ENGLISH AND NORMAN ARCHITECTURE AND CUSTOMS.
Saxon Architecture; Theories about it--Documentary
Evidence--Ancient Churches--Characters of the Saxon
Style--Illustrations from an Anglo-Saxon Calendar--Old
Manuscripts--English Scholarship--Music and the Minstrels--Musical
Instruments--Games and Sports--Costume--The Table--Household
Furniture--Material Condition of the People--Norman
Costumes--Condition of Learning and the Arts--Refinement of the
Normans--The Bayeux Tapestry.
Few subjects in mediæval art have led to so much controversy as that
of English architecture; one party of writers claiming for it a place
as a distinct and separate style, and another totally denying its very
existence.
It was usual for writers on architecture before Rickman's time to
denominate all buildings in which the semicircular arch or the zigzag
moulding prevailed as "Saxon," no matter how highly finished or how
richly carved they might be; and, consequently, all our fine Norman
churches are in their works described as Saxon.
When this designation was proved to be incorrect, a reaction took place,
and some of our writers went so far as to deny the existence of any
building of a date anterior to the Conquest. It was argued by these
writers that the English built with wood only, and that, consequently,
all their erections had long since perished. But though it is true there
is evidence to show that the usual material for building was wood, and
that it was sometimes overlaid with lead and other metals, yet we find,
on the other hand, in the works of early writers, indubitable proofs to
show that stone was also used, particularly in rebuilding the churches
and monasteries which had been destroyed by the Danes. Alfred set aside a
sixth part of his income for this purpose, and we are told by Asser that
"he built the houses majestic and good, beyond all the precedents of his
ancestors, by his new mechanical contrivances."
[Illustration: THE GATEWAY, BATTLE ABBEY.]
It was first pointed out by Rickman that there were a number of churches
in different parts of the kingdom which could be proved to be of very
early date, while they did not agree in character either with the Roman
remains, or with the earliest of the Norman churches; and that, in some
instances, early Norman work had been built upon portions of these early
buildings, thus affording conclusive evidence that these edifices must
be of a prior date to that of the earliest Norman buildings.
Strong confirmatory evidence is also offered when we find it stated, in
a contemporary manuscript, that a church was built on a certain spot by
some well-known ecclesiastic at a given time, and still find standing
on this spot a building, or portions of a building, of a style which
cannot be referred to that of any subsequent period. We are justified in
considering this the building so mentioned; and when we find all these
buildings agreeing in certain general features, we are also justified in
considering these as constituting the style of the period.
Of this documentary evidence, the following are examples. The venerable
Bede, mentions the building of a monastery at Jarrow by Benedict
Biscop in 681, and we now find standing on the spot a church, of which
the chancel is of the rudest construction, and evidently of earlier
date than the tower, which, from its style, cannot be much subsequent
to the Conquest, and in which portions of the earlier building are
built into the walls. The east window is of later date, but the side
windows of the church (now blocked up) are of the rudest possible
construction--round-headed, with the heads formed of a single stone.
These are undoubtedly the work of Benedict.
The church of Monkwearmouth is also mentioned by Bede as having been
built by the same Benedict, in 676. This church still stands, and
bears indubitable proofs of its early date. The windows are divided by
balusters, and have other features peculiar to the period.
A convent existed at Repton, in Derbyshire, in the seventh century, and
was destroyed by the Danes in 875. The church was afterwards rebuilt, and
such portions as had not perished were built into the new erection, and
they may still be distinguished by the peculiarities of their style.
The original crypt under the church still remains in a tolerably perfect
state, and is a very remarkable specimen of the style.
[Illustration: BUILDING OF THE TOWER OF BABEL. (_From a Saxon MS._)]
Curious crypts of this date also exist under the Cathedral of Ripon, and
at Hexham. The latter is particularly interesting, from its having been
constructed of materials taken from the Roman road, which passes within a
short distance of the place, and Roman inscribed slabs have been used in
forming its roof.
