PRODUCTS.
The two seasons prevailing in this country and so strongly defined,
are the chief reason why the ground does not yield as many products
as might be obtained by the assistance of art; for, if field and
garden fruits were cultivated with the utmost care during the
dry season, no success could be expected, as there is a total
want of water wherewith to irrigate the plants, and, in the wet
season, the rain beats down with such force that it would wash all
small plants out of the earth; hence agriculture is confined to
articles which thrive without much attention, and proceed quickly
to maturity. I have no doubt that, if wells were sunk and large
reservoirs excavated to collect, during the rainy months, the
quantity of water necessary for the irrigation of the soil during
the ensuing dry season, many vegetables might be produced which
it is now quite impossible to rear. There are no running streams,
and the few small lakes, or rather ponds, met with in the country,
are not supplied with water throughout the year, and are, moreover,
very inconsiderable when compared with the extent of arable land.
Horticulture is limited to certain spots, and, excepting at Bara
and some other small villages, where there is plenty of water,
no gardens are to be seen in the whole province. The wants of
the natives who live in fixed places of residence are not such as
they may supply by cultivating gardens; and the frequent change of
residence is a yet greater hindrance to the nomades from occupying
themselves with tillage of the ground. The blame, however, is
chiefly to be attributed to the government, who would lay their
hands upon the harvest, or levy large contributions upon it, which
the natives would not be able to pay. When the Egyptians first took
possession of the country, under the Defturdar, they found merely
dokn, a little douhra, water-melons, bamíyeh, meluchia (lentils),
onions, and tobacco. The Defturdar’s army, therefore, suffered
greatly from want of provisions, until it was supplied from the
stores in the north, and the necessary articles of consumption were
subsequently produced in the country. Since these times, the Turks,
who have become residents, and the Dongolavi have cultivated gardens,
in which they now grow wheat, bedingajoti[54] (Poradies-üepfel[55]),
small beans, radishes, celery, dill, and garlic; some vineyards
have been planted, as also pomegranates, lemon trees, Indian and
common figs. In the larger plantations sim-sim, ful-Darfûr (beans
from Darfour), rice, and cotton are grown. It is, however, by mere
chance if garden fruits, or green vegetables, are ever seen exposed
for sale in the market place at Lobeid; weeks frequently pass without
any such luxuries coming to sight, for the gardeners are very far
backward in their art, and take but little pains to produce any
plants. The natives, in fact, leave the cultivation of the gardens,
like everything else, to chance, and do not give the vegetation
the slightest assistance, so that it is really by mere hazard if
anything thrive. Should the traveller wish to obtain vegetables for
his own consumption during his residence in this country, he must
make a kind of agreement with the proprietor of a garden to deliver
the produce of the season at his house; for to wait for what might
be exhibited in the market, would be, indeed, to wait in vain, as
such an exhibition is, in the first place, according to my former
statement, of very rare occurrence, and vegetables are only offered
publicly for sale when all the private consumers are supplied, and
there is a surplus of one or the other production. The vegetables
indigenous in temperate climates are not of the same succulent
quality in this country, partly because they are not properly
attended to, and partly because the tropical climate causes them
to grow too luxuriantly to arrive at the same state of perfection
in which we obtain them in Europe. Grapes ripen twice in the year,
but the leaves must be gathered off the vines, or all the sap will
be exhausted by the foliage and tendrils, and no grapes will be
formed. Those which ripen in the month of August are very watery,
those, on the other hand, which come to perfection at the end of
December are very sweet. A great number of lime-trees are planted in
the gardens, but the lemons are too small, have but little juice and
acidity, and are quite exsiccated in a few days after they have been
gathered from the trees. The orange tree produces no fruit, for it
is not suited to the climate. Indian (cactus) and Syrian figs bear
fruit, but not of the best quality. The same observation applies
to other garden productions: they have not the flavour that might
be expected, and do not in general attain their full size, for all
plants form too much leaf to produce sound and good fruit. Thus even
onions are too sweet in taste, of small dimension, and without the
slightest acridity. Salad is not to be met with. The water-melons,
which are chiefly cultivated in Dar-Hammer, are not of an agreeable
flavour. The fruit of the few date-trees to be seen in the province
ripens during the rainy season, is, consequently, very watery, and
will not keep for any time, like the dates of Egypt, but decomposes
shortly after it is gathered. Sim-Sim is largely cultivated, whence
the natives express an oil used in the preparation of their pomatum;
for they never burn oil, and, if they wish to illuminate their
tukkoli at night-time, light a wood-fire. Wheat is grown in some
few places, but only in small quantities, and in the dry season,
indeed, by artificial irrigation; a sufficient supply for the few
Turkish residents during a few months is, however, merely, produced,
and even they are obliged to eat dokn-bread during the greater
part of the year. This description of corn is very dear, and cost,
in the year 1838, two hundred piasters (£2 18_s._ 4_d._) the ardeb;
whilst in Egypt the value of the same quantity rarely exceeds the sum
of thirty or sixty piasters. Only the Bakkara cultivate rice on the
borders of the lakes Arrat and Pirget, but it differs totally from
the variety generally met with in commerce; for it is small in grain,
and of unpleasant flavour. The greater quantity of rice consumed
in Kordofan, by the Turks more especially, is imported, therefore,
from Egypt. Cotton is grown in very inconsiderable quantities, in
proportion to the demand for this article; in fact, not one-third of
the quantity consumed in the manufacture of their calicoes. It is of
the finest quality, and resembles that of Sennaar,[56] well-known
in the trade in Europe. The fibre is rather longer than that of
the Makko[57] variety. I have often enquired of the natives, why
they do not attach more importance to the cultivation of plants,
which would prove of so much advantage to them, since they are
at present necessitated to purchase the calico required for their
simple clothing at a very high price; but they always answered me,
they were well aware that the growth of cotton was very profitable,
but they had no desire to work for the soldiers of the government,
as they knew very well that they would leave them little or none
of the cotton produced, and they should therefore be obliged to
buy the cloth for their own consumption as they do at present;
hence they save themselves the labour. Indigo would thrive very
well in various parts of Kordofan,—for it grows spontaneously
in some districts,—and its cultivation would prove a source of
great profit to the government. Experiments have been already made,
and have furnished indigo of a quality superior to that of Egypt;
but the government pays no attention to this subject, and the
natives are far too ignorant to stumble upon an object of so much
importance without a hint from some kind friend.
