed it with water and soap, with
vinegar and with alcohol. It appeared to me that it
contained neither lead nor tin; and that it was free from
oily particles and dust: it was perfectly fluid, and divided
itself into small, very round globules, which did not adhere
to each other, and which left behind them no traces. Its
surface was as brilliant as that of glass, without any
pellicle or spot; and a small quantity of it being stirred
in a mortar with water, did not communicate to it any
sensible colour. It dissolved in nitric acid without
sensible effervescence, and without giving any precipitate.
A large quantity of mercury thus purified was poured into
three porcelain vessels; and as I was aware that, if I
performed several experiments with the same quantity of
mercury, it might be objected, that the metal had contracted
some impurity by the mere contact of the animal substances,
I made only one experiment with the mercury in each of the
vessels.
“I prepared several legs of frogs in such a manner that a
portion of the crural nerve and a part of the muscle of the
same length were left dependent. I placed a glass tube in a
horizontal direction above a vessel containing mercury; made
fast to it two silk threads, and suspended from it the thigh
of the leg in such a manner that the nerve and muscle could
be made to descend at pleasure. I brought the leg of the
frog within two lines of the vessel, and then lengthened the
thread till the nerve touched the surface of the metal. No
contractions took place; but as soon as the nerve also was
brought into contact with the metal, by lengthening the silk
thread, the whole limb experienced a convulsive shock. I
repeated this experiment with the same precaution, employing
the two other vessels, and the same results were obtained.
“The muscle and nerve touched the mercury only at the
surface; they were in no manner immersed in the metal; and
care had been taken to lower them so gently, that it was
impossible to suspect there could be any impulse, as in the
experiment where Aldini had caused the mercury to flow down
by employing a vessel shaped somewhat like a syphon.”
APPENDIX.
No. I.
_An Account of the Experiments performed by J. Aldini on the Body of
a Malefactor executed at Newgate Jan. 17th 1803._
INTRODUCTION.
The unenlightened part of mankind are apt to entertain a prejudice
against those, however laudable their motives, who attempt to perform
experiments on dead subjects; and the vulgar in general even attach a
sort of odium to the common practice of anatomical dissection. It is,
however, an incontrovertible fact, that such researches in modern
times have proved a source of the most valuable information, in regard
to points highly interesting to the knowledge of the human frame, and
have contributed in an eminent degree to the improvement of physiology
and anatomy. Enlightened legislators have been sensible of this truth;
and therefore it has been wisely ordained by the British laws, which
are founded on the basis of humanity and public benefit, that the
bodies of those who during life violated one of the most sacred rights
of mankind, should after execution be devoted to a purpose which might
make some atonement for their crime, by rendering their remains
beneficial to that society which they offended.
In consequence of this regulation, I lately had an opportunity of
performing some new experiments, the principal object of which was to
ascertain what opinion ought to be formed of Galvanism as a mean of
excitement in cases of asphyxia and suspended animation. The power
which exists in the muscular fibre of animal bodies some time after
all other signs of vitality have disappeared, had before been examined
according to the illustrious Haller’s doctrine of irritability; but it
appeared to me that muscular action might be excited in a much more
efficacious manner by the power of the Galvanic apparatus.
In performing these experiments, I had another object in view. Being
favoured with the assistance and support of gentlemen eminently well
skilled in the art of dissection, I proposed, when the body should be
opened, to perform some new experiments which I never before
attempted, and to confirm others which I had made above a year ago on
the bodies of two robbers decapitated at Bologna.
To enlarge on the utility of such researches, or to point out the
advantages which may result from them, is not my object at present. I
shall here only observe, that as the bodies of valuable members of
society are often found under similar circumstances, and with the same
symptoms as those observed on executed criminals; by subjecting the
latter to proper experiments, some speedier and more efficacious means
than any hitherto known, of giving relief in such cases, may, perhaps,
be discovered. In a commercial and maritime country like Britain,
where so many persons, in consequence of their occupations at sea, on
canals, rivers, and in mines, are exposed to drowning, suffocation,
and other accidents, this object is of the utmost importance in a
public view, and is entitled to every encouragement.
Forster, on whose body these experiments were performed, was
twenty-six years of age, seemed to have been of a strong, vigorous
constitution, and was executed at Newgate on the 17th of January 1803.