In the Old English MSS. in the British Museum and the library of
Salisbury Cathedral, and particularly in the paraphrase of Cædmon, in the
Bodleian Library at Oxford, buildings of stone are distinctly shown in
the illuminations, and these buildings exhibit "the long and short work"
and other distinctive features of existing remains. This, therefore,
may be taken as conclusive evidence that these buildings are of English
origin.
The characteristics of this style are as follow:--
TOWERS.--These are without buttresses, generally of the same dimensions
from the foundation to the top, but sometimes diminishing by stages.
They are usually built of rubble, the stones being very irregular in
size, with quoins at the angles, which are formed of long stones set
perpendicularly, and shorter ones laid horizontally alternately with
them. This is termed "long and short work". They are sometimes divided
into stages, and the surface is intersected by upright projecting ribs of
stone, as if the builder had before him for a model a tower constructed
of timber and plaster, and had endeavoured to imitate this in stone.
The finest example which we have of this kind of ornament is the tower
of Earl's Barton Church, Northamptonshire; other examples also occur at
Barton-on-Humber, and at Barnack.
These towers seem always to have been coated with plaster between the
ribs of stone, and this gives them a still more timber-like appearance.
[Illustration: TOWER OF SOMPTING CHURCH.]
Some towers have not this ornament, and are quite plain. The kind of
masonry called "herringbone" is frequently used, and Roman bricks taken
from the ruins of earlier buildings are of frequent occurrence.
The upper portion of these Saxon towers has been destroyed, and replaced
by later parapets; so that it is not easy to say in what manner they
terminated. But the very remarkable tower of Sompting, in Sussex, offers
a valuable solution of the difficulty. In this tower each side terminates
in an acutely pointed gable, from which the roof is carried up, and,
meeting in a point, forms a sort of short square spire, such as we still
see in some of the churches in Germany. All these towers are without
staircases, the different storeys being only to be reached by ladders.
The circular or newel stair turret seems not to have been introduced till
the twelfth century.
WINDOWS.--These are either round-headed or triangular-headed, and are
frequently surrounded by a sort of framework of projecting stone. They
are usually--but not always--deeply recessed on the outside as well as in
the inside, the narrowest part of the window being in the centre of the
wall. When the window is of two lights, it is divided by a small baluster
or shaft, set in the middle of the wall; this supports an impost, which
is generally one stone reaching through the entire thickness of the wall.
Sometimes the heads of both single and double-light windows, instead of
being arched, are made of two straight stones, meeting at the point, and
forming a triangular head. The single lights are often little more than
mere openings in the wall, frequently without ornament of any kind, the
whole window being cut out of a single stone, as at Caversfield, and
the jambs are often inclined, making the opening wider at the bottom
than at the top. Ornament is seldom attempted, but at Deerhurst the
shaft and jambs are adorned with a rude kind of fluting, and the imposts
are cut into a series of simple square-edged mouldings. Roman bricks
are sometimes used both for the jambs and for turning the arch, as at
Brixworth. All these varieties of windows are very characteristic, and
are not to be found in the later styles.
DOORWAYS.--These, like the windows, are either round or
triangular-headed. The arches are generally turned of plain stones,
without any moulding or ornament whatever--sometimes simple, and
sometimes recessed; but the projecting framework of plain stone is not
unfrequent, as may be seen at Earl's Barton, Stanton Lacy, &c. The
imposts are as a rule plain, but sometimes ornamented with a series
of singular mouldings, usually square-edged and plain, as at Barnack,
or with a kind of fluting, as at Earl's Barton. At Sompting it is
ornamented with a kind of scroll-work, though sculpture is seldom
attempted. A cross is sometimes introduced above the door, as at Stanton
Lacy, and it is remarkable that whenever the cross is used it is of the
Greek form--that is, with the limbs of equal length in contradistinction
to the Latin type, in which the lower member is the longest. The
triangular heads of the doorways are formed either by two stones placed
diagonally, and resting one upon the other, or partly by horizontal
stones cut obliquely. Both these varieties may be seen at Barnack.
Doorways are also sometimes built of tiles, taken from Roman buildings,
as at Brixworth.
