EDGAR ALLAN POE
I
Edgar Allan Poe proves an interesting study from the point of view of
psychoanalysis. He has been analysed by pathologists and psychologists,
but there remains much to be said about the work of this baffling
genius. I can take up only a few phases of the pathetic life and great
work of Poe.
One question that has interested critics is, what was the source of
those mysterious ladies in his stories, the Ligeias, the Morellas, the
Eleonoras? What made him so preoccupied with the subject of the death
of beautiful women long before his own wife died? All this brings us to
a little emphasised chapter in Poe's life, the history of one of his
love affairs before he married Virginia Clemm. Its influence on his
work has hardly ever been noted by critics, and yet the effect was of
great importance.
Poe lost his parents when he was an infant, and he was adopted by Mr.
Allan. He loved the mother of a friend of his, Mrs. Stannard, and when
she died (he was 15 at the time), he was inconsolable. But the history
of this boyish love is not fully known to us. As a boy of sixteen he
loved Sarah Elmira Royster, whom he again met later in life and to whom
he became engaged shortly before his death. At about the age of twenty
or thereafter he loved his cousin, Miss Elizabeth Herring, and wrote
several poems to her.
The real clue to Poe's life and work is furnished in an article,
"Poe's Mary," that appeared in _Harper's Magazine_ for March, 1889,
by Augustus Van Cleef. It reports a conversation with a woman who was
Poe's sweetheart and who rejected him. Her name is now known to us as
Mary Devereaux. The main facts of the article have not been questioned
by his biographers. The substance of the interview is this: Mary
Devereaux met Poe through a flirtation. Her memory did not serve her
as to the date, which she put in 1835. But since Poe was betrothed to
Virginia that year, and had been betrothed to her for some time, the
date was probably 1832, as the author of the article surmises, though
Killis Campbell believes the year was 1831. Mary returned the poet's
love, and he called on her almost every evening for a year. She jilted
him, and Poe horsewhipped a relation of hers as being responsible for
his loss. He wrote for a Baltimore paper a poem of six or eight verses
expressing his indignant sentiments. This passion continued with Poe,
buried in his unconscious, even after he married Virginia Clemm. The
day before Virginia died, in 1847, Mary was at the Poe household, and
Virginia said to her: "Be a friend to Eddie, and don't forsake him; he
always loved you--didn't you, Eddie?"
There is an account in the article of a scene that occurred in the
spring of 1842. Poe tried at the time to see Mary, who was then a
married woman, at her home in Jersey City. He reproached her and
shouted that she did not love her husband, and he tried to force her to
corroborate his words. He had been inquiring for her, and made up his
mind he would see her even "if he had to go to hell" to do it. When he
saw her, he was somewhat soothed, and she sang to him his favourite
song, "Come Rest in This Bosom." She had sung this for him in the early
days, and also at a visit she paid him in Philadelphia not long before
his Jersey City visit. After this episode at her home the poet was
found in the woods wandering about like one crazy.
Mary Devereaux scoffed at the idea that the poet's child wife was the
great passion of his life. It was always known, in spite of Poe's
tenderness for Virginia, that he never found intellectual companionship
in her. Poe married Virginia in May, 1836, when he was 27 and she 14
years old. He was living in 1833 with the Clemms in Baltimore, and had
taken out a marriage license on September 22, 1835, but Virginia was
then too young for marriage.
The relation of Mary to his work will soon appear. I wish to show
first that the splendid love poem, _To One in Paradise_, appearing in
the tale _The Assignation_, was, with the story, inspired by Mary.
_Visionary_, the original title of _The Assignation_, appeared with
the poem in January, 1834, in Godey's _Lady's Book_, and hence was
written in 1833, or before. It was among the tales submitted in the
prize contest that year in which Poe was successful with one of his
stories. When Poe later obtained employment on _The Southern Literary
Messenger_, he reprinted here some of his tales; this tale was
reprinted in July, 1835. The clue comes now. In the same number of the
_Messenger_ there is a poem entitled _To Mary_, by Poe, beginning,
"Mary amid the cares--the woes," which in sentiments and ideas is but
another version of _To One in Paradise_ in the _Visionary_. This poem
_To Mary_ appears in Poe's poetical works under the title _To F----_.