All the articles above mentioned are reared in gardens, the
cultivation of which is entrusted to slaves. The irrigation is
effected artificially by means of draw-wells. As soon as the
rainy season is at an end, every native hastens to put his garden
in order, which during the former period had been, as it were,
lying fallow; for if any one were to venture to sow or plant
during the period of the rains, he must expect everything either
to be washed out of the earth by the violent showers, or to rot
before it arrived at maturity. Very few articles are, therefore,
cultivated, and these merely where the position of the land is
suitable. The absolute tillage, or treatment of the soil, requires
but slight trouble, for the clods of earth are simply broken by
means of a short-pointed stick, beaten into mould with a rather
thicker staff, and then levelled with the hand, or with the same
instrument. The seed is now sown, and covered with a little earth;
and small furrows are made in the various beds, which are daily
watered from a draw-well. Agriculture, in general, is confined
to dockn, a species of field-fruit which may be compared to the
millet, from which it however differs in the circumstance that the
stalk, with the inflorescence, attains the height of seven or eight
feet. It is the only species of grain used by the inhabitants of
Kordofan and the bordering countries, and is indispensable to them
for their bread. It is a very exuberant and profitable plant, and
is cultivated everywhere throughout the whole province. The fields
in which the dockn grows are generally very large, and many of them
are situated in the forests. To render these woodland tracts arable,
the trees are hewn down to the height of a man; by the next year they
are dry—when fires are lighted, the stems being burnt at the same
time with the brushwood. These fields do not require as much labour
and attention as our corn-fields. The natives are not acquainted
with the plough, the harrow, or, in fact, with any other civilized
engine of husbandry; a single falciform piece of iron, pointed
at either extremity, and furnished in the centre with a staff,
answers the purpose of all necessary implements. This instrument
is called a hashash, and is to be found in every hut; thus all the
agricultural utensils of a Kordofanese peasant cost twenty paras
(little more than three-halfpence). After the fall of the first rain
the grass is raked up in the fields, and preparations are made for
sowing, an occupation requiring the services of two persons only;
the one walks before the other, making, at about every two paces, a
hole with the hashash in the sandy soil, in which his companion each
time places a few seeds, and then treads down the hole with his right
foot. This operation is performed with extraordinary rapidity. The
ensuing rain imparts to the ground the necessary moisture, and as
soon as the rainy season terminates the fruit ripens. The chief
condition for a successful harvest is, that an over abundance of
rain do not injure the seed, and on this account the field should
be situated on a declivity, that the water may run off; but if
too little rain fall, a failure is likewise the result. With the
straw the natives build their tukkoli; the remainder is consumed
as food by the cattle. The grain is thrashed out in the field,
laden upon camels or oxen, and brought into the village, where it
is shot into pits lined with straw mats, and subsequently covered
over with sand. The latter proceeding is chiefly for the purpose of
securing the produce from the over-abundant vermin, and frequently
also from the rapacity of the government.
Besides this species of grain a small quantity of douhra may be
met with, and I doubt very much whether a species of corn of the
temperate zone might be cultivated with more profit or with the
same facility as the dockn. It happens, however, in some years
that the necessary quantity is not grown, and then whole villages
are frequently necessitated to betake themselves to the woods,
and live upon the egelit,[58] a fruit of the size of a plum,
of a yellowish colour, and pulpy consistence, which has not an
unpleasant flavour. Kordofan is altogether blest with many useful
trees notwithstanding its poverty in other respects, and an addition
might be made to their number with very little artificial aid,
were the inhabitants not too lazy and too stolid to engage with
energy in any undertaking, whilst the government, on the other
hand, only directs its attention to those objects which return an
immediate profit.
Among the most useful trees growing without cultivation, must be
reckoned: the gum-tree, the tamarind, the beautiful tabaldi, and
the egelit before mentioned. The gum-tree (_mimosa Nilotica_) as
it is termed in books, merits a different denomination in Kordofan,
for the shape of the tree, its leaves and spines, differ materially
from those of the mimosa Nilotica, properly so called. The latter
tree yields common gum only, whereas that of Kordofan is of the
finest description, so that it is erroneously distinguished by the
name of gum-Arabic. In some parts of the country, the mimosa forms
whole forests of vast extent; but the district of Bara furnishes
the largest quantity of gum. The harvest is modified by the annual
fall of rain, for, if it rain much, the trees sweat the more. The
gum exudes from the bark of the stem and large branches, nearly in
the same manner as the resinous exudation from the cherry-trees of
Europe. In digging for a beetle, I casually observed that the gum
proceeds from the root also. Sennaar, which is situated under the
same degree of latitude as Kordofan, yields a far less quantity
of this product. The gathering takes place a few months after the
rain, in the months of December, January, and February, it is an
exceedingly profitable affair to the government, and therefore a
monopoly. But even in this undertaking, the Egyptians act with
unparalleled neglect, and do not interfere when they see whole
forests of gum-trees hewn down, and the ground converted into dockn
fields, although immense tracts of the country far better adapted
for arable land remain uncultivated, by making use of which, the
gum-trees would be spared. But the government does not trouble
itself about such trifles, it merely scrapes together that which
comes within its reach without paying the slightest attention to
ulterior consequences. Of the plantation of young trees and the
extirpation of such as are unprofitable, it has no idea, nature
must attend to that business.
The Garrat,[59] whose pod is employed in tanning, and the tamarisk
(_tamarindus Indica_) are likewise frequently seen in the province,
but not in the same abundance as the gum-tree. The pods of the
tamarind are collected and trodden into the form of cakes, which
are dried, and either kept for domestic use or converted into
commodity. A large quantity of this production is consumed in the
country. This tree suffers greatly by the locusts; for sometimes
the inflorescence, sometimes the fruit, is totally devoured by
these destructive insects, and in those years, there is, of course,
a scarcity of this fruit in many villages.