[Illustration: WINDOW (SAXON) OF DEERHURST CHURCH, GLOUCESTER.
(_From a Photograph by F. R. Turner, Tewkesbury._)]
MOULDINGS AND SCULPTURES.--There are very few mouldings belonging to this
style, the strings and other members being mostly square-edged and plain,
though, as at Dunham Magna, they are sometimes alternately notched on the
edges. The capitals and bases of the shafts and balusters, which divide
the windows, are moulded chiefly with round and square moulding. The
sculptures are few, and very rude, as at St. Benet's, Cambridge, where
two lions are sculptured at the spring of the tower arch.
[Illustration: WINDOW (SAXON) OF JARROW CHURCH, DURHAM.]
CAPITALS.--The abacus seems in all cases to be a plain, square-edged,
flat member, without chamfer (in which it differs from the Norman). The
bell of the capital is either globular, as at Jarrow, or moulded, as
before mentioned, or cut into a rude imitation of foliage, or of the
Corinthian volute, as at Sompting.
It is curious to observe the evident imitation of Roman work in these
capitals. The beautiful capital of the Corinthian order appears to have
attracted the attention of the rude English workman, and his first
attempt at sculpture seems to have been to copy it. Its delicate and
complicated foliage was too difficult for his hand, but he could make an
imitation of its more prominent feature, the volute. This partiality for
the volute was continued in the next century, through the early and late
Norman, until, in the transition to the Early English, it produced those
magnificent capitals of which we have a few examples in England, and so
many on the Continent.
[Illustration: DOORWAY (SAXON) OF BARNACK CHURCH, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.]
It must not be expected that all these peculiarities will be found in one
building; but wherever any of them occur, there is reasonable presumption
that the building is of early date and deserving of further investigation.
Illustrations drawn from ancient calendars are among the best documents
one can consult for obtaining a knowledge of former manners and customs.
The twelve designs which follow, and which may conveniently serve as
an introduction to an account of English customs, are taken from an
Anglo-Saxon calendar composed some time before the Norman Conquest, and
preserved in the Cottonian Library. Some explanatory notes are added.
Anglo-Saxon Calendar.
[Illustration]
JANUARY.--The heathen English called this month "Wolf-monath," because
the wolves were then most ravenous. It was also called "Aefter-Yula,"
that is, After-Christmas. In the woodcut, four oxen are laboriously
drawing the plough. At that time they did not use horses for field
labour; and oxen are employed, even at the present day, in some
localities.
[Illustration]
FEBRUARY.--Here they are cutting down trees for firewood. The English
called February "Sprout-kele." Kele meant "kelewurt," and was most
extensively used at this time for making broth. The well-known custom of
making pancakes on Shrove Tuesday is a remnant of an old superstition,
and certainly one of the most pleasing that has come down to us.
[Illustration]
MARCH was dedicated by the English to the goddess Rhoeda, and hence
called "Rhede-monath." It was called also "Illyd-monath," or the
stormy-month. In the woodcut they are digging, hoeing, and sowing with
much ardour. After the introduction of Christianity, March was held in
great reverence, as the month in which Lent began.
[Illustration]
APRIL was "Oster-monath" because the wind generally blew from the
east during this month. The woodcut appears to represent three thegns
celebrating a feast by quaffing ale from their drinking-horns. On the
right is an armed guard with a long spear, and on the left are two
servitors. The bench on which the three worthy thegns are seated is
adorned with two sculptures of formidable-looking animals. The use of
chairs or sofas was then entirely unknown. They called the benches placed
in the festal halls "mede benc," or "eale benc"--mead or ale benches.
[Illustration]
MAY was called "Trimilki," because then they began to milk the kine three
times in the day. In this woodcut shepherds are watching over the ewes
and lambs. May-day was the great rural festival of the English, and was
celebrated with pomp and rejoicing. This festival will soon be numbered
amongst the things that were.
[Illustration]
JUNE.--To June different names were given: "Weyd-monath," according to
some, "because then the cattle began to weyd"--that is, feed in the
meadows, which at that time were usually marshes. According to others,
it was called "Midsummer month." This was the time of the year at which
the English commenced their long voyages, and they are represented in the
woodcut in the act of cutting down and dressing trees, in order to fit
out their ships.