The body was exposed for a whole hour in a temperature two degrees
below the freezing point of Fahrenheit’s thermometer; at the end of
which long interval it was conveyed to a house not far distant, and,
in pursuance of the sentence, was delivered to the College of
Surgeons. Mr. Keate, master of that respectable society, having been
so kind as to place it under my direction, I readily embraced that
opportunity of subjecting it to the Galvanic stimulus, which had never
before been tried on persons put to death in a similar manner: and the
result of my experiments I now take the liberty of submitting to the
public.
Before I conclude this short introduction, I consider it as my duty to
acknowledge my obligations to Mr. CARPUE, lecturer on anatomy, and Mr.
HUTCHINS, a medical pupil, for the assistance they afforded me in the
dissection. I was also much indebted to Mr. CUTHBERTSON, an eminent
mathematical instrument maker, who directed and arranged the Galvanic
apparatus. Encouraged by the aid of these gentlemen, and the polite
attention of Mr. KEATE, I attempted a series of experiments, of which
the following is a brief account.
EXPERIMENT I.
One arc being applied to the mouth, and another to the ear, wetted
with a solution of muriate of soda (common salt), Galvanism was
communicated by means of three troughs combined together, each of
which contained forty plates of zinc, and as many of copper. On the
first application of the arcs the jaw began to quiver, the adjoining
muscles were horribly contorted, and the left eye actually opened.
EXPERIMENT II.
On applying the arc to both ears, a motion of the head was manifested,
and a convulsive action of all the muscles of the face: the lips and
eyelids were also evidently affected; but the action seemed much
increased by making one extremity of the arc to communicate with the
nostrils, the other continuing in one ear.
EXPERIMENT III.
The conductors being applied to the ear, and to the rectum, excited in
the muscles contractions much stronger than in the preceding
experiments. The action even of those muscles furthest distant from
the points of contact with the arc was so much increased as almost to
give an appearance of re-animation.
EXPERIMENT IV.
In this state, wishing to try the power of ordinary stimulants, I
applied volatile alkali to the nostrils and to the mouth, but without
the least sensible action: on applying Galvanism great action was
constantly produced. I then administered the Galvanic stimulus and
volatile alkali together; the convulsions appeared to be much
increased by this combination, and extended from the muscles of the
head, face, and neck, as far as the deltoid. The effect in this case
surpassed our most sanguine expectations, and vitality might, perhaps,
have been restored, if many circumstances had not rendered it
impossible.
EXPERIMENT V.
I next extended the arc from one ear to the biceps flexor cubiti, the
fibres of which had been laid bare by dissection. This produced
violent convulsions in all the muscles of the arm, and especially in
the biceps and the coraco brachialis even without the intervention of
salt water.
EXPERIMENT VI.
An incision having been made in the wrist, among the small filaments
of the nerves and cellular membrane, on bringing the arc into contact
with this part, a very strong action of the muscles of the fore-arm
and hand was immediately perceived. In this, as in the last
experiment, the animal moisture was sufficient to conduct the Galvanic
stimulus without the intervention of salt water.
EXPERIMENT VII.
The short muscles of the thumb were dissected, and submitted to the
action of the Galvanic apparatus, which induced a forcible effort to
clench the hand.
EXPERIMENT VIII.
The effects of Galvanism in this experiment were compared with those
of other stimulants. For this purpose, the point of the scalpel was
applied to the fibres, and even introduced into the substance of the
biceps flexor cubiti without producing the slightest motion. The same
result was obtained from the use of caustic volatile alkali and
concentrated sulphuric acid. The latter even corroded the muscle,
without bringing it into action.
EXPERIMENT IX.
Having opened the thorax and the pericardium, exposing the heart _in
situ_, I endeavoured to excite action in the ventricles, but without
success. The arc was first applied upon the surface, then in the
substance of the fibres, to the carneæ columnæ, to the septum
ventriculorum, and lastly, in the course of the nerves by the coronary
arteries, even with salt water interposed, but without the slightest
visible action being induced.
EXPERIMENT X.
In this experiment the arc was conveyed to the right auricle, and
produced a considerable contraction, without the intervention of salt
water, but especially in that part called the appendix auricularis: in
the left auricle scarcely any action was exhibited.
EXPERIMENT XI.
Conductors being applied from the spinal marrow to the fibres of the
biceps flexor cubiti, the gluteus maximus, and the gastrocnemius,
separately, no considerable action in the muscles of the arm and leg
was produced.
