RAILWAY SIGNALLING.
The block system--Position of signals--Interlocking the
signals--Locking gear--Points--Points and signals in
combination--Working the block system--Series of signalling
operations--Single line signals--The train staff--Train staff and
ticket--Electric train staff system--Interlocking--Signalling
operations--Power signalling--Pneumatic signalling--Automatic
signalling.
Under certain conditions--namely, at sharp curves or in darkness--the
most powerful brakes might not avail to prevent a train running into the
rear of another, if trains were allowed to follow each other closely
over the line. It is therefore necessary to introduce an effective
system of keeping trains running in the same direction a sufficient
distance apart, and this is done by giving visible and easily understood
orders to the driver while a train is in motion.
In the early days of the railway it was customary to allow a time
interval between the passings of trains, a train not being permitted to
leave a station until at least five minutes after the start of a
preceding train. This method did not, of course, prevent collisions, as
the first train sometimes broke down soon after leaving the station; and
in the absence of effective brakes, its successor ran into it. The
advent of the electric telegraph, which put stations in rapid
communication with one another, proved of the utmost value to the safe
working of railways.
THE BLOCK SYSTEM.
Time limits were abolished and distance limits substituted. A line was
divided into _blocks_, or lengths, and two trains going in the same
direction were never allowed on any one block at the same time.
The signal-posts carrying the movable arms, or semaphores, by means of
which the signalman communicates with the engine-driver, are well known
to us. They are usually placed on the left-hand side of the line of
rails to which they apply, with their arms pointing away from the rails.
The side of the arms which faces the direction from which a train
approaches has a white stripe painted on a red background, the other
side has a black stripe on a white background.
The distant and other signal arms vary slightly in shape (Fig. 91). A
distant signal has a forked end and a V-shaped stripe; the home and
starting signals are square-ended, with straight stripes. When the arm
stands horizontally, the signal is "on," or at "danger"; when dropped,
it is "off," and indicates "All right; proceed." At the end nearest the
post it carries a spectacle frame glazed with panes of red and green
glass. When the arm is at danger, the red pane is opposite a lamp
attached to the signal post; when the arm drops, the green pane rises to
that position--so that a driver is kept as fully informed at night as
during the day, provided the lamp remains alight.
[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Distant and home signals.]
POSITION OF SIGNALS.
On double lines each set of rails has its own separate signals, and
drivers travelling on the "up" line take no notice of signals meant for
the "down" line. Each signal-box usually controls three signals on each
set of rails--the distant, the home, and the starting. Their respective
positions will be gathered from Fig. 92, which shows a station on a
double line. Between the distant and the home an interval is allowed of
800 yards on the level, 1,000 yards on a falling gradient, and 600 yards
on a rising gradient. The home stands near the approach end of the
station, and the starting at the departure end of the platform. The last
is sometimes reinforced by an "advance starting" signal some distance
farther on.
It should be noted that the distant is only a _caution_ signal, whereas
both home and starting are _stop_ signals. This means that when the
driver sees the distant "on," he does not stop his train, but slackens
speed, and prepares to stop at the home signal. He must, however, on no
account pass either home or starting if they are at danger. In short,
the distant merely warns the driver of what he may expect at the home.
To prevent damage if a driver should overrun the home, it has been laid
down that no train shall be allowed to pass the starting signal of one
box unless the line is clear to a point at least a quarter of a mile
beyond the home of the next box. That point is called the _standard
clearing point_.
Technically described, a _block_ is a length of line between the last
stop signal worked from one signal-box and the first stop signal worked
from the next signal-box in advance.
[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Showing position of signals. Those at the top
are "off."]
INTERLOCKING SIGNALS.
A signalman cannot lower or restore his signals to their normal
positions in any order he likes. He is compelled to lower them as
follows:--Starting and home; _then_ distant. And restore them--distant;
_then_ starting and home. If a signalman were quite independent, he
might, after the passage of a train, restore the home or starting, but
forget all about the distant, so that the next train, which he wants to
stop, would dash past the distant without warning and have to pull up
suddenly when the home came in sight. But by a mechanical arrangement he
is prevented from restoring the home or starting until the distant is
at danger; and, _vice versâ_, he cannot lower the last until the other
two are off. This mechanism is called _locking gear_.
LOOKING GEAR.
There are many different types of locking gear in use. It is impossible
to describe them all, or even to give particulars of an elaborate
locking-frame of any one type. But if we confine ourselves to the
simplest combination of a stud-locking apparatus, such as is used in
small boxes on the Great Western Railway, the reader will get an insight
into the general principles of these safety devices, as the same
principles underlie them all.