The Tabaldi is one of the most beautiful specimens of the vegetable
kingdom indigenous in this country. When in blossom, the majestic
tree is nearly covered with flowers, resembling those of the double
red hollyhock, and, at a distance, gives the idea of hills covered
with roses, while the eye rests with delight on so beautiful an
object. It blooms at the commencement of August: the sarcocarp is
three-quarters of a foot in length, interiorly divided into many
cells, each of which includes a stone. The fruit is of a pleasing
acidulous flavour, but causes diarrhoea in those who are not
accustomed to eat it; it is, however, also employed for allaying
dysentery; but, to produce this opposite effect, it must be eaten
in large quantities. The stems of these trees measure sometimes more
than forty feet in circumference, and the wood is as hard as ebony;
their age may be estimated at thousands of years. Of the fruit of
the Doum palm[60] and fan-shaped palm,[61] the outer skin is eaten,
and a kind of syrup is also obtained from them.
Besides the trees above-mentioned, there is an innumerable variety
of plants which spring up from the ground in full luxuriance after
the first rain, and convert the whole province into a most beautiful
flower-garden. I am too little versed in botany to be expected to
give a full description of all the plants found in the country,
more especially as there are many species not yet mentioned in
any botanical work; but I am convinced that Kordofan would prove a
very interesting field to any botanist who would take the trouble to
explore it by travelling there for a lengthened period. Dr. Rueppell
and Mr. Kotschy spent too short a time in the country, and visited,
moreover, too few places to be able to make valuable collections.
The animal kingdom affords a no less fertile source of instruction
and amusement in this country. Among domestic animals we have the
horse, the camel, the ass, the mule, the cow, the sheep, the goat,
the dog, the cat, fowls and pigeons; and of wild beasts: lions,
giraffes, leopards, panthers, two varieties of hyænas, jackals,
about ten species of antelopes, some of which are not yet known
in Europe: further, monkeys, three varieties of wild cats, hares,
hedge-hogs, black and yellow mice, rats, and many animals yet
unknown, are to be met with in Kordofan; elephants and rhinoceroses
are rare; occasionally, however, one or the other of these animals
may be seen on the borders of the country. The province is very
rich in specimens of reptiles, and the boa may also be found.
The country abounds in insects of every description, many of which
are analogous, or very similar, to those of Senegal. A good harvest
may be made a month before the rain, during the whole of that season,
and at the most a month after it; during the remainder of the year
all trouble to find single specimens even is in vain. Collecting
insects formed one of my chief occupations during the whole of my
travels, and my labours were rewarded in a very extensive display
of the various specimens of the insects of Kordofan: so complete
a collection was, in fact, never yet brought from that country
to Europe. Entomology might have been benefited by the addition
of many new species, and years must transpire before so copious
a collection will again reach Europe, for few men will be able to
stand eleven months of this unhealthy climate. I have shed millions
of drops of sweat in my pursuit, and looked like one who had been
scourged after every excursion, from the scratches I received
from the thorns, with which most of the shrubs and trees of this
country are furnished. I defied all weather and every species of
danger in forming this cabinet: but, unfortunately, all my trouble,
together with the advantages entomology might thence have reaped,
are totally lost—thanks to those barbarians of the lazaretto at
Trieste, who allowed my whole collection, consisting of several
consignments, to spoil. In butterflies the country is very poor,
but there are more than a hundred different species of flies.
Among the feathered tribe there are birds of the most beautiful
plumage in this province, and many European varieties, even those of
Germany, hibernate here. The grey water-wagtail may more especially
be met with in myriads. The desert, the woods, even the huts in
the villages, are filled with these beautiful creatures, which
delight the eye with their magnificent colours, and the ear with
their charming song. It is, indeed, impossible to form a conception
of the spectacle they afford without having seen it. New species
arrive with every month, whilst others migrate until the proper
season recalls them. Eagles, vultures, parrots, colibris, a variety
of aquatic birds, ostriches, black storks, and the ibis, considered
holy by the ancient Egyptians, are to be here met with; the latter
two varieties are the chief birds of Kordofan. A large aquatic
bird saved me a great deal of trouble in collecting shells in the
marshes. If I descried one of these birds in the vicinity of a pond,
I had only to retreat to a distance of about fifty paces from it,
and to watch its movements. It dived beneath the water, and always
brought up one of the conchylia in its beak, which resembles that of
the woodpecker, and laid it on the sand at a distance of a few paces
from the water. Its prize consisted of a larger or smaller number of
these shells according to their size. It generally collected about
twelve on one spot, but as these conchylia are bivalvular, and the
one shell is so firmly connected with the other that they can only
be opened with a knife, it had to wait until the rays of the sun
performed the office for it. He continually walked round the spot
where he had deposed his prey, and kept his eye upon it. As soon,
however, as one of these mollusca opened its shell he instantly
inserted his beak, to prevent it from closing it again, and tore
it asunder with his claw. I never disturbed him in his work, for
he saved me the trouble of destroying the animal and clearing the
shell, which, as I knew by experience, he seldom entirely separates.
Kordofan can enumerate no running streams; the fula (ponds)
and small lakes nearly all dry up during the hot season, and
yet fish, differing in variety and size, are to be found in this
province. At first, I could not understand this apparent anomaly,
and the explanation given me by the natives, that the fish hide
themselves in the mud, appeared to me very unsatisfactory, for it
becomes in time, so hard that a heavily laden waggon might pass
over it, and the spawn of the fish remaining would, of course,
be soon destroyed by the rays of the sun. The natives, however,
firmly believe that the fish are preserved under ground, and come
to life again in three or six months’ time, when the rain has
softened their bed. I, of course, could not give credence to this
version of the story, but casually made a discovery likely to throw
a light upon the subject. I one day shot a wild duck, and having
gutted it, proceeded to prepare it for dinner; in examining the
intestines, I found a quantity of fish eggs. Is it not, therefore,
probable that the aquatic birds, which set out on their migration
immediately after having gorged themselves with spawn on the White
Nile, and take to the water again on their arrival in Kordofan,
discharge one half of their prey in an undigested form, and that
thus the fish are shortly hatched?