EXPERIMENT XII.
The sciatic nerve being exposed between the great trochanter of the
femur and the tuberosity of the ischium, and the arc being established
from the spinal marrow to the nerve divested of its theca, we
observed, to our astonishment, that no contraction whatever ensued in
the muscles, although salt water was used at both extremities of the
arc. But the conductor being made to communicate with the fibres of
the muscles and the cellular membrane, as strong an action as before
was manifested.
EXPERIMENT XIII.
By making the arc to communicate with the sciatic nerve and the
gastrocnemius muscle, a very feeble action was produced in the latter.
EXPERIMENT XIV.
Conductors being applied from the sciatic to the peronæal nerve,
scarcely any motion was excited in the muscles.
EXPERIMENT XV.
The sciatic nerve being divided about the middle of the thigh, on
applying the conductors from the biceps flexor cruris to the
gastrocnemius, there ensued a powerful contraction of both. I must
here observe that the muscles continued excitable for seven hours and
a half after the execution. The troughs were frequently renewed, yet
towards the close they were very much exhausted. No doubt, with a
stronger apparatus we might have observed muscular action much longer;
for, after the experiments had been continued for three or four hours,
the power of a single trough was not sufficient to excite the action
of the muscles: the assistance of a more powerful apparatus was
required. This shows that such a long series of experiments could not
have been performed by the simple application of metallic coatings. I
am of opinion that, in general, these coatings, invented in the first
instance by Galvani, are passive. They serve merely to conduct the
fluid pre-existent in the animal system; whereas, with the Galvanic
batteries of Volta, the muscles are excited to action by the influence
of the apparatus itself.
* * * * *
From the above experiments there is reason to conclude:
I.
That Galvanism exerts a considerable power over the nervous and
muscular systems, and operates universally on the whole of the animal
œconomy.
II.
That the power of Galvanism, as a stimulant, is stronger than any
mechanical action whatever.
III.
That the effects of Galvanism on the human frame differ from those
produced by electricity communicated with common electrical machines.
IV.
That Galvanism, whether administered by means of troughs, or piles,
differs in its effects from those produced by the simple metallic
coatings employed by Galvani.
V.
That when the surfaces of the nerves and muscles are armed with
metallic coatings, the influence of the Galvanic batteries is conveyed
to a greater number of points, and acts with considerably more force
in producing contractions of the muscular fibre.
VI.
That the action of Galvanism on the heart is different from that on
other muscles. For, when the heart is no longer susceptible of
Galvanic influence, the other muscles remain still excitable for a
certain time. It is also remarkable that the action produced by
Galvanism on the auricles is different from that produced on the
ventricles of the heart, as is demonstrated in Experiment the tenth.
VII.
That Galvanism affords very powerful means of resuscitation in cases
of suspended animation under common circumstances. The remedies
already adopted in asphyxia, drowning, &c. when combined with the
influence of Galvanism, will produce much greater effect than either
of them separately.
* * * * *
To conclude this subject, it may be acceptable to the reader to have a
short but accurate account of the appearances exhibited on the
dissection of the body, which was performed with the greatest care and
precision by Mr. Carpue.
“The blood in the head was not extravasated, but several
vessels were prodigiously swelled, and the lungs entirely
deprived of air; there was a great inflammation in the
intestines, and the bladder was fully distended with urine.
In general, upon viewing the body, it appeared that death
had been immediately produced by a real suffocation.”
It may be observed, if credit can be given to some loose reports,
which hitherto it has not been in our power to substantiate, that
after this man had been for some time suspended, means were employed
with a view to put an end to his sufferings.
From the preceding narrative it will be easily perceived, that our
object in applying the treatment here described was not to produce
re-animation, but merely to obtain a practical knowledge how far
Galvanism might be employed as an auxiliary to other means in attempts
to revive persons under similar circumstances.
In cases when suspended animation has been produced by natural causes,
it is found that the pulsations of the heart and arteries become
totally imperceptible; therefore, when it is to be restored, it is
necessary to re-establish the circulation throughout the whole system.
But this cannot be done without re-establishing also the muscular
powers which have been suspended, and to these the application of
Galvanism gives new energy.
I am far from wishing to raise any objections against the
administration of the other remedies which are already known, and
which have long been used. I would only recommend Galvanism as the
most powerful mean hitherto discovered of _assisting_ and increasing
the efficacy of every other stimulant.