[Illustration: FIG. 93.--A signal lever and its connections. To move the
lever, C is pressed towards B raising the catch-rod from its nick in the
rack, G G G, guides; R R, anti-friction rollers; S, sockets for
catch-rod to work in.]
The levers in the particular type of locking gear which we are
considering have each a tailpiece or "tappet arm" attached to it, which
moves backwards and forwards with the lever (Fig. 93). Running at right
angles to this tappet, and close to it, either under or above, are the
lock bars, or stud bars. Refer now to Fig. 94, which shows the ends of
the three tappet arms, D, H, and S, crossed by a bar, B, from which
project these studs. The levers are all forward and the signals all
"on." If the signalman tried to pull the lever attached to D down the
page, as it were, he would fail to move it on account of the stud _a_,
which engages with a notch in D. Before this stud can be got free of the
notch the tappets H and S must be pulled over, so as to bring their
notches in line with studs _b_ and _c_ (Fig. 95). The signalman can now
move D, since the notch easily pushes the stud _a_ to the left (Fig.
96). The signals must be restored to danger. As H and S are back-locked
by D--that is, prevented by D from being put back into their normal
positions--D must be moved first. The interlocking of the three signals
described is merely repeated in the interlocking of a large number of
signals.
[Illustration: FIG. 94.]
[Illustration: FIG. 95.]
On entering a signal-box a visitor will notice that the levers have
different colours:--_Green_, signifying distant signals; _red_,
signifying home and starting signals; _blue_, signifying facing points;
_black_, signifying trailing points; _white_, signifying spare levers.
These different colours help the signalman to pick out the right levers
easily.
To the front of each lever is attached a small brass tablet bearing
certain numbers; one in large figures on the top, then a line, and other
numbers in small figures beneath. The large number is that of the lever
itself; the others, called _leads_, refer to levers which must be pulled
before that particular lever can be released.
[Illustration: FIG. 96.]
[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Model signal equipment in a signalling school.
(By permission of the "G.W.R. Magazine").]
POINTS.
Mention was made, in connection with the lever, of _points_. Before
going further we will glance at the action of these devices for enabling
a train to run from one set of rails to another. Figs. 98 and 99 show
the points at a simple junction. It will be noticed that the rails of
the line to the left of the points are continued as the outer rails of
the main and branch lines. The inner rails come to a sharp V-point, and
to the left of this are the two short rails which, by means of shifting
portions, decide the direction of a train's travel. In Fig. 98 the main
line is open; in Fig. 99, the branch. The shifting parts are kept
properly spaced by cross bars (or tie-rods), A A.
[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Points open to main line.]
[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Points open to branch line.]
It might be thought that the wheels would bump badly when they reach
the point B, where there is a gap. This is prevented, however, by the
bent ends E E (Fig. 98), on which the tread of the wheel rests until it
has reached some distance along the point of V. The safety rails S R
keep the outer wheel up against its rail until the V has been passed.
POINTS AND SIGNALS IN COMBINATION.
Let us suppose that a train is approaching the junction shown in Figs.
98 and 99 from the left. It is not enough that the driver should know
that the tracks are clear. He must also be assured that the track, main
or branch, as the case may be, along which he has to go, is open; and on
the other hand, if he were approaching from the right, he would want to
be certain that no train on the other line was converging on his. Danger
is avoided and assurance given by interlocking the points and signals.
To the left of the junction the home and distant signals are doubled,
there being two semaphore arms on each post. These are interlocked with
the points in such a manner that the signals referring to either line
can be pulled off only when the points are set to open the way to that
line. Moreover, before any shifting of points can be made, the signals
behind must be put to danger. The convergence of trains is prevented by
interlocking, which renders it impossible to have both sets of distant
and home signals at "All right" simultaneously.
WORKING OF BLOCK SYSTEM.
We may now pass to the working of the block system of signalling trains
from station to station on one line of a double track. Each signal-box
(except, of course, those at termini) has electric communication with
the next box in both directions. The instruments used vary on different
systems, but the principle is the same; so we will concentrate our
attention on those most commonly employed on the Great Western Railway.