The horses are not very excellent, or of pure Arabian blood, but a
half-breed between Dongola horses and those of Berber and Darfûr;
they are not, indeed, as well built as the pure Arabians, but are,
nevertheless, fleet, and exceedingly hardy. The natives, more
especially the Bakkari, pride themselves on their steeds, and give
them milk to drink as long as they live, which they say renders them
very strong, and capable of enduring the greatest fatigue. The other
inhabitants of Kordofan also offer their horses milk until they are
four years old, and not until they have attained that age do they
feed them on grass. The dockn forms their substitute for oats. The
sheikhs of the Bakkara, seem nearly grown to their horses, and are
scarcely ever seen without them. They are of the utmost service to
them, in their wars among themselves, and against their neighbours;
but more especially in capturing slaves. Their remarkable fleetness
renders them very useful in catching giraffes, and ostriches even;
but on the whole there are not so many horses to be met with in
this country as in the other provinces under the sway of the Viceroy.
The most valuable gift nature has bestowed on the hot climates of
Africa, is undoubtedly the camel. The value of these animals to the
country is beyond calculation, independently of their utility in
carrying loads, which no other beast, except the elephant, could
bear, or would even be capable of drawing. The food of the camel
causes the drivers but little care, for contented with the worst
produce of the desert plains, namely, with thistles or a few leaves,
this animal will hold out for four days without feeding, and even
eight days without drinking, and yet it suffers no appreciable loss
of strength. Its paces are very sure, and it scarcely ever falls,
hence all goods, be they ever so fragile, may be more safely
transported by camels than they could possibly be by any other
animal, or by waggon. For loading or unloading, the camel bends
down, as it does also for the convenience of the rider, when about
to mount. If the load be too heavy, it instantly gives notice of
the circumstance to its driver by its groans. It requires no whip,
and keeps up its slow but progressive march without ever breaking
from the same pace. A laden camel will perform eight miles in two
hours. In the cool of the morning or evening, and when cheered
up by the songs of the drivers, these animals become more lively,
and increase their paces to one third of their speed. Their organs
of sight and smell are very acute, for they scent the vicinity of
water at a distance of half a day’s journey or further, and make
it known by snuffing with the upper lip, in sign of pleasure. By
night they perform the office of a watchful dog; for if a man, or
an animal approach the caravan, or a wild beast give tongue even
at a great distance, the camels instantly perceive it, prick their
ears, and stretch their long necks towards the suspected quarter,
to draw the attention of their keepers to the interruption. Of no
less utility is the dromedary, a camel of more slender build, and
broken in for riding. It was formerly an erroneous hypothesis that
the dromedary was a different animal from the camel, and the former
was generally depicted with two humps; but this is a fallacy, for
the dromedary is nothing but a camel, and the variation in the name
is merely made use of by the inhabitants of the East to indicate
that it is broken-in for riding, and not for carrying loads. They
select from among the young camels such as are most slightly built,
and most light of foot, never lay any load upon their backs except
the saddle, and thus gradually break them in for this important
service. No horse can keep up with the dromedary, when proceeding at
full trot. When this animal is at the top of its speed, the rider is
obliged to bind a hand-kerchief before his face, to avoid the effects
of the pressure of air, which would otherwise be painful to him. If
a dark speck, which quickly increases, be observed on the horizon,
at the greatest distance in the desert, a dromedary rider is sure to
be met in a few minutes, and the natives, in endeavouring to impart
a correct idea of the fleetness of these animals to the traveller,
have a saying: “If you meet a good dromedary, and the rider salute
you with _‘Es-selam’ aley’koom,’_[62] both man and beast are
out of sight before you can answer _‘aley’koom es-selám.”_
It requires, indeed, some practice to be able to bear the exertion
of riding these animals. Letters from the southern provinces,
are usually forwarded to Cairo by couriers mounted on dromedaries,
who generally require twenty-eight days to perform a distance of
about seventeen degrees of latitude. For the accomplishment of this
task, a relay of three or four couriers is necessary. On important
missions, however, one and the same courier frequently performs
the whole distance, merely changing his dromedaries at the various
stations. The rider is always very lightly accoutred, and carries,
besides his arms, consisting of a sabre, a pair of pistols, and
frequently also of a long gun, two bags of moderate size for his
provender, and a small water-bag attached to his saddle-bow, and
thus he sets out upon his journey, which would prove a most arduous
undertaking to any other person, with the least possible incumbrance,
and with no uneasiness.
The flesh of the young camels, of the two or four years old, is
highly prized by the natives, more especially by the Nomadic tribes,
and forms their chief article of food. Many of them are slaughtered
at Lobeid, and the meat is sold at the same price as beef, which
some of the residents prefer. The milk is also a chief article of
consumption with many of the natives.
The asses, native to the country, are of a very inferior breed;
good donkeys are, therefore, still imported from Egypt by the
Djelabi. Horned cattle is more especially met with in vast
numbers. There are few villages in the neighbourhood, in which
large herds may not be seen at pasture; and amongst the Bakkara,
the droves consist even of thousands of heads. They feed throughout
the year in the open air, but suffer much from hunger in the dry
season, when everything is burnt to a cinder, and are, therefore,
not so fat at this period as during the rainy season, when they are,
literally speaking, up to their horns in grass. Thus thousands of
heads of cattle may be feeding in a meadow, and yet not one single
beast will be seen; their presence is merely denoted by the motion of
the grass. The kine, however, are not of very excellent breed, they
yield but little milk, of inferior quality, and much worse beef. The
Turks resident in Kordofan never eat this meat. Amongst the Bakkara,
a particular breed of short-horned oxen is to be met with, furnished
with a high hump, or deposition of fat above the fore-quarters,
and a dependent flap of skin below the neck and chest, reaching
downwards to the knee.[63] The oxen are chiefly used for riding,
and carrying weights: a cord passed through the nose of the animal
forms a species of bridle. They are instructed for these purposes
at a very early age, and, indeed, by children. The instruction,
however, requires immense patience, for many months frequently
transpire before a young calf will allow a lad to sit quietly on
its back, and the boys meet with innumerable falls, before they
succeed in thoroughly breaking-in one of these animals. In many
parts of Africa, where the camel will not live on account of the
fly (yohara), oxen are only employed for riding, and transporting
loads. There are many sheep, and among them one species of very
large breed; they bear no wool, but short hair; the mutton is of
good flavour, and is preferred to beef, or to the flesh of goats.