Volatile alkali, as already observed, produced no effect whatever on
the body when applied alone; but, being used conjointly with
Galvanism, the power of the latter over the nervous and muscular
system was greatly increased: nay, it is possible that volatile
alkali, owing to its active powers alone, might convey the Galvanic
fluid to the brain with greater facility, by which means its action
would become much more powerful in cases of suspended animation. The
well known method of injecting atmospheric air ought not to be
neglected; but here, likewise, in order that the lungs may be prepared
for its reception, it would be proper previously to use Galvanism, to
excite the muscular action, and to assist the whole animal system to
resume its vital functions. Under this view, the experiments of which
I have just given an account, may be of great public utility.
It is with heartfelt gratitude that I recall to mind the politeness
and lively interest shown by the members of the College of Surgeons in
the prosecution of these experiments. Mr. Keate, the master, in
particular proposed to make comparative experiments on animals, in
order to give support to the deductions resulting from those on the
human body. Mr. Blicke observed that on similar occasions it would be
proper to immerse the body in a warm salt bath, in order to ascertain
how far it might promote the action of Galvanism on the whole surface
of the body. Dr. Pearson recommended oxygen gas to be substituted
instead of the atmospheric air blown into the lungs. It gives me great
pleasure to have an opportunity of communicating these observations to
the public, in justice to the eminent characters who suggested them,
and as an inducement to physiologists not to overlook the minutest
circumstance which may tend to improve experiments that promise so
greatly to relieve the sufferings of mankind.
No. II.
_Report presented to the Class of the Exact Sciences of the Academy
of Turin, 15th August 1802, in regard to the Galvanic Experiments
made by_ C. VASSALI-EANDI, GIULIO, _and_ ROSSI, _on the 10th and
14th of the same Month, on the Bodies of three Men a short Time
after their Decapitation. By_ C. GIULIO.
The First Consul, in a letter to Chaptal, in which he announced to
that minister the two prizes he had founded to encourage philosophers
to make new researches in regard to Galvanism, says, “Galvanism, in my
opinion, will lead to great discoveries.” This observation was just
and profound: great discoveries have already been made; Galvani and
Volta have immortalized their names, and several celebrated
philosophers and physiologists have rendered themselves illustrious in
this branch of science, so abundant in astonishing phænomena: yet it
is only in its infancy, and there can be no doubt that many important
discoveries still remain to be made.
Vassali, Rossi, and myself, have for several years been employed in
researches on this subject. While the first examined the Galvanic
fluid in every point of view, for the purpose of illustrating its
nature by means of a great number of ingenious experiments, performed
with that care and exactness for which he is distinguished, Rossi and
I attempted to explain the action of the Galvanic fluid on the
different organs of the animal œconomy.
Sometimes I was obliged to interrupt my researches by unfortunate
circumstances, and at others by my administrative functions: but I
have now resumed them; and though success has not yet crowned our
efforts by any brilliant discovery, we trust, and with confidence,
that we shall be able to add some valuable facts to the history of the
animal œconomy; to rectify others; to confirm facts already received;
and to extend the domain of an inexhaustible agent fertile in wonders.
Volta had announced that the involuntary organs, such as the heart,
the stomach, the intestines, the bladder and vessels, are insensible
to the Galvanic action[15]: but we have fully refuted this great
physiological error. Unfortunately, however, the Latin memoir
containing the decisive experiments which we made on cold-blooded and
warm-blooded animals in 1792, presented to the Academy soon after, and
which, according to Sue, in his History of Galvanism[16], “are
curious, and contain very interesting observations,” did not appear
till 1801, when it was printed in the last volume of the Transactions
of the Academy.
In that interval Grapengiesser found, as we had done, that Galvanism,
by means of zinc and silver[17], has an influence on the peristaltic
motion. Humboldt ascertained the Galvanic action on the hearts of
frogs, lizards, toads, and fishes. Smuch observed the excitability of
the heart by the Galvanic fluid; and Fowler changed the pulsations of
the heart without the immediate application to it of armatures, and
only by adapting them in warm-blooded animals to the recurrent nerve
by means of the sympathetic[18].