He reprinted this poem, which was originally written to his love Mary,
in _Graham's Magazine_ for March, 1842, and changed the first line
and called the poem no longer _To Mary_, but _To One Departed_, very
suggestive of the _To One in Paradise_. Poe, who would make a poem
written to one lady serve, by a few changes in its text, for another
later woman friend, gave this poem its present title, _To F----_, when
he reprinted it in the 1845 _Broadway Journal_ in honour of the poet
Frances S. Osgood, whom he met that year.[H]
If we compare _To One in Paradise_ with _To F----_ there will be no
doubt that they were inspired by the same person and written at the
same time, 1833, when the affair with Mary was over. In both poems
references are made to his sweetheart being an isle in the sea and
covered with flowers over which the sun smiles. In each poem mention is
made of the desolate condition of the poet who derives happiness from
living in dreams connected with her. _To F----_ is not as perfect as
the other, but the idea underlying each poem is the same. The sonnet
_To Zante_ also has the same imagery, and was written, no doubt, at the
same time to Mary.
_To One in Paradise_ is supposed to be written by the lover in the
story _Assignation_, in which it appears. It will be recalled that
the lover of Marchesa Aphrodite in that tale had written the poem
in a volume of Politian's tragedy, a page of which was blotted with
tears. Poe is that lover and Marchesa Aphrodite is Mary. But we know
also that Poe is the author of the poem _Scenes from Politian_, which
was written about the time he loved Mary. It was published in the
_Southern Literary Messenger_ in December, 1835. In these scenes Poe
identified himself with Politian, who loves Lalage and asks her to
fly to America. "Wilt thou fly to that Paradise?" he asks her. The
reference to Politian in _Assignation_ is then significant, and the
tears on the leaf of the play shed by the lover of Marchesa Aphrodite,
the dreamer, were Poe's own for his lost Mary. The poet looked upon her
as dead to him, and hence in a later version of the poem to her, _To
F----_, he changes the title to _To One Departed_; when he wrote _To
One in Paradise_ he looked upon her as dead. Mary was, by the way, a
name that haunted him, and in his _Marginalia_ he advances his belief
in the correct theory that Byron's only real love affair was with Mary
Chaworth.
I am not so dogmatic as to maintain that in writing the _Assignation_
and the three poems I mentioned, and the Politian scenes, his other
earlier loves did not unconsciously make themselves felt. Killis
Campbell thinks _To One in Paradise_ and the sonnet _To Zante_ were
written to Miss Royster. Poe may also have been thinking of the mother
of his friend who died, in the poem _To One in Paradise_. But it is
most likely that his love for Mary chiefly inspired these poems. They
were certainly not written to Virginia, for in 1833 she was only 11
years old.
The poem to Mary Devereaux, supposed to have been written for a
Baltimore paper, may, as Woodberry surmises, be the _To F----_ poem,
although it is not so severe as Mary said the poem he wrote against
her was. Either her memory failed her as to the alleged severity of
the poem, or the poem has not been discovered. A poem by Poe was only
recently unearthed by Prof. J. C. French, of Johns Hopkins University,
and printed in the _Dial_ for January 31, 1918. It was called
_Serenade_, and was published in the _Baltimore Visiter_, April 20,
1833. The girl addressed is given a fictitious name, Adeline. Whether
she is Mary or not I cannot venture to say with certainty, but most
likely she is. It was published when the affair was probably over, and
may have been written at the height of his love a year previously. Here
are some lines from it:
"And earth, and stars, and sea, and sky
Are redolent of sleep as I
Am redolent of thee and thine
Enthralling love, my Adeline,
But list, O list,--so soft and low
Thy lover's voice to-night shall flow
That scarce awake thy soul shall deem
My words the music of a dream."
The lover in _Assignation_, in which _To One in Paradise_ appeared then
is Poe, and his dreamy character is in accordance with all the other
self portrayals we have of the poet. The description of the Marchesa,
no doubt, was inspired by Mary.
I think that the tale of _Ligeia_, which Poe considered his best story,
was unconsciously inspired by Mary, and it hence calls for a new
interpretation. It was published in September, 1838, two years after he
married Virginia; but the poet's memories still hearken back to Mary.