The goat is very common in the country, and may be reckoned among
the chief domestic animals. There are several varieties, or rather
cross breeds, and some of exceedingly elegant form; but they
are mostly very small. Nothing can induce the Turks to partake of
goat’s-milk during the rainy season; for they firmly believe that
it produces fever, if the animal should happen to have browsed the
leaves of a tree called, in Arabic, _escher_ (_asclepias procera_),
and known as a poisonous plant. It is, in fact, the tree whence the
well-known poison is expressed, with which an obnoxious person was
quietly put out of the way with a fingán of coffee in former times
in Egypt, and is sometimes employed for the same purpose at the
present day. This plant may be met with occasionally as a shrub in
Upper Egypt; but in Kordofan it attains the height of a tree. Many
of the natives pay great attention to its cultivation, and lay the
leaves into the sieve, through which they filter their merissa. These
leaves contain a white milky juice, which is imparted to the beer
and said to render it very narcotic. I have often warned these good
people against its use; but they excuse themselves, by saying that
their fathers, and mothers made use of it before them. The camel,
not very particular in the selection of its food in general, never
touches the escher.[64] As regards the superstition prevalent
among the Turks, that the milk of the goats generates fever, in
consequence of their having fed off the foliage of this poisonous
plant, it is perfectly absurd; for it is a well-known fact, that
any kind of milk taken during the rainy season will produce fever.
Dogs, of which there are a great number, run about, as in all other
mahommedan countries, without any real owners, and are yet looked
upon as domestic animals. They are mostly of a yellow colour, but
rather better shaped than the Egyptian dogs; like them they feed
off the garbage and fallen cattle, and are not otherwise of the
slightest utility. I found, however, that they might be instructed
for sporting, with very little trouble. There are very few cats in
the country, hence the rats and the mice are so tame that they will
run across the feet of a person by day-time. If anything be thrown
to them for food, they immediately pick it up, devour it quickly,
and return fearlessly to fetch more. The natives of Kordofan take
little pains to destroy this vermin, and merely set snares in the
fields and gardens for the field rat, which is eaten by many negroes,
and even by some few of the Dongolavi. I myself saw the Nuba negroes
eating rats; they roast them in their skins, and flay them after
they are cooked. There is one species of rat, however, which does
not create the slightest disgust. It is of a cream-colour, with
a snow white belly and feet tipped with white, and its coat is as
sleek as silk. They may be classed amongst the most elegant animals.
The fowls of this province are far larger than those of Egypt—the
cock birds more especially—and are decorated with a very beautiful
plumage, similar to those observed in Nubia. The tame pigeons are
likewise larger than those met with in Egypt, and I counted nine
different varieties of wood-pigeons, the smallest of the size of
a blackbird, but with a tail as long as the bird itself.
The giraffe, one of the most beautiful animals of Africa, is
frequently seen in Kordofan, and nearly all the specimens of this
animal sent by way of Egypt to Europe and America, have been caught
in the plains of Kordofan. During the rainy season they are not to
be met with, for they are supposed to travel into countries situate
at a great distance from this province. The natives believe them to
betake themselves to parts where very little rain falls, as of all
the wild beasts of the torrid zone, none is so sensitive to climate
as the giraffe. In captivity they require the greatest care and
attention to keep them alive; in Egypt even they must be guarded
during the winter months against cold, and their diet, moreover,
demands the strictest attention, for instances are known of giraffes
dying very soon, in consequence of a trifling neglect on the part
of their keepers. As soon as the dry season commences, the giraffes
return to the neighbourhood of Kordofan; they are not gregarious in
their habits like the antelopes, and are only to be seen separately,
or at the most in pairs. These beautiful creatures are caught by men
on horseback, but merely the young animals are taken alive, as it
would almost amount to an impossibility to catch an old beast, who
would overthrow both horse and rider, and use them very roughly. The
latter are, therefore, slain with the sword, merely for the sake
of their skins, which form an article of trade. The flesh is eaten,
and has not exactly a disagreeable flavour. In order to be allowed
to hunt giraffes for a menagerie, it is necessary first to obtain
a firman from the minister of the interior, and it is indeed the
best plan to apply at once to the Sheikh Abdel Had at Haraza; he
will immediately give an order to his people who occupy themselves
with this sport, for it requires not only a very expert horseman,
but a very perfect horse, and more especially experience in this
species of hunting. Generally speaking, two horsemen provided
with one or two camels laden with a supply of provender and water
sufficient for a few days, proceed into the desert frequented by the
giraffes. The camels are left at an appropriate place, whilst the
riders reconnoitre the country until they come upon the track of an
animal. Great experience is now requisite to distinguish whether the
trace be of to-day or yesterday, or of a yet older date. If it be
recent, and that of a young animal, it is immediately followed up,
and the huntsmen may make sure of gaining a sight of their prey in
a few hours. As soon as the giraffe is in view, the run instantly
takes place, for the animal, very timid by nature, seeks refuge
in flight, and indeed with extraordinary fleetness. Everything
now depends on the dexterity of the rider, and activity of his
horse. They must do all in their power to gain upon the game they
have started, an endeavour which is the more readily to be effected,
as the giraffe never takes a straight course, but by nature timid,
doubles, in the fear of its life, sometimes to the right, sometimes
to the left, and is thus quickly overtaken by the horsemen. Having
come up with the young animal pursued, the rider casts a lasso over
its head; his throw but seldom fails, and in the worst case must be
repeated. He then attaches the end of the rope to his saddle, drags
the animal as closely as he can to his horse, and thus the capture
is effected. But now a steady and patient horse, well broken to its
work, is again necessary for the further transport; for the horse
must resist the animal’s efforts, or give way to them (for it
pulls and jumps in all directions), in conveying it to the nearest
village, which the huntsmen endeavour to reach as quickly as they
possibly can. A she-camel should stand in readiness there to give
the young giraffe milk, with which it is fed before being weaned
to grass or hay. This treatment must be subsequently followed,
and even full grown giraffes should receive milk daily as drink,
if it be in any way possible.