It is chiefly in regard to the experiments of these learned Germans
that the historian of Galvanism states[19], that the involuntary
vermicular motion of the intestines, according to the acknowledgment
of all physiologists, obeys metallic irritation; whence it follows,
says he, that the Italian philosophers have advanced an error when
they said that Galvanism exercises no action but on the muscles, which
depend on the will. As an accurate and impartial historian, how can
Sue accuse the Italian philosophers indiscriminately of such an error,
since he had our memoir before him when employed on the second volume
of his History of Galvanism, and since he gave a short account of my
experiments in his first volume? Nay, I gave an account of my
experiments in a small work published in Italian in 1792. But as
Italian works are not much read in France, and were less so at that
period, I should not have reproached C. Sue with this act of
injustice, and his incorrectness in regard to the Italian
philosophers, had not my Latin memoir been known to him, as it had
appeared in the Transactions of the Academy.
Though we made a great many experiments before we attempted to combat
a philosopher so justly celebrated as Volta, and to establish the
influence of Galvanism on the involuntary organs; and though
Grapengiesser, Humboldt, Smuch, Fowler, &c. ascertained this influence
in certain cold-blooded and even warm-blooded animals; an object of so
much importance to physiology required to be extended and confirmed,
especially in man, by new experiments. We have been the more sensible
of the necessity of establishing this fact in an incontestable manner,
either in regard to the involuntary organs in general, or more
particularly the heart, as the celebrated Aldini, professor at
Bologna, in an Italian work replete with new facts and valuable
experiments made on the bodies of decapitated criminals, has been
obliged to acknowledge that he was not able to obtain any contraction
in that organ by means of the electro-motor of Volta, which is so
powerful.
We shall give an account, in particular memoirs, of the experiments we
have already made, and of those which we propose to perform. In regard
to the stomach, the large and the small intestines, and the bladder,
we shall say only, in a general manner, that by armature of the
different nervous branches we obtained contractions analogous to those
described in regard to animals. The Galvanic action on the heart and
arteries is the object of the present paper, as it is of the utmost
importance to physiology, and deserves, under every point of view, to
excite our attention and occupy our reflections.
Our experiments on the different parts of the head and trunk of the
decapitated criminals were begun, on the 10th of August, in a hall of
the large hospital of St. John, and resumed and continued yesterday in
the anatomical theatre of the university, before a great number of
spectators.
We tried the influence of Galvanism on the heart in three different
ways:
1st, In arming the spinal marrow by means of a cylinder of lead
introduced into the canal of the cervical vertebræ, and then conveying
one extremity of a silver arc over the surface of the heart, and the
other to the arming of the spinal marrow. The heart of the first
individual subjected to our experiments immediately exhibited very
visible and very strong contractions. These experiments were made
without the intervention of any kind of pile, and without any armature
applied to the heart. It is very remarkable, that when the former is
touched first, and then the arming and spinal marrow, the contractions
of the heart which follow are more instantaneous, and stronger, than
when the arming of the spinal marrow is first touched, and then the
heart. In a memoir on Galvanism, read in the last public sitting of
the academy, I gave an account of a great number of experiments, made
especially on frogs, which exhibited a similar phænomenon. In these
animals I observed, a great number of times, that when the arming of
the crural nerves was touched first, and then the muscles of the
thigh, there were no contractions, or the contractions were
exceedingly weak; and, on the other hand, that when the muscles of the
thighs were first touched, and then the arming of the crural nerves,
as long as the least vitality remained in the organs, the contractions
of the muscles were constant and violent. In the memoir already
mentioned I have endeavoured to account for this phænomenon, to which
I shall recur, when it has been ascertained by a sufficient number of
trials, that it is as general in men as I found it in frogs and other
cold-blooded animals.
The second manner in which we tried the influence of Galvanism on the
heart was by arming the par vagum and the great sympathetic nerve. The
object of these experiments will be readily comprehended by anatomists
acquainted with the details of neurology. In these, as well as in the
first and other experiments where we armed the cardiac nerves
themselves, we obtained contractions in the heart. In this, as in the
former case, the contractions took place when the heart was first
touched, and then the arming of the nerves, were much stronger than
when the arming of the nerves was touched first, and then the heart.
In this method we even observed that the Galvanic experiments
sometimes failed.
The third kind of experiments on the heart were performed by means of
the pile. The pile employed on the 10th of August, for the experiments
on the first decapitated criminal, was composed of fifty plates of
silver and as many of zinc, with pasteboard moistened by a strong
solution of muriate of soda. The silver was mixed with a tenth part of
copper. This is the proportion which we found most favourable to the
intensity of the signs of Galvanism:
Metre.