She is the dead Ligeia, and his wife, Virginia, is the Lady Rowena,
whom the narrator married after Ligeia died. The story of Ligeia was
suggested by a dream. The poem _The Conqueror Worm_ did not originally
appear in the body of the tale. The narrator's memory, we will recall,
flew back to the dead Ligeia; he called her name in dreams; ever after
Rowena was dead he had a thousand memories of Ligeia. The emphasis
throughout the tale on the love for the departed Ligeia which will
not die shows the real love the poet felt for Mary, about whom he was
thinking. The narrator imagines that the dead Ligeia put a poison into
the cup of his second wife, Lady Rowena, and that thus the latter dies.
He then sinks into visions of Ligeia. He imagines that the corpse of
his wife becomes alive, and as he looks at it, it is transformed into
"my lost love" Ligeia. In other words, the dead love still lives and
will not die; it is not forgotten, and haunts the poet, just as love
for Mary haunted him. The quotation from Glanvil that man does not
yield to death, applies as well to dead love.
In this tale we see then the unconscious influence which an earlier
love held on Poe. It is a tale of dead love as much as of death.
Mary enters into another famous tale where her presence was never
suspected, in _Eleonora_. It has been thought that Eleonora was the
poet's wife, Virginia, but the tale of the "Valley of Many Colored
Grass" refers to the happy days when he courted Mary, and the sad
change when Eleonora died, that took place in the Valley, describes the
poet's grief when Mary jilted him. The story appeared in 1841 in _The
Gift_ for 1842. Whether it was written before Virginia burst a blood
vessel, in 1841, as is likely, or afterwards, matters not. For in the
tale, which was certainly written six years before Virginia died, the
narrator thinks of a second marriage after the death of Eleonora, and
Poe was surely not thinking of a second marriage in 1841. We recall in
the tale that the narrator had vowed never to love or marry again after
he lost Eleonora, but he does--he marries Ermengrade, who is really
Virginia, since Eleonora is Mary. The narrator believes he hears the
voice of Eleonora forgiving him for his marriage. The poet tells us
then in this tale that in spite of his great love for Mary he was able
after her rejecting him, still to care for and marry some one else.
The strongest passion of his youth was Mary and not Miss Royster. When
he became engaged later in life to Miss Royster it was due to worldly
reasons, and he once broke the engagement. I believe that the fact that
Poe and his wife were cousins and that she burst a blood-vessel gave
rise to the theory that Eleonora, who is a cousin of the narrator, was
Virginia.
Another earlier tale of the period of _Assignation_ and submitted
in the prize contest at Baltimore, and hence written by 1833, is
_Morella_. In _Morella_, Mary is still present in the person of the
first Morella, whom the narrator marries and who dies; again we have a
symbol of Mary's dead love. Morella leaves him a daughter also called
Morella, and this may be a description of the paternal feeling Poe
entertained at the time for Virginia, who was then 11 years old. In the
tale the second Morella also dies.
The sadistic story, _Berenice_, of the same period, also has memories
of Mary.
These stories with fanciful names like Ligeia, Eleonora, Morella,
Berenice and the tale _Assignation_ were given us by the poet from the
depths of his unconscious; love repressions starting from the death of
his own mother in infancy, the loss of his foster mother, Mr. Allan's
first wife, the grief at the death of his friend's mother, the quarrel
with Mr. Allan's second wife, the love affairs with Miss Royster, and
Miss Herring, but especially the rejection by Mary entered into the
influences, which made up not only the poems and tales previously
mentioned, but much of his later work. He was neurotic because he lost
his mother in infancy and had many love disappointments. The only tale
where he gives an account of the love emotions is in _The Spectacles_,
written before or about 1844, and here he drew on his experiences,
probably chiefly from memories of Mary.
Now comes a question that has always puzzled his critics: Why was
the poet so occupied with the subject of death of fair ladies or of
depicting a man bereaved by the death of his love. Many replies have
been made, but not altogether satisfactorily. The most common answer
is that he was so occupied with the subject because he lost his own
wife, Virginia. Some uninformed critics are of the belief that poems
like _The Raven_ and _The Sleeper_, tales like _Eleonora_ and _Ligeia_,
were written after his wife died. As a matter of fact these, with the
exception of _The Raven_ and possibly _Eleonora_, were written even
before Virginia burst a blood-vessel. There is evidence to make us
believe that _Ulaume_, which is taken to refer to the death of his
wife, was at least commenced before Mrs. Poe's death, in January,
1847; _Annabel Lee_ was, however, written after that date. Nearly
all of Poe's short stories, too, had been published by that time. He
was occupied with the subject of death long before he married; he
mourns the death of women in _Lenore_, _Tamerlane_, and _The Sleeper_,
all written before he was twenty-two years old. His first tales,
_Assignation_, _Ligeia_, _Morella_, deal with the subject of women's
deaths. So those who believe that he may have imagined Virginia dead
after she burst a blood-vessel, and hence wrote as if she had died,
are not right. For all the stories of this nature with the doubtful
exception of _Eleonora_ were written before she burst a blood-vessel.