[Illustration]
JULY was called by the English "Heu-monath," or foliage-month; also
"Hey-monath," or hay-month, being the month in which they mowed and made
hay, in which operations they are represented in the woodcut as being
engaged. They also called it "Lida-aftera." meaning the second lida, or
second month after the sun's descent.
[Illustration]
AUGUST was by the English called "Arn-monath," or "Barn-monath," meaning
harvest-month. The instruments which appear in the woodcut do not seem
to differ much from those used at the present day. To the left appears
a man sounding a horn, with a spear in his right hand. Whether he is
superintending the labourers, or is one of a hunting party entering the
field, it is hard to decide. The sheaves are being lifted by a fork into
a cart, or wagon, of tolerably good construction.
[Illustration]
SEPTEMBER was called "Gerst-monath"--barley-month; so named from the
liquor called "beerlegh" made in that month, and hence "barley." The
subject of the woodcut is a boar-hunt.
[Illustration]
OCTOBER was called the "Cold-monath," or "Wyn-monath"--wine-month. The
vine was extensively cultivated in England in olden times. The woodcut
represents a hawking scene.
[Illustration]
NOVEMBER was called "Wint-monath," or wind-month, as this was the
season of the year when the cold storms commenced, which were generally
considered to last till March. It was the custom to light great fires in
the open air in honour of the gods, and as a means of driving away evil
spirits. The men are here seen approaching one of these fires to warm
themselves.
[Illustration]
DECEMBER was called "Aerra Geola," because the sun then "turns
his glorious course;" and after the introduction of Christianity,
"Heilig-monath," or holy-month. December was, among the English,
above all things, a month of festivity. Before the introduction of
Christianity, Christmas was the feast of Thor, and the wassail bowl
circulated as briskly in honour of the heathen god as it has done since
at the Christian festival. The figures in the woodcut are engaged in
threshing the corn, winnowing it with a fan, and carrying it away.
The foregoing designs afford, probably, as good an idea as can now be
obtained of the occupations and amusements of our English forefathers,
and of their daily life in time of peace.
The monasteries were the schools of the Middle Ages, in which all secular
knowledge, as well as religious doctrine, was cultivated. Previous to
the invention of printing, books were transcribed with great pains and
labour. Not only was the mere task of copying a book by hand a work of
considerable time, but the illuminations or embellishments with which
the more valuable manuscripts were adorned, were executed with a degree
of care and finish demanding infinite skill and industry. The annexed
engravings are copied with scrupulous fidelity from various MSS. still
extant, and serve to show some of the different kinds of writing which
are found in those documents. Many of the MSS. also contain on each page
paintings representing scenes either connected with the narrative in
the text or otherwise. Sometimes they are ornamented with portraits of
saints, kings, or other great men. These figures, as well as the other
ornamental portions of the work, are brilliantly coloured, and are often
represented on a gold ground.
[Illustration: SAXON CALENDAR.]
The parchment used was of various kinds; that which was the finest and
whitest being employed for the most valuable manuscripts. For gilding
upon parchment, our ancestors employed both gold powder and leaf gold,
which was fixed upon a white embossment, generally supposed to be a
calcareous preparation. The subjects of the paintings were taken from
sacred or profane history, but the artist invariably represented the
costume and customs of his own time, and to these illuminations we owe
most of the knowledge we possess of those customs. The English displayed
proficiency in this branch of painting at an early period; and though it
is not easy to trace the rise and progress of the art, there is evidence
of its flourishing condition from the eighth to the eleventh centuries,
in the numerous manuscripts of that date, which fortunately still remain
both in England and in the collections on the Continent.
[Illustration: FRAGMENT OF COPY OF THE EVANGELISTS, IN LATIN.
(_English MS. of the Tenth Century, with Illuminated Initial Letter, in
the National Library, Paris._)
[Reduced to half the original size.]]