When the young animal has rested for some time, it is furthered,
without delay, to Dongola, but on this occasion great attention is
again required. A kind of head-stall is put on the animal’s head,
to which four stout cords are fastened. Two men, each holding the
end of one of the ropes in his hand, walk in front, and two follow,
to keep its gait steady, a task requiring during the first few days
extraordinary exertion. A she-camel must accompany the young giraffe
to give it the necessary nourishment on the road. Arrived at Dongola,
a certain time is again devoted to rest, and the animal is here
accustomed to the milk of the cow and to grass. It is incredible what
difficulties the Arabs have to contend with in preserving a giraffe
alive, and it is, consequently, not to be wondered at that their
price is so enormous. In Egypt, for example, at Cairo or Alexandria,
a living specimen always costs from five to six hundred dollars.
There are not many leopards in this province; the stragglers
merely from the interior of Africa show themselves occasionally in
Kordofan. They will sometimes approach the villages, but instances of
their having done an injury to man are very rare. They mostly steal
their prey from one of the herds, but immediately withdraw with it to
their covert, but are by no means as bold as they may be in the more
internal tracts of this and another quarter of the globe. They are
not hunted, partly from want of fire-arms, partly because the skin,
the only portion of value about them, is not much in request, and
a leopard is very rarely, indeed, known to have been killed in any
district. Hyænas, of which there are said to be three varieties, are
far more numerous. The striped species is the most common in Egypt
and Syria; but the tiger-skinned hyæna is far larger, and if the
third variety exist it has never come under my own observation. They
form herds of ten or twenty animals, secrete themselves during the
day in the caves and ravines of the neighbouring mountains, which
they merely quit at night, when they go in quest of prey, and on
these occasions they gradually separate. Dead bodies, which they dig
out of the graves, are their favourite food, and they immediately
scent out where a corpse has been interred, whether in the desert
or in the burial-ground. They are also fond of picking out the
young sheep from a flock, although these are enclosed during the
night within a dense fence of thorn-hedging. The hyæna, however,
understands mining, digs beneath the fence, and frequently breaks in
upon a flock. They never do any harm to man, and there is scarcely
a single instance on record of a hyæna having seized upon a man,
and those, indeed, known, were only occasions where they had been
greatly irritated or wounded. In Europe, this animal is very much
calumniated as being the most ferocious and most cruel of all wild
beasts, thus, at least, it is described in nearly all the books
on natural history; one author, in fact, copies the error from
the other, without investigating his subject more closely; hence
the opinion first gained ground and subsequently became prevalent
in the whole of Europe, that the hyæna is the most formidable
of all quadrupeds. I and several other Europeans have convinced
ourselves, that it is not only not feared, but totally disregarded
by the natives. It is timid, may be cowed by blows, and rather
endeavours to secrete itself than to attack. The circumstance of
its disinterring dead bodies and devouring them is no proof of
its being the most formidable or ferocious animal; for if it can
surprise sheep or gazelles, it prefers them, but hunger oftentimes
forces it to dig up a corpse, and feed off it. Its forepaws are
certainly adapted by nature for digging in the earth, but there are
sufficient instances of dogs having scratched out the bodies of the
dead and eaten them. In Hungary, Poland, and Russia, examples of
wolves attacking men are very numerous; in Africa, the instances of
the hyæna having done the same are very scarce. Ten hyænas may,
in fact, be sooner tamed than one jackal. Thus, in the court of a
house at Lobeid, I saw a hyæna running about quite domesticated:
the children of the proprietor teased it, took the meat thrown to it
for food out of its jaws, and put their hands even into its throat,
without receiving the least injury. When we took our meals in the
open air, to enjoy the breeze, as was our general custom during
the hot season, this animal approached the table without fear,
snapped up the pieces that were thrown to it like a dog, and did
not evince the slightest symptom of timidity. A full grown hyæna,
and her two cubs, were, on another occasion, brought to me for sale:
the latter were carried in arms, as you might carry a lamb, and
were not even muzzled. The old one, it is true, had a rope round
its snout, but it had been led a distance of twelve miles by one
single man, without having offered the slightest resistance. The
Africans do not even reckon the hyæna among the wild beasts of
their country, for they are not afraid of it. The rhinoceros passes
among them as the most vicious of all quadrupeds. They say the
lion, and other beasts of prey, merely attack man when they are
wounded or irritated, or when goaded on by hunger; and as there
are sheep and goats everywhere, and numbers of antelopes and other
animals, in the desert, and they suffer no want of food, man need
not fear them. Widely different is the case with the rhinoceros,
for although it is a graminivorous animal, neither man nor beast
are safe from its wanton cruelty. Without having been disturbed or
irritated in the least, it will immediately attack a man or animal,
be it ever so large—even the elephant or lion. It endeavours in
the first charge to pierce its adversary with its powerful horn,
which is situated, as is well known, superiorly on the nasal bone,
taking a curved direction upwards. If the first blow take effect, the
animal attacked, even if it be the elephant, is lost; should he, or
the lion, however, avoid the blow, the rhinoceros generally succumbs,
and notwithstanding this risk it is always the aggressor. Fortunately
there are said to be but very few rhinoceroses; and it is indeed
a great rarity if one of them happen to stray into Kordofan. The
haunts of these animals are in the vicinity of rivers and lakes,
their horns may be met with in commerce, and are employed in the
manufacture of the handles of the Turkish swords. The lighter the
colour of the horn the greater is its value; but the black variety
is not in request, and is regarded as useless for sabre hilts. The
quality of the horns cannot be judged of by their outward appearance,
for externally they are all black. Those which are met with in
commerce in Kordofan are imported from the countries tributary to
Darfour, situated on a river,—probably the White Nile,—of which
I shall speak more fully in a subsequent chapter.