_The Raven_ and _The Conqueror Worm_, two poems occupied with death,
were written before her death but after her hemorrhage.
Poe tells us in his _Philosophy of Composition_,--an unconvincing
account of the origin of _The Raven_,--that he regards the death of
a beautiful maiden the most poetical and melancholy topic. But there
were factors that made him think so, and these were the deaths of women
he loved and the rejections by girls with whom he was infatuated. He
lost his mother when he was three years old. Mrs. Lannard, who is said
to have inspired _To Helen_, and who was "the first pure ideal love
of my soul" (Poe) died when he was fifteen. (She is also said to have
inspired _The Sleeper_.) He lost Mrs. Allan, his foster mother, to whom
he was greatly attached, when he was twenty. He had also lost three
sweethearts by the time he was twenty-three. These he looked upon as
departed or gone from him. In the _Bridal Ballad_, written probably
on the occasion of the marriage of Miss Royster, he refers to himself
as a dead lover. The poems _To F----_, _To One in Paradise_, and _To
Zante_, as I showed, were most likely written to Mary, though he may
have had the others in mind, who either died or were gone from him.
All this shows the strong infantile influences on Poe in damming up of
his libido. He was, therefore, occupied with the subject of death not
because of Virginia's illness or death, but because he lost, before he
was twenty-three, six girls or women. His interest in the subject made
him hope death could be conquered or stayed, and hence we have _Ligeia_
and _The Facts in the Case of Valdemar_. There is a philosophic
treatment of death in _The Colloquy of Monos and Una_.
II
Tales of burial alive, such as _The Casque of Amontillado_, _The Black
Cat_, etc., are also characteristic of Poe.
What is the significance of Poe's interest in the subject of burial
alive and in people who are guilty of burying others alive? Very
few people would probably accept Freud's theory, but that master
psychologist as a rule bases his theories on facts, and hence I will
quote his views on the subject. In a footnote of his book on _The
Interpretation of Dreams_, p. 244, he says: "It is only of late that
I have learned to value the significance of fancies and unconscious
thoughts about life in the womb. They contain the explanation of the
curious fear felt by so many people of being buried alive, as well
as the profoundest unconscious reason for the belief in a life after
death, which represents nothing but a projection into the future of
this mysterious life before birth. _The act of birth, moreover_, is the
first _experience_ with _fear_, and _in this the source and model_ of
the emotion of fear."
Would Freud's theory not also account for Poe's great gift of the
analysis and depiction of the emotion of fear?
Morbid fear or anxiety is well depicted by Poe, especially in his _Fall
of the House of Usher_. As we learn from psychoanalysis, morbid fear
is inhibited sexual desire; it is a reaction against the libido. The
individual's sexual impulses incapable of being repressed strive for
forms of wish fulfilment, and these when repugnant are treated like
something hostile, and provoke fear. Morbid fear differs from normal
fear in being continuous and attributed to a source which is not the
real one, the actual source being unconscious. If a woman, for example,
is very much in love with a man who turns out to be a vile criminal,
her love may become incapable of being fulfilled any longer because of
the part played by her moral sense; shrinking from contemplating her
love's fulfilment with the man she really still loves, she may develop
an anxiety. This is only one of the innumerable cases of misdirected
desire that may cause anxiety. Then there are physiological factors
responsible also. Dr. Brink has made a study of the subject.
Poe had himself suffered from a damming of the libido. He is Roger
Usher, and is describing his own morbid fear. One feels that the
narrator of the tale presents a case of psychosis, for he sees
impossible things happen. He imagines the house had a pestilent vapour
about it. He tells us that Roger's condition infected him, and that the
wild influences of Roger's fantastic and impressive superstition crept
over him. He must have been deranged, for he imagines that he sees
Roger's dead sister, whose coffin had been screwed down by them, come
out of the vault and drag Roger to death. He also thinks he sees the
house crumble into fragments and sink into the tarn. Either his whole
narrative is a hallucination or only these few parts of it are.