Previous to the introduction of Christianity, the English possessed no
literature worthy of the name. It is not, however, to be supposed that
the people were destitute of intellectual power; for when our forefathers
began to apply themselves to the pursuit of knowledge, the progress of
literature was remarkably rapid. Within one hundred years after the light
of knowledge dawned upon the English, Bede appeared, with other men,
whose abilities and teaching exerted a marked influence upon the spread
of English learning.
The English scholars, though defective in actual knowledge, had just
conceptions of the objects of philosophy. Alcuin defines it to be the
study of natural things, and the knowledge of divine and human affairs.
All the subjects comprised by Alcuin in physics are arithmetic, geometry,
music, and astronomy. That larger field of science to which we now give
the name of physics had not yet been discovered, nor had chemistry,
mineralogy, and the other analogous sciences.
[Illustration: FIRST TWO LINES OF HORACE'S ODE TO MÆCENAS.
(_From MS. of Horace's Works of the Tenth Century in the National
Library, Paris._)]
[Illustration: ENGLISH WRITING OF THE SIXTH CENTURY.]
A fair idea of the condition of mental and moral science previous to the
Norman conquest, may be obtained from an extant dialogue between Alcuin
and Pepin, the son of Charles the Great. Some of the questions, with the
answers, are subjoined:--
"What is life?--The gladness of the blessed; the sorrow of the wretched;
the expectation of death.
"What is death?--The inevitable event; the uncertain pilgrimage; the
tears of the living; the confirmation of our testament; the thief of man.
"What is sleep?--The image of death.
"What is man's liberty?--Innocence.
"What is the brain?--The preserver of the memory.
"What is the sun?--The splendour of the world; the beauty of heaven; the
honour of day; the distributor of the hours.
"What is the moon?--The eye of night; the giver of dew; the prophetess of
the weather.
"What is rain?--The earth's conception; the mother of corn.
"What is the earth?--The nurse of the living; the store-house of life;
the devourer of all things.
"What is the sea?--The path of audacity; the divider of regions; the
fountain of showers.
"What is a ship?--A wandering house; a perpetual inn; a traveller without
footsteps.
"What makes bitter things sweet?--Hunger.
"What makes men never weary?--Gain.
"What gives sleep to the watching?--Hope.
"Who is he that will rise higher if you take away his head?--Look in your
bed, and you will find him there."
[Illustration: ENGLISH DINNER PARTY. (_From Cotton MS., Claud., B._ 4.)]
The following account, taken from William of Malmesbury, of the social
condition of the English people at the time of the Conquest, indicates
a decline of literature and the arts at that period. The picture may
probably be overdrawn, but the main facts are correct. "In process of
time, the desire after literature and religion had decayed, for several
years before the arrival of the Normans. The clergy, contented with a
very slight degree of learning, could scarcely stammer out the words
of the sacraments, and a person who understood grammar was an object
of wonder and astonishment. The nobility were given up to luxury and
wantonness. The commonalty, left unprotected, became a prey to the most
powerful, who amassed fortunes, either by seizing on their property or by
selling their persons into foreign countries; although it be an innate
quality of this people to be more inclined to revelling than to the
accumulation of wealth. Drinking was a universal practice, in which they
passed entire nights, as well as days. They consumed their substance in
mean and despicable houses, unlike the Normans and French, who, in noble
and splendid mansions, lived with frugality."
[Illustration: GLEEMEN JUGGLING. (_From the Cotton MS., Tib. C._ 6.)]
[Illustration: BALANCING. (_From MS. in the Bodleian Library, Oxford._)]
Music was cultivated by our ancestors from a very remote period. Among
the English the music on which most attention was bestowed was that
employed in the services of religion. Singing in churches is said to have
been introduced into England in the fourth century.
Among the northern nations the Scalds were at once the poets and
musicians. Like the bards of the Britons, they celebrated the deeds of
the great and brave in heroic poems, which were sung to the sounds of the
lyre or the harp. After the conquest of Britain by the English, these
minstrels remained in high favour among the people, and were received
with respect and veneration in the courts of kings and the halls of the
nobles. In the English language they were known by two appellations, the
one equivalent to the English word gleemen, or merry-makers, and the
other harpers, derived from the instrument on which they usually played.