They are:--(1.) Two tapper-bell instruments, connected with similar
instruments in the adjacent boxes on both sides. Each of these rings one
beat in the corresponding box every time its key is depressed. (2.) Two
Spagnoletti disc instruments--one, having two keys, communicating with
the box in the rear; and the other, in connection with the forward box,
having no keys. Their respective functions are to give signals and
receive them. In the centre of the face of each is a square opening,
behind which moves a disc carrying two "flags"--"Train on line" in white
letters on red ground, and "Line clear" in black letters on a white
ground. The keyed instrument has a red and a white key. When the red key
is depressed, "Train on line" appears at the opening; also in that of a
keyless disc at the adjacent signal-box. A depression of the white key
similarly gives "Line clear." A piece of wire with the ends turned over
and passed through two eyes slides over the keys, and can be made to
hold either down. In addition to these, telephonic and telegraphic
instruments are provided to enable the signalmen to converse.
SERIES OF SIGNALLING OPERATIONS.
[Illustration: FIG. 100.--The signaling instruments in three adjacent
cabins. The featherless arrows show the connection of the instruments.]
We may now watch the doings of signalmen in four successive boxes, A,
B, C, and D, during the passage of an express train. Signalman A calls
signalman B's attention by one beat on the tapper-bell. B answers by
repeating it to show that he is attending. A asks, "Is line clear for
passenger express?"--four beats on the bell. B, seeing that the line is
clear to his clearing point, sends back four beats, and pins down the
white key of his instrument. "Line clear" appears on the opening, and
also at that of A's keyless disc. A lowers starting signal. Train moves
off. A gives two beats on the tapper = "Train entering section." B pins
indicator at "Train on line," which also appears on A's instrument. A
places signals at danger. B asks C, "Is line clear?" C repeats the bell
code, and pins indicator at "Line clear," shown on B's keyless disc
also. B lowers all signals. Train passes. B signals to C, "Train
entering section." B signals to A, "Train out of section," and releases
indicator, which returns to normal position with half of each flag
showing at the window. B signals to C, "Train on line," and sets all his
signals to danger. C pins indicator to "Train on line." C asks, "Is line
clear?" But there is a train at station D, and signalman D therefore
gives no reply, which is equivalent to a negative. The driver, on
approaching C's distant, sees it at danger, and slows down, stopping at
the home. C lowers home, and allows train to proceed to his starting
signal. D, when the line is clear to his clearing point, signals "Line
clear," and pins indicator at "Line clear." C lowers starting signals,
and train proceeds. C signals to D, "Train entering section," and D pins
indicator at "Train on line." C signals to B, "Train out of section,"
sets indicator at normal, and puts signals at danger. And so the process
is repeated from station to station. Where, however, sections are short,
the signalman is advised one section ahead of the approach of a train by
an additional signal signifying, "Fast train approaching." The block
indicator reminds the signalman of the whereabouts of the train. Unless
his keyless indicator is at normal, he may not ask, "Is line clear?" And
until he signals back "Line clear" to the box behind, a train is not
allowed to enter his section. In this way a section of line with a full
complement of signals is always interposed between any two trains.
THE WORKING OF SINGLE LINES.
We have dealt with the signalling arrangements pertaining to double
lines of railway, showing that a system of signals is necessary to
prevent a train running into the back of its predecessor. Where trains
in both directions pass over a single line, not only has this element of
danger to be dealt with, but also the possibility of a train being
allowed to enter a section of line from each end _at the same time_.
This is effected in several ways, the essence of each being that the
engine-driver shall have in his possession _visible_ evidence of the
permission accorded him by the signalman to enter a section of single
line.
A SINGLE TRAIN STAFF.
The simplest form of working is to allocate to the length of line a
"train staff"--a piece of wood about 14 inches long, bearing the names
of the stations at either end. This is adopted where only one engine is
used for working a section, such as a short branch line. In a case like
this there is obviously no danger of two trains meeting, and the train
staff is merely the authority to the driver to start a journey. No
telegraphic communication is necessary with such a system, and signals
are placed only at the ends of the line.
TRAIN STAFF AND TICKET.
On long lengths of single line where more than one train has to be
considered, the line is divided into blocks in the way already described
for double lines, and a staff is assigned to each, the staffs for the
various blocks differing from each other in shape and colour. The usual
signals are provided at each station, and block telegraph instruments
are employed, the only difference being that one disc, of the key
pattern, is used for trains in both directions. On such a line it is, of
course, possible that two or more trains may require to follow each
other without any travelling intermediately in the opposite direction.
This would be impossible if the staff passed uniformly to and fro in the
block section; but it is arranged by the introduction of a train staff
_ticket_ used in conjunction with the staff.
No train is permitted to leave a staff station unless the staff for the
section of line to be traversed is at the station; and the driver has
the strictest possible instructions that he must _see_ the staff. If a
second train is required to follow, the staff is _shown_ to the driver,
and a train staff ticket handed him as his authority to proceed. If,
however, the next train over the section will enter from the opposite
end, the staff is _handed_ to the driver.