The number of lions in this province is not very considerable, but
they frequently enter villages for prey, and carry away a head of
cattle before their visit is even suspected. In the day time they
are neither heard nor seen, for they generally lie crouching in a
dense covert, or sleeping beneath a shady tree. But early in the
morning, as soon as the sun begins to cast its rays on the sandy
billows of the desert, the royal animal rises from his lair to sally
forth in quest of prey. His voice may then be heard in the distance;
it commences with a low murmuring, which gradually increases, until
it at last becomes a fearful and terrific roar, like the rolling of
thunder, and is audible at a distance of two miles. The whole animal
kingdom trembles, and evinces the greatest fear when the king of
the beasts is heard; the sheep tremble as if attacked with ague,
place their heads together, and endeavour to hide themselves; the
horses break out into a sweat with fear; and the dogs hurry away as
fast as they can to find a place of refuge. In fine, all the beasts
are seized with the most unequivocal terror when the lion makes
his approach known. Should a caravan happen to be near the spot,
it is impossible to keep the camels together, they leap about in
all directions, and are scattered abroad under the influence of
fear. I myself once had the opportunity of witnessing a scene of
this kind. On arriving in my travels at the wells of Semmeria,
we suddenly heard a murmuring noise afar, resembling the rolling
of balls in an empty barrel; but we were soon acquainted with its
true cause when it gradually increased to that terrible thunder-like
roar. With the first perception of this noise, the camels belonging
to our caravan suddenly took fright, and instantly separated in
all directions. The men and the cases were thrown off, and if one
of the riders happened to keep his seat at the first alarm, he was
subsequently necessitated to leap down, to avoid being felled by the
branches of the trees; for we were unfortunately near a forest of
mimosas, and every one was in danger of being torn by their large
spines. This confusion, however, did not last long, for the lion
took quite an opposite direction to the route of our caravan; but
a whole day was lost in collecting the goods that had been thrown
off, or torn down by the trees, and one of the camels strayed to
a great distance. Lions are seldom hunted in this country; for
there are very few of them, as I have before-mentioned, and they
do so little damage that it would not be worth while to incur the
danger attending the sport. The flesh of the lord of the forest is
very tough and tendinous, and is not readily devoured by any other
animal. A dog will sneak away as soon as he smells it.
A few panthers may be met with in the country, but they are not
as large as those of Asia. I have been assured that there are no
tigers in Kordofan. Antelopes may be seen browsing in large numbers,
and, indeed, in great variety; like the camels, they are able to
bear thirst for eight days. I have myself observed them in places
situated at a distance of twenty-six miles from any water, so that
it would have been impossible for them to perform this journey daily,
or even on every other day.
Besides the animals mentioned, there are a number of quadrupeds, the
names of which are not even known in Europe; for Kordofan has only
been visited, up to the present day, by two naturalists, _viz._,
by Dr. Rueppell and Dr. Kotschy, who remained too short a time in
the country to have been able to traverse it, and explore it in all
directions. A residence of a few years would at least be required to
investigate everything thoroughly; and all those who have resided in
the country hitherto have suffered so much by the unhealthy climate,
that they have been obliged to leave it as quickly as possible,
to avoid the danger threatening the life of every European.
The various species of birds arriving in this country at the
different seasons of the year, and leaving it again at others,
are very numerous, and vary from the little colibri to the gigantic
ostrich. As they are not often frightened by the noise of fire-arms
they are not timid and may be easily shot; but if the traveller
sojourn for some days in one spot and pursue them with his gun, they
then of course soon become as shy here as in other places. Several
of the birds, and this applies more especially to the varieties
of pigeons, are so little accustomed to fire-arms that, although
many will fall at one shot, those which are not hit will remain
quietly perched on the tree. I must also draw the attention of
all travellers who may be sportsmen to the fact that the birds
become very shy if they observe a Turkish attire and a red cap or
turboosh, whereas if the sportsman wear a blue shirt and brown cap,
after the fashion of Upper-Egypt, he may be sure of killing double
the number he would in the dress above-mentioned. The black storks
occupy nearly every house in the villages; each hut is furnished
with a basket, which forms the apex of its roof, and serves these
birds as a nest, thus saving them the trouble of building for
themselves. He who might venture to do an injury to a stork would
expose himself to the greatest abuse from the natives; and were
the dread of the white men not overawing, he might even subject
himself to sensible proofs of their displeasure; for, as regards
these birds, they are as superstitious as the people in some parts
of Europe about the white stork. They are in consequence so tame
that they run about the villages like geese, and I frequently had
to throw my stick at them when collecting insects in their company
in a meadow, for they were far quicker in picking them up than
I was, and would frequently snatch a beetle away from me when I
had my hand upon it. The sacred ibis, of the ancient Egyptians,
appears to be a native of Kordofan: it builds its nest on trees
in the villages, and I have often counted from twenty to fifty of
them on one tree. I have altogether seldom seen animals living as
peacably among themselves as these birds. They hatch their young,
two in number,—rarely three,—during the rainy season; they
enjoy the same good opinion of men as the storks, but even to a
greater degree; for when I was about to kill a few, near the house
of Sultan Temé, at Lobeid, he said very solemnly: “Rather shoot
all the fowls in my court, than one of these ibises, which have
come to my trees to build their nests, and sought my protection.”
When the young birds are full grown, the old ones migrate, and
return with the first fall of rain. I could not find out where
they resort to during the dry season; in the time of the ancient
Egyptians, they evidently went to Egypt, as the many thousands of
ibis-vases met with at Sakara and in other situations would prove;
but at present they are never to be seen in that country. I have,
indeed, occasionally observed a single bird of this species on the
White River, as late as the month of April; but I suppose these to
have been invalids incapable of following the flight.