[Illustration: MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. (_From the Cædmon MS., Oxford._)]
The gleemen were jugglers and pantomimists, as well as minstrels,
and they were accustomed to associate themselves in companies, and
amuse the spectators with feats of strength and agility, dancing, and
sleight-of-hand tricks.
[Illustration: DANCE WITH LYRE AND DOUBLE FLUTE.
(_From "The Psychomachia," or "Battle of the Soul," of Aurelius
Prudentius, MS. of Eleventh Century._)]
Among the minstrels who came into England with William the Conqueror was
one named Taillefer, of whom it is related that he was present at the
battle of Hastings, and took his place at the head of the Norman army,
inspiriting the soldiers by his songs. Before the battle commenced he
advanced on horseback towards the English lines, and casting his spear
three times into the air, he caught it each time by the iron head and
threw it among his enemies, one of whom he wounded. He then drew his
sword and threw it into the air, catching it, as he had done the spear,
with such dexterity, that the English who saw him believed that he was
gifted with the power of enchantment.
[Illustration: GRAND ORGAN, WITH BELLOWS, AND DOUBLE KEYBOARD.
(_From a Drawing in a Ninth Century Psalter illustrating Psalm CL._)]
The term minstrel, or, in Norman-French, _ministraulx_, came into use
in England soon after the Conquest, at which time it is believed that
the class of minstrels and jesters grew much more numerous. The general
language of France in the ninth century was the _langue d'Oc_, which
closely resembled the dialects of the Catalonian. The language of the
north, or _langue d'Oil_, varied but little from it. At this period the
flowing accents of the southern tongue were wedded to music by minstrels,
who were called troubadours in the southern provinces, and trouveres in
the north.
[Illustration: HARP OF THE NINTH CENTURY.
(_From MS. of St. Blaise._)]
These poets became known throughout Europe for their songs of love and
war, in which they celebrated the beauty of women and the achievements
of the brave. The minstrels enjoyed many privileges, and travelled from
place to place, in time of war as well as of peace, in perfect safety.
Their persons were held sacred, and they were received wherever they
went with the warmest welcome and hospitality.
In England the professors of the minstrel's art were of various classes,
which were distinguished by the several names of singers, relaters of
heroic actions, jesters, balancers, jugglers, and story-tellers. At
this period every great baron kept a jester as a part of his household
establishment.
The word jester, in its original sense, did not necessarily mean joker,
or buffoon, but teller of tales, which might be of a kind to excite
either laughter or pity. The jesters, however, were usually employed at
feasts and in the hours of conviviality, and they found the tales of
merriment so much more popular at such times, that it is probable the
more serious part of their vocation fell into disuse. In later times the
jesters and japers became mere merry-andrews, whose business it was to
excite mirth by jokes and ludicrous gesticulations.
In olden times the number of musical instruments was considerable, but
their names were still more numerous, because they were derived from the
form and character of instruments which varied according to the caprice
of the maker or the musician. Each nation had its peculiar instruments of
music, and as these were described in each language by names appropriate
to their qualities, the same instrument was frequently known by many
names, while the same names sometimes applied to several instruments. The
Romans, after their conquests, were in the habit of carrying back with
them the music and the instruments which they found among the conquered
nations, and thus it happened that, at a certain epoch, all the musical
instruments of the known world were collected in the capital of the
empire. At the fall of Rome, many of these fell into disuse and were
forgotten; they were no longer needed to celebrate the festivals of pagan
deities, or to add gaiety to the ovations to the emperors in the capitol.
A letter of St. Jerome to Dardanus (_de diversis generibus musicorum
instrumentorum_) gives an account of those instruments which remained in
existence in the fifth century. St. Jerome enumerates the organ, various
kinds of trumpets, the cithara, in the form of a Greek delta ([Greek:
D]), with twenty-four strings; the _psalterium_, a small harp of a square
form, with ten strings; the _tympanum_, or hand-drum, and several others.