The diameter of the silver plates was 0·036
Their thickness 0·0015
The dimensions of the pieces of pasteboard were the same.
Metre.
The diameter of the zinc plates was 0·042
Their thickness 0·0035
The pile employed for the experiments on the 15th of August was
composed of fifty plates of pure silver, and twice that number of
plates of zinc and pieces of pasteboard; the latter moistened in a
solution of muriate of soda.
Metre.
The diameter of the silver plates was 0·038
Their thickness 0·001
The dimensions of the pieces of pasteboard were the same.
Metre.
The diameter of the zinc plates was 0·04
Their thickness 0·001
By making the negative extremity of the pile to communicate, by means
of respective conductors, with the spinal marrow, or merely with the
muscles of the back or breast, laid bare, and the positive extremity
immediately with the heart, instantaneous and violent contractions
were obtained; and the contractions were produced also when the heart
was made to communicate with the negative extremity of the pile, and
the spinal marrow with the positive extremity.
We shall observe, in regard to contractions of the heart, that of all
its parts the apex is the most susceptible of motion, and the most
sensible to the Galvanic influence: we must observe also, that the
contractions produced by communication with the pile were not only
strong, but that they continued a long time even after the
communication was destroyed.
A very remarkable circumstance is, that the heart, which of all the
muscles retains longest, in general, its contractility in regard to
mechanical stimulants, is the first to become insensible to the
Galvanic influence. The muscles of the arms, and those of the back and
breast, continue to be excitable by Galvanism for whole hours; and the
heart had lost its excitability about forty minutes after death.
The experiments made yesterday in the anatomical theatre exhibited
nearly the same results in regard to the heart as those already
mentioned. The great arteries, such as the aorta and some of its
branches, being injected with water raised nearly to the same
temperament as that of the blood in the living individual, and
subjected to the Galvanic action, exhibited contractions. But it is
probable that they will appear stronger when trials of this kind shall
be made on bodies endowed with a higher degree of vitality than those
of yesterday, and when the interval between the period of decapitation
and that of the experiments shall be less. With this view, indeed, we
have provided a hall much nearer to the place of execution; for the
results which we obtained in the man decapitated on the 10th of
August, in which case the experiments were begun five minutes after
the decapitation, were all comparatively more striking, and stronger,
than those obtained in the experiments of yesterday, which were begun
more than twenty minutes after decapitation, and which were performed,
as appears, on bodies endowed with a much less degree of vitality.
In the experiments made on the arteries, we armed the nervous
plexuses, which envelop the trunks of the cœliac and mesenteric
arteries, several branches of which are even interwoven around the
aorta: a communication was established between the positive or
negative extremity of the pile and the aortic artery itself. It was by
these means that we obtained visible contractions.
If the effects of Galvanism on arterial contractions be constant, as I
suppose them to be, all those discussions which have been agitated so
long, and with so much violence, in regard to the irritability of the
arteries, which does not manifest itself by the action of different
mechanical and chemical stimulants, will at length be terminated in a
positive and irrefragable manner; all doubts will at length be
removed; and we shall be indebted to the Galvanic fluid, which is the
most energetic of all agents applied to the animal fibre, for having
fixed the opinions of physiologists on a point of so much importance
to the animal œconomy.
Whence comes it that Aldini, even with the help of the most powerful
electro-motors, was not able to obtain contractions in the heart of
man, which we so evidently obtained by the same means which always
withstood his efforts? How happens it that we obtained contractions by
means much weaker?
The first experiments of Aldini on the human heart were begun an hour
and a half after death[20]. The trunk had been exposed a long time to
the open air, the temperature of which was no more than + 2. It is
probable that the cold, and the long interval between the period of
death and that of the experiment, had already annihilated the
irritability of the heart[21]. In the fifty-third experiment, the
heart of another executed criminal constantly remained motionless and
insensible to the Galvanic current. But in this experiment, before
trying the heart, a considerable time was employed in making trials on
the voluntary organs, the sensibility of which to Galvanism had
already been acknowledged. But the very reverse of this method ought
to be followed; for I will here repeat, that excitability, by means of
the Galvanic fluid, is extinguished in the heart a long time before it
becomes extinct in the voluntary muscles. This is so certain, that
while no part of the heart, tried externally and internally, presented
any sign of contractions, the diaphragm, and the muscles of the upper
and lower extremities, gave very strong ones.