The ostrich may be reckoned among the most useful birds; for its
flesh is eaten, and that of the young birds is of very pleasant
flavour. The price of a young ostrich is five piasters (1_s._ 5½_d._
sterling). The eggs are also eaten, one of them is sufficient to
satisfy four persons. The egg-shells are exported as an article of
commerce, but the feathers return the largest profits. A full-grown
ostrich will always yield three rottoli of black feathers, and
half a rottolo of white plumes. The greater number of these birds
are caught in Caccie in snares, placed on a plate, matted from the
wood of a species of willow, perforated with holes, and buried in
the sand. The gin itself, which is laid upon this plate, is bound
to the nearest tree, or to a piece of wood. As many as fifty of
these are laid in a certain spot. If an ostrich, or a gazelle,
happen to stray into these parts, and set its foot on one of the
plates, the snare opens; and as soon as the leg is withdrawn,
it closes again, and the animal is caught. It would, indeed, be
almost impossible to capture one of these birds in any other way,
for they are exceedingly cautious, and very quick of sight; as soon,
therefore, as they descry a man approaching them, they immediately
take to flight. To overtake the bird, even with the fleetest steed,
would be a matter of great difficulty, for, scarcely touching the
ground with its feet, it runs so fast, that it appears almost to
fly; and the illusion is still greater when the motion of its short
wings is observed, which it uses as propellers.
The natives of Kordofan draw but little profit from all these
products of the animal and vegetable kingdoms; for, independently
of their not understanding how to turn the various articles to
advantage, or rather to perfect them by art or industry, they are
too lazy to do any thing more, than is necessary for their absolute
maintenance. Very few artisans are, consequently, to be found among
them: they consist of a few weavers of calicos, smiths, tanners,
and potters. The cottons the natives produce are not sufficient for
the supply of the country, hence the greater part of the consumption
is imported from Dongola, Egypt, and Europe. Not that there is a
deficiency of the necessary means for cultivating a larger quantity
of raw cotton, or for manufacturing it; but they will not take
the slightest trouble about it, because all their labour would be
purchased by the government at an arbitrary price, which would not
repay the workman for his trouble, and they, therefore, prefer to
lie about idle all the day long, or to pass their time with useless
games. It is really an interesting sight to watch a weaver at his
work; and I know not which is more astonishing, the simplicity of
the implements with which he toils, or the patience he displays in
his occupation. The weavers can only work in the dry season, because
their houses are too small to allow them to fit up a loom in them;
they consequently place the frames close to the door of their huts,
and work in that situation. An European weaver, even the most expert
in his art, would be greatly puzzled if put to one of these looms,
and would scarcely know how to begin his work, so primitive are they
in construction. Four stout sticks, are driven into the ground,
to which the reed and other parts of the apparatus are attached;
the weft is expanded at a distance of scarcely one span from the
ground, bound to a pole to which a stone is attached, and then drawn
along with it. The frame is of the dimensions the piece manufactured
is required to have, and is sometimes twenty ells in length. The
weaver stands in a pit before his loom, and casts his shuttle at
a venture. With every second throw his thread breaks, and then it
takes him double the time to tie it again; but nothing disturbs
the equanimity of the weaver, he ties his knot with the greatest
patience, and again throws his shuttle, again breaks his thread,
and again readjusts it. Thus it is impossible to conceive the space
of time required to finish a piece about twenty ells in length. They
do not understand how to manufacture woven goods from goats’ hair.
The smiths are the most industrious workmen; they fabricate all the
necessary household and agricultural implements, are at the same time
miners, and smelters of ore; for they dig the iron from the bowels
of the earth themselves, and melt it after a very simple process;
but they do not understand how to harden it. They have no fixed
workshops, but arrange them wheresoever they may happen to find work;
the fitting up of the forge costs them but little trouble, for a
large stone is soon found on which they place a piece of iron, this
serves them then as an anvil; close to this essential instrument,
they construct a small furnace, to which a leather sack, answering
the purpose of bellows, is attached. They make no heavy objects,
for, beyond spear-heads, hashiash, (an agricultural implement,)
double-edged, and arrow-pointed knives of various sizes, they
cannot produce any other article. Their work is not well rewarded;
for the minerals, such as the iron or charcoal cost them scarcely
anything, and thus they can only bring their manual labour into
calculation. Their tools are not particularly complicated, and
consist merely of a few hammers and of a pair of pincers.
The potters manufacture one single kind of vessel (_Bursha_) in
form of a bomb, but with rather a wider neck, and this is used
as a receptacle for water, for boiling, roasting, and for keeping
merissa in; they make, further, a round and rather deepened plate
(_Doga_) for baking bread, and pipe-heads more of a German shape
than like the Turkish bowls; all these articles are, however,
perfectly plain without the slightest attempt even at ornament.
There are many tanners in the province who tan the leather by a
most simple process, in which they employ the Garat,[65] the pod
of a tree. They also manufacture the water-holders, the larger of
which, are termed _Rai_, the smaller _Ckir’beh_;[66] the latter
are generally made of goats’ hides, as in Egypt; the goats being
skinned for this purpose like hares; the interior of the skin is
merely tanned, whilst the hair is left externally; leathern bags
are also fabricated to serve the office of churns. Of leather they
produce further sandals, shoes, rahads, and, lastly, shields. The
rahad is a girdle fringed by many thousands of small straps,
and is generally one, or half a span in length; the girls wear
these fringes round their loins, and they are usually decorated
with agates and small shells. Shields are mostly manufactured
from the hide of the large antelopes; they are of an ovoid shape,
furnished with a protuberance in the centre. On the inner surface,
a piece of wood bisects them longitudinally, to which two straps are
attached to receive the arm; they are very stout, for a thrust with a
spear or a sabre-cut scarcely ever penetrates them. The sheep-skins
they tan very neatly, and impart to them a red, yellow, green, or
other optional colour, by means of the juice of certain plants;
the natives bind their shoes, ornament their sandals, or sew up
charms with this coloured leather; they also prepare sheaths for
knives and other articles from it.
The women plait some very ornamental articles from the foliage of
the _Palma Thebaica_, further, bread-baskets named _Tabak_, covers
for dishes, mats, &c. They dye the leaves in different colours,
and decorate them with patterns that are really astonishing. They
also manufacture funnels for straining merissa, and baskets for
keeping milk. The latter so densely worked that, when the fluid
has once permeated them, they do not even leak. Every description
of work performed in this country is very simple, and it is only
to be wondered at, that the natives are able to produce thus much,
as they labour under a deficiency of implements of all kinds.