These seem to have been almost the only musical instruments in use in
the fifth century. A nomenclature of a similar kind appears in the
ninth century, in a manuscript life of Charles the Great, by Aymeric
de Peyra,[1] from which we find the number of instruments to have been
nearly doubled in the course of four centuries, and their forms during
this period had continually varied.
The flute is the most ancient of all instruments of music, and in the
Middle Ages was found in many varieties. Among these was the double flute
of the classic form, having two stems. The stem held in the left hand
(_sinistra_) was for the high notes, and that held in the right hand
(_dextra_) for the low notes. The two stems were sometimes held together,
sometimes separate.
About the year 951, there was made for the church at Winchester an organ
which, in size and construction, surpassed any that had hitherto been
seen. This organ was divided into two parts, each having its bellows,
its key-board, and its player; twelve bellows above and fourteen below
were set in motion by sixty-six strong men, and the wind was passed
along forty valves into four hundred pipes, arranged in groups of ten,
and to each of these groups corresponded one of the twenty-four keys of
each key-board. In spite of the great size of this organ, we can hardly
believe that its sound was heard over the whole town (_undique per
urbem_), as we are told by a contemporary poet.
The syrinx, which was, in fact, the Pandean pipe, was composed usually of
seven tubes of unequal length, forming a straight line at the top for the
mouth of the player.
Trumpets were much in use among the English, and were employed in the
chase and in the tourney, as well as in sounding the charge in battle.
They were also used at feasts, public assemblies, and as signals by which
one man could communicate with another at a distance beyond the reach of
the voice.
The lyre, which was the principal stringed instrument of the Greeks and
the Romans, preserved its primitive form until the tenth century. The
number of cords varied from three to eight. The lyre of the North--which
was unquestionably the origin of the violin, and which already presented
the shape of that instrument--had a bridge in the middle of the
sound-board.
[Illustration: ENGLISH GAME OF BOWLS. (_From Royal MS._, 20, _D_ 4.)]
The _psalterium_, which must not be confounded with the _psalterion_
of the thirteenth century, was a little portable harp, played either
with one or both hands. After the fifth century its shape varied, and
was sometimes square or triangular, and sometimes round. In the tenth
century the psalterium gave place to the cithara, a name by which various
stringed instruments had at first been vaguely described.
[Illustration: LADIES HUNTING. (_From Royal MS._, 2 _B._ 7.)]
The English harp was at first only a triangular cithara, but that of the
ninth century appears to have differed little from the modern instrument
of that name, and the simplicity and elegance of its form had arrived
nearly at perfection. The English gleemen usually sang to the harp, and
this instrument was also in common use among persons who did not follow
the profession of minstrels. Bede tells us that, as early as the seventh
century, it was customary at convivial meetings to hand a harp from one
person to another; and that every one present played upon it in turn,
singing a song to the music. This may be presumed to have been the case
when the professional harper, whose business it was to amuse the company,
was not present.
[Illustration: NORMAN COSTUMES OF THE ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES.
1. Bishops and Barons (11_th Century_). 2. Noble Ladies and Citizens
(11_th Century_). 3. Prince, Princess, and Cross-Bowman (11_th Century_).
4. Artisans and Artificers (11_th Century_). 5. Military Costumes of the
12th Century. 6. Noble Ladies of Normandy (12_th Century_).]
Games and exercises of strength and agility were common among the
Anglo-Saxons. St. Cuthbert is stated by Bede to have excelled in running,
wrestling, and other athletic sports. Feats of juggling were performed
by the gleemen, who were the most important characters in the festivals
and other popular gatherings. Some of the gleemen seem to have performed
tricks, gambols, and feats of all kinds, while others were harpers, or
bards, and ballad-singers.
The in-door sports were various, and suitable to different ranks. The
games of chess and backgammon were both known, or at least games very
similar to them. Backgammon is said to have been invented in the tenth
century.
The English and other German nations, as well as the Normans, were
strongly attached to the sports of the field. At an early period we find
that hunting was considered a necessary part of the education of every
man of gentle blood. Alfred the Great, before he was twelve years of age,
is represented to have "excelled in all the branches of that most noble
art, to which he applied with incessant labour." We are told also that
Edward the Confessor, though unlike his illustrious ancestor in most
respects, delighted to follow a pack of hounds.