Roger himself, however, is the real type of sufferer from morbid
fear. He has inherited a peculiar disposition, and no doubt suffered
from repressions, though nothing is said about this. He attributes
his disease largely to anxiety about his sick sister, Lady Madeline.
But the cause is in his unconscious. Those who are acquainted with
the theories of psychoanalysis and the life of Poe will feel that
Roger, like Poe, must have lost a mother early, then the mother of a
friend, then his foster-mother. He also, like Poe, was no doubt thrice
disappointed in love, and probably also drank. His symptoms were such
as afflict neurotics. He was in constant terror and felt that he must
die soon in some struggle with fear; he dreaded the future. He read
strange books and imagined queer things. His sister died, and, with the
aid of the narrator of the story, was buried in a vault in the house.
He soon entertained fancies that he had buried her alive, and he was
in mortal fear that she would wreak vengeance on him. When the teller
of the story read to Roger some pages of a romance, Roger interpreted
various unrelated actions described there as a rending of her coffin
and the grating of iron hinges on her prison. He imagined she stood
outside, and then that he was being crushed to death by her. And he
died in fear. The vision of his sister was imaginary with him and the
narrator as well, for Lady Madeline could not have escaped from the
screwed down coffin and the vault, and having lain many days without
food, would not have had strength to crush her brother to death. Usher
died because of morbid fear.
Poe was a good delineator of the neuroses. Here we have a picture
of his own life and know that he must have experienced some sort of
anxiety, as the tale is so true to life. He was only thirty when the
story was published, and the main character here, as in _Berenice_ and
the _Assignation_, is a neurotic. Behind it all one sees the mourner
for the lost Lenore, the orphan, the victim of love through Stella
Royster, Elizabeth Herring and Mary Devereaux.
Poe had also another trait, and that was a sadistic one. This accounts
for his tales of people torturing and being tortured, as _The Pit, and
the Pendulum_, and the _Cask of Amontillado_. He was sadistic as any
one can see by his delight in writing critical articles calculated to
cause writers intense pain. He punished his enemies by venting his
hatred upon them in his essays. He had an unconscious instinct to
cause pain for the mere sake of pain. He hints at this in his _Imp of
the Perverse_, where he lays down a theory which is undoubtedly true,
but which moralists try to shun. "I am not more certain that I breathe
than that the assurance of the wrong or error of an action is often the
one unconquerable _force_ which impels us and alone impels us to its
prosecution." He was also masochistic, he unconsciously liked to cause
pain to himself. In his _The Black Cat_ he calls perverseness one of
the primitive impulses of the human heart, and he speaks of it as "the
unfathomable longing of the soul _to vex itself_--to offer violence
to its own nature, to do wrong for the wrong's sake only." Poe, as a
child, had the sadistic and masochistic instincts. He is fascinated by
contemplation of suffering, and in his _Premature Burial_ speaks of the
pleasurable pain we get from reading of terrible catastrophes.
His sadism and masochism figure considerably in his art. He could not
carry out his desires to punish in life, and hence found a refuge in
literature. We often carry out in imagination what we cannot actually
do; and we wreak punishment and revenge that way; if we are authors
we make books with such ideas. A very simple illustration will serve
in Poe's case, yet it has never been noted. In Poe's tale _The Cask
of Amontillado_ the motive is revenge. The narrator vowed vengeance
upon Fortunato, who had added insult to injury. He buries him in a
vault. In his fancy Poe was punishing a real enemy, and though he had
several, he hated none more than the author of _Alice Ben Bolt_, Dr.