To render this system as safe as possible, train staff tickets are of
the same colour and shape as the staff for the section to which they
apply, and are kept in a special box at the stations, the key being
attached to the staff and the lock so arranged that the key cannot be
withdrawn unless the box has been locked.
ELECTRIC TRAIN STAFF AND TABLET SYSTEMS.
These systems of working are developments of the last mentioned, by
which are secured greater safety and ease in working the line. On some
sections of single line circumstances often necessitate the running of
several trains in one direction without a return train. For such cases
the train staff ticket was introduced; but even on the best regulated
lines it is not always possible to secure that the staff shall be at the
station where it is required at the right time, and cases have arisen
where, no train being available at the station where the staff was, it
had to be taken to the other station by a man on foot, causing much
delay to traffic. The electric train staff and tablet systems overcome
this difficulty. Both work on much the same principle, and we will
therefore describe the former.
[Illustration: FIG. 101.--An electric train staff holder: S S, staffs
in the slot of the instrument. Leaning against the side of the cabin is
a staff showing the key K at the end for unlocking a siding points
between two stations. The engine driver cannot remove the staff until
the points have been locked again.]
At each end of a block section a train staff instrument (Fig. 101) is
provided. In the base of these instruments are a number of train staffs,
any one of which would be accepted by an engine-driver as permission to
travel over the single line. The instruments are electrically connected,
the mechanism securing that a staff can be withdrawn only by the
co-operation of the signalman at each end of the section; that, when
_all_ the staffs are in the instruments, a staff may be withdrawn at
_either_ end; that, when a staff has been withdrawn, another cannot be
obtained until the one out has been restored to one or other of the
instruments. The safety of such a system is obvious, as also the
assistance to the working by having a staff available for a train no
matter from which end it is to enter the section.
The mechanism of the instruments is quite simple. A double-poled
electro-magnet is energized by the depression of a key by the signalman
at the further end of the block into which the train is to run, and by
the turning of a handle by the signalman who requires to withdraw a
staff. The magnet, being energized, is able to lift a mechanical lock,
and permits the withdrawal of a staff. In its passage through the
instrument the staff revolves a number of iron discs, which in turn
raise or lower a switch controlling the electrical connections. This
causes the electric currents actuating the electro-magnet to oppose
each other, the magnetism to cease, and the lock to fall back,
preventing another staff being withdrawn. It will naturally be asked,
"How is the electrical system restored?" We have said that there were a
number of staffs in each instrument--in other words, a given number of
staffs, usually twenty, is assigned to the section. Assume that there
are ten in each instrument, and that the switch in each is in its lower
position. Now withdraw a staff, and one instrument has an odd, the other
an even, number of staffs, and similarly one switch is raised while the
other remains lowered, therefore the electrical circuit is "out of
phase"--that is, the currents in the magnets of each staff instrument
are opposed to one another, and cannot release the lock. The staff
travels through the section and is placed in the instrument at the other
end, bringing the number of staffs to eleven--an odd number, and, what
is more important, _raising_ the switch. Both switches are now raised,
consequently the electric currents will support each other, so that a
staff may be withdrawn. Briefly, then, when there is an odd number of
staffs in one instrument and an even number in the other, as when a
staff is in use, the signalmen are unable to obtain a staff, and
consequently cannot give authority for a train to enter the section; but
when there is either an odd or an even number of staffs in each
instrument a staff may be withdrawn at either end on the co-operation of
the signalmen.
We may add that, where two instruments are in the same signal-box, one
for working to the box in advance, the other to the rear, it is arranged
that the staffs pertaining to one section shall not fit the instrument
for the other, and must be of different colours. This prevents the
driver accidentally accepting a staff belonging to one section as
authority to travel over the other.
INTERLOCKING.
The remarks made on the interlocking of points and signals on double
lines apply also to the working of single lines, with the addition that
not only are the distant, home, and starting signals interlocked with
each other, but with the signals and points governing the approach of a
train from the opposite direction--in other words, the signals for the
approach of a train to a station from one direction cannot be lowered
unless those for the approach to the station of a train from the
opposite direction are at danger, and the points correctly set.
SIGNALLING OPERATIONS.