In our experiments which were begun five minutes after death, the
heart ceased to be sensible to the Galvanic agent about the fortieth
minute; and this was the case in the temperature of + 25; while the
voluntary muscles retained their Galvanic excitability for hours. In
other experiments made by Aldini, the contractility of the voluntary
muscles existed three hours, and even five hours, after death.
In the oxen subjected to Galvanic experiments by Aldini, the
excitability of the heart must have been extinguished sooner, since
the action of the Galvanic fluid of the pile produced no contractions,
though applied immediately after death.
If contractions were observed in the voluntary muscles under the same
circumstances, it was because these muscles, which lose much sooner
than the heart their excitability in regard to mechanical stimulants,
retain it much longer than that organ in regard to the Galvanic agent.
What then is the cause of this diversity, which seems contrary to
every analogy, and which, however, is proved by facts? It is still
involved in much obscurity: but it is not yet time to tear the dark
veil which conceals it; we are not yet enlightened by a sufficient
number of facts; and the few scattered data which we have been able to
collect, cannot yet be connected in a manner capable of encouraging us
to attempt to rend the veil at present.
We shall not here speak of the astonishment with which the spectators
were struck when they saw the contractions of the frontal muscles,
those of the eye-lids, the face, the lower jaw, and the tongue; when
they beheld the convulsions of the muscles of the arms, the breast,
and of the back, which raised the trunk some inches from the table;
the contractions of the pectoral muscles, and the exterior and
interior intercostal muscles, which diminished the intervals between
all the ribs, and made them approach each other with violence, raising
the inferior ones towards the superior, and the latter towards the
first rib and the clavicle; the contractions of the arms, which, when
the uncovered biceps muscle was touched, as well as its tendon, were
so speedy and violent, that complete flexion of the fore-arm on the
arm took place, and that the hand raised weights of some pounds fifty
minutes after decapitation. Similar experiments may be seen in the
work of Aldini: our object in this report was merely to speak of the
Galvanic influence on the heart and arteries of man, which had not yet
been observed.
These new and important results, which we obtained in regard to the
heart and arteries of man, will be confirmed by other trials. We shall
repeat our experiments as soon as an opportunity occurs, and we shall
take care to give you an early account of the most remarkable
observations we shall make.
[15] Mezzini, Volta, Valli, Klein, Pfaff, Berhends, have
denied that the heart could be moved by the Galvanic fluid.
_Hist. du Galvanisme_, part i. p. 145. Bichat could obtain
no contractions either in the heart of man or that of the
dog. See _Récherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mort_.
[16] Towards the end of the First Part.
[17] See _Histoire du Galvanisme_, vol. ii. p. 81.
[18] Ibid. vol. ii. p. 84.
[19] Vol. ii. p. 83.
[20] Saggio di Sperienze sul Galvanismo di Giovani Aldini;
Bolonia 1802, p. 14, esp. 28.
[21] If the celebrated Bichat failed in his experiments on
the human heart, as well as Aldini, it was, perhaps, owing
to the same causes. The temperature was cold, and the
interval between the time of execution and that of the
experiment too long. “I was authorized,” says Bichat, “in
the winter of the year 7, to make various trials on the
bodies of unfortunate persons who had been guillotined. I
had them at my disposal from thirty to forty minutes after
execution. It was always impossible for me to produce the
least motion by arming either the spinal marrow and the
heart, or the latter organ and the nerves which it receives
from the ganglions by the sympathetic, or from the brain by
the par vagum.”
No. III.
_Account of an experiment made at Calais, on the transmission of
Galvanism through an arm of the sea. By_ J. ALDINI.
The experiments made at the Lake of Geneva by Mr. de Luc and his
brother, and those made in England on the banks of the Thames, by
which it has been proved that common electricity is susceptible of
transmission through a considerable space of water, induced me to try
some analogous experiments in regard to Galvanism by endeavouring to
make it traverse a certain extent of sea.
Some philosophers, to whom I communicated this project, seemed to
entertain doubts on the subject, as they conceived that a considerable
extent of sea water might perhaps destroy or impede the action of the
Galvanic fluid. My late passage at Calais afforded me an opportunity
of removing all these doubts by an experiment which was attended with
complete success.