Thomas Dunn English. It is related he once sought the doctor, saying he
wanted to kill him. The tale was published in _Godey's Lady's Book_ for
November, 1846, and was written probably a few months before. In July
of that year Poe published the savage and violent letter to English
in retaliation for English's reply to a very hostile article about
him by Poe in the _Literati_. Poe's hatred for Dr. English is almost
murderous. It is plausible to assume that a writer would unconsciously
have his most bitter antagonist in mind while writing a bitter tale of
revenge at the time of his most intense hatred for him. Poe was not
satisfied with his own savage reply, and instituted a suit of damages
for defamation of character, which was rewarded with a verdict several
months after the publishing of his tale. In the story Poe wrote: "I
must not only punish, but punish with impunity. A wrong is unredressed
when retribution overtakes its redresser." He calls Fortunato a quack
in painting and gemmary, as he had called Dr. English a charlatan
in literature, who did not know the rules of grammar. So this is an
illustration of how sadism made him unconsciously write at least one
tale of punishing an enemy by burying him alive.
III
After all, Poe is chiefly the dreamer and author of dream literature.
The narrator of Berenice tells in detail how he was always dreaming.
In _Assignation_ the lover says, "To dream has been the business of
my life. I have, therefore, framed for myself a bower of dreams." In
_Eleonora_ the narrator says those who dream by day obtain glimpses of
eternity. Roger Usher was a dreamer. Poe's _Eureka_ was dedicated to
those who dream instead of those who think. He also wanted to transcend
reality. He builded an ideal landscape in _The Domain of Arnheim_
because he thinks art can surpass nature. He hated the ugliness of
to-day and he tried in _Some Words with a Mummy_ to revive a mummy to
tell him of ancient Egypt and to give him the secret that enables one
to suspend life temporarily and to be revived again centuries hence. He
says in an early poem that all his days have been a dream. (_A Dream
Within a Dream._)
Poe was true to the psychology of the dreamer; he created things out
of his fancies to be as he would like them to be because he did not
have them in reality. He was poor and described mansions with wonderful
furniture. He was sad because of deaths and lost loves and tried in
some tales to conquer death. His _The Raven_ is really an anxiety
dream. Fear prompted it, the fear that he would never be with his
lost Lenore, who probably was Mary. She then inspired this his most
famous poem. His characters cannot help being dreamers, for their
creator was one. He was so absorbed in his dreams that he never tried
to take an interest in reality. Hence we find no moral note in Poe's
work; there is one exception, _William Wilson_. He took no interest in
philanthropy, reforms, transcendentalism or other movements of the day,
and he disliked Emerson. One would never know from his work whether he
lived at the time he did or in the eighteenth or twentieth century. One
does not know from his work that there was a Mexican war or a slavery
problem in his day.
The one moral tale Poe wrote, _William Wilson_, also has great value
to the psychoanalyst. For it is a study of emotional conflicts and
deals with the subject of dual personality and anticipates Stevenson's
famous story, _Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde_. Poe is William Wilson, and
he even describes his school days in England in the tale. It is the
history of Poe's own struggle with his unconscious, with evil. He too
was a gambler and probably cheated at cards like William Wilson. There
are two William Wilsons, one representative of the unprincipled, the
criminal, the unconscious primitive instincts in ourselves, and the
other William Wilson who is the voice of civilisation, the conscious
moralist seeking to repress the other. Surely this great tale is
symbolic of man's struggle with his own conscious which civilisation
trying to tame.
So we leave Poe. Others may take up the question of his alleged
drunkenness and its overestimated effect on his art. But I have merely
wished to point a few things in his work made clear with the help of
psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis has given the answer to those who object
to Poe because of his lack of moral tone.
It should be added that Poe's great attachment to his mother-in-law,
Mrs. Clemm, was due to the loss of his own mother in infancy.
Poe's devotion and love for women of his later life, Mrs. Osgood, Mrs.
Richmond, Mrs. Lewis, and especially Helen Whitman, did not influence
his work considerably in spite of the sufferings they caused him, but
produced a few good single poems to some of them, notably, _To Annie_,
Mrs. Richmond, and _To Helen_, Mrs. Whitman, and the pathetic, masterly
letters to these women.
FOOTNOTE:
[H] He honoured Mrs. Osgood in the same way by republishing another
poem from the _Southern Literary Messenger_ of September, 1835,
written for some Eliza and opening "Eliza, let thy generous heart."
This poem in the poetical works of Poe bears the title, "Lines Written
in an Album." It originally was written, Woodberry surmises, to his
employer's daughter, Eliza White, though Whitty believes it was
addressed to his future wife, Virginia Eliza Clemm. Yet it is very
likely the poem was written to one of his early sweethearts, Elizabeth
Herring.