In the working of single lines, as of double, the signalman at the
station from which a train is to proceed has to obtain the consent of
the signalman ahead, the series of questions to be signalled being very
similar to those detailed for double lines. There is, however, one
notable exception. On long lengths of single line it is necessary to
make arrangements for trains to pass each other. This is done by
providing loop lines at intervals, a second pair of rails being laid for
the accommodation of one train while another in the opposite direction
passes it. To secure that more than one train shall not be on a section
of single line between two crossing-places it is laid down that, when a
signalman at a non-crossing station is asked to allow a train to
approach his station, he must not give permission until he has notified
the signalman ahead of him, thus securing that he is not asking
permission for trains to approach from both directions at the same time.
Both for single and double line working a number of rules designed to
deal with cases of emergency are laid down, the guiding principle being
safety; but we have now dealt with all the conditions of everyday
working, and must pass to the consideration of
[Illustration: FIG. 102.--An electric lever-frame in a signalling cabin
at Didcot.]
"POWER" SIGNALLING.
In a power system of signalling the signalman is provided with some
auxiliary means--electricity, compressed air, etc.--of moving the
signals or points under his control. It is still necessary to have a
locking-frame in the signal-box, with levers interlocked with each
other, and connections between the box and the various points and
signals. But the frame is much smaller than an ordinary manual frame,
and but little force is needed to move the little levers which make or
break an electric circuit, or open an air-valve, according to the
power-agent used.
ELECTRIC SIGNALLING.
Fig. 102 represents the locking-frame of a cabin at Didcot, England,
where an all-electric system has been installed. Wires lead from the
cabin to motors situated at the points and signals, which they operate
through worm gearing. When a lever is moved it closes a circuit and sets
the current flowing through a motor, the direction of the flow (and
consequently of the motor's revolution) depending on whether the lever
has been moved forward or backward. Indicators arranged under the levers
tell the signalman when the desired movements at the points and signals
have been completed. If any motion is not carried through, owing to
failure of the current or obstruction of the working parts, an electric
lock prevents him continuing operations. Thus, suppose he has to open
the main line to an express, he is obliged by the mechanical
locking-frame to set all the points correctly before the signals can be
lowered. He might move all the necessary levers in due order, yet one
set of points might remain open, and, were the signals lowered, an
accident would result. But this cannot happen, as the electric locks
worked by the points in question block the signal levers, and until the
failure has been set right, the signals must remain at "danger."
The point motors are connected direct to the points; but between a
signal motor and its arm there is an "electric slot," consisting of a
powerful electro-magnet which forms a link in the rod work. To lower a
signal it is necessary that the motor shall revolve and a control
current pass round the magnet to give it the requisite attractive force.
If no control current flows, as would happen were any pair of points not
in their proper position, the motor can have no effect on the signal arm
to lower it, owing to the magnet letting go its grip. Furthermore, if
the signal had been already lowered when the control current failed, it
would rise to "danger" automatically, as all signals are weighted to
assume the danger position by gravity. The signal control currents can
be broken by the signalman moving a switch, so that in case of emergency
all signals may be thrown simultaneously to danger.
PNEUMATIC SIGNALLING.
In England and the United States compressed air is also used to do the
hard labour of the signalman for him. Instead of closing a circuit, the
signalman, by moving a lever half-way over, admits air to a pipe running
along the track to an air reservoir placed beside the points or signal
to which the lever relates. The air opens a valve and puts the reservoir
in connection with a piston operating the points or signal-arm, as the
case may be. This movement having been performed, another valve in the
reservoir is opened, and air passes back through a second pipe to the
signal-box, where it opens a third valve controlling a piston which
completes the movement of the lever, so showing the signalman that the
operation is complete. With compressed air, as with electricity, a
mechanical locking-frame is of course used.
AUTOMATIC SIGNALLING.
To reduce expense, and increase the running speed on lines where the
sections are short, the train is sometimes made to act as its own
signalman. The rails of each section are all bonded together so as to be
in metallic contact, and each section is insulated from the two
neighbouring sections. At the further end of a section is installed an
electric battery, connected to the rails, which lead the current back to
a magnet operating a signal stationed some distance back on the
preceding section. As long as current flows the signal is held at "All
right." When a train enters the section the wheels and axles
short-circuit the current, so that it does not reach the signal magnet,
and the signal rises to "danger," and stays there until the last pair of
wheels has passed out of the section. Should the current fail or a
vehicle break loose and remain on the section, the same thing would
happen.
The human element can thus be practically eliminated from signalling. To
make things absolutely safe, a train should have positive control over a
train following, to prevent the driver overrunning the signals. On
electric railways this has been effected by means of contacts working
in combination with the signals, which either cut the current off from
the section preceding that on which a train may be, or raise a trigger
to strike an arm on the train following and apply its brakes.