M. Sept-Fontaines, distinguished by his philosophical knowledge, was
desirous of assisting me in my proposed researches; M. Cheely, chemist
of the military hospital, prepared the necessary instruments; and M.
Debaudre, the port engineer, conducted the arrangement of the Galvanic
arcs.
On the 27th of February, the sky being serene, and the sea calm, every
thing seemed to be favourable for the experiment. A gentle south-west
wind prevailed at the time; the temperature of the water of the sea
was 47·4° of Fahrenheit, that of the atmosphere 49·4°, and the
barometer stood at 30·37 inches.
Fort Rouge and the West Mole afforded me two fixed points proper for
my purpose. A Galvanic pile consisting of eighty plates of silver and
zinc was constructed on the West Mole on an insulated stool, and the
animals destined to be exposed to the Galvanic action were placed at
Fort Rouge. The Galvanic chain was composed of the arm of the sea
which separates Fort Rouge from the Western Mole, and of three wires
disposed in the following manner.
The first wire proceeded from the base of the pile, and, being
supported by an insulator, fell vertically into the sea to the depth
of about three fathoms.
The second wire, insulated in the same manner, proceeded from the
summit of the pile, and was conveyed in a horizontal direction at the
height of from six to nine feet above the surface of the sea, as far
as the platform of Fort Rouge.
A third wire, also insulated, and placed at one corner of the
platform, descended perpendicularly into the sea in the same manner as
the first.
When this arrangement was made, if a person on the platform touched
the extremities of the second and third wires, and thus completed the
Galvanic circle, he always experienced a shock; and when animals
recently killed were substituted in the room of the person, they were
thrown into strong convulsions. We therefore concluded that the
portion of sea water between the pile and the animal subjected to its
action formed a part of the Galvanic circle: such was the consequence
we thought ourselves authorised to deduce from this experiment. The
breadth of the water was about 200 feet.
I must freely confess, that in repeating these experiments, we found,
that to receive the shock, it was not absolutely necessary that the
person should hold in his hands the two conductors, and that it was
sufficient to touch the wire alone which proceeded from the summit of
the pile. This apparent anomaly deranged at first the result of my
researches; and we suspected that the shocks before received had been
transmitted without the intervention of the water of the sea. It was
therefore necessary that this doubt should be cleared up by new
observations.
I tried separately, on the platform, the action of the two conducting
wires, and found that by touching the wire which fell into the sea no
shock was produced. I then took in my hand the other wire, which
proceeded from the summit of the pile; and having thus brought its
action into equilibrium, I experienced a shock: which shows that the
Galvanic fluid took its course from the bottom of the pile traversing
the sea. M. Sept-Fontaines proposed that we should lower to the level
of the sea the wire which proceeded from the summit of the pile, and
which was extended to Fort Rouge. The action of the Galvanism was then
checked, but was immediately restored by placing the conductor in its
former position. Thus, notwithstanding the large extent of water by
which the metallic conductors were separated; and notwithstanding the
agitation produced by the sea, the Galvanism found no obstacle to its
propagation, and pursued its usual direction.
Hence it may be readily perceived, that though the experiments here
described are analogous to those formerly made with the Leyden flask
on lakes and rivers, they are new of their kind, and may contribute to
establish the similarity between the properties of common electricity
and of Galvanism. I will even venture to assert, that these
experiments, if pursued and varied, may lead to some interesting
discoveries in natural philosophy.
After making these observations at Fort Rouge, I repaired in company
with M. Sept-Fontaines to the West Mole, to try the power of the pile
unconnected with the sea. Having formed an arc, we found that the
action of the pile, in this case, was stronger; which induced us to
conclude, that the Galvanic power in traversing the sea had been in
some measure weakened. There is reason to suppose, that by
transmitting the Galvanic influence gradually to greater distances
through the sea, the point of the minimum of its action, that is, a
distance at which it will no longer be sensible, may be discovered.
This distance remains to be determined, and also the difference
between the propagation of common electricity in fresh water, and that
of Galvanism in salt water.
I observed that the sea shore, still moist after the water retires in
consequence of the reflux, is endowed with the power of conveying
Galvanism to very great distances. I made several experiments on this
subject with M. Bastide, physician of Calais, who acknowledged that he
had received very strong shocks, the effects of which were sensible
the day following.
THE END.
_Wilks and Taylor,
Printers, Chancery-lane._
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