[Illustration: HAWKING PARTY IN THE ELEVENTH CENTURY.]
Hawking was a recreation in high favour among the nobles of the Middle
Ages, and was practised also by the clergy and by ladies. In the Bayeux
tapestry Harold is represented with his hounds by his side, and a hawk
in his hand, when brought before William of Normandy. Such a mode of
travelling was common among the noblemen of this period. Persons of high
rank rarely appeared without their hawks, and sometimes even carried them
into battle. These birds were considered as the symbols of nobility, and
a man who gave up his hawk was regarded as disgraced and dishonoured. The
birds were trained and tended with the greatest care. To prevent them
from seeing, their heads were covered with a little cap fastened behind
with straps, and adorned with a plume. The falcons of princes and great
nobles were known by these plumes, being of the feathers of the bird of
paradise. Thus armed, the birds were carried to the chase in a cage, and
when it rained were covered with an umbrella, similar to that represented
in the illustration.
[Illustration: UMBRELLA FOR HAWKS.]
When the falcon became accustomed to his master, it was necessary to
familiarise him to the noise of dogs and men; and to prevent the risk
of his flying away, he was trained by means of the lure, which was an
imitation of a bird. On the lure was placed a small piece of warm flesh
of fowl, and the falcon was taught to come and eat at the voice of the
falconer. A cord was attached to the bird's leg, and the person holding
the cord retired to some paces' distance, while another lifted the bird's
cap, and set him at liberty. The falconer then called the bird, showing
the lure.
[Illustration: HAROLD. (_From the Bayeux Tapestry._)]
These details, with the accompanying engravings, are taken from the
"_Livre du Roy Modus_," the most ancient of all the works on Hawking.
The tournament, which was the principal amusement of the Norman nobility
at the time of the Conquest, was not introduced into England until the
reign of Stephen. Various military exercises were, however, in existence,
among which was the quintain. A staff, from which a shield was hung, was
fixed in the ground, and the performer, on horseback, rode full tilt at
the mark, endeavouring to strike the shield with his lance. Sometimes
the quintain was the figure of a Turk or Saracen, which was placed on a
pivot in such a manner that, if the horseman failed to strike it in the
face, he received a severe blow from the other end of the quintain, which
turned round with great velocity.
[Illustration: HAWKING. (_Royal MS._, 2 _B._ 7, _fol._ 75 _b._)]
Some military sports are described by Strutt as peculiar to the young
men of London in the twelfth century. At this period, also, he tells us
that it was common for the young men and maidens of the city to meet for
dancing and merry-making after the labours of the day, and that the city
damsels played on the citherns, and kept up the dance by the light of the
moon (_usque imminente lunâ_).
Many other sports were also common at this period, among which may be
noticed sword and buckler play, and various games of ball.
The leisure hours of the English women were spent in spinning, or in
similar employments; and the lady of the house did not disdain to be
among her maids, encouraging and assisting them in their duties. Strutt
relates the following account, given by Ingulphus, of Edith, queen to
Edward the Confessor:--"I have often seen her," he says, "while I was
yet a boy, when my father was at the king's palace; and as I came from
school, when I have met her, she would examine me in my learning, and
from grammar she would proceed to logic (which she also understood),
concluding with me in the most subtle argument; then causing one of her
attendant maids to present me with three or four pieces of money, I
was dismissed, being sent to the larder, where I was sure to get some
eatables." The simplicity of manners here described soon disappeared when
the throne of England was occupied by the Norman king.
[Illustration: THE LURE.]
The English appear to have been exceedingly fond of dress. Ladies of rank
wore necklaces, bracelets, and rings, set with precious stones. Mantles,
kirtles, and gowns were also in general use; and rouge was not unknown to
them.
[Illustration: SWORD PLAY.
(_From Strutt's "Manners, Customs, etc., of the English People."_)]
In the men this taste for finery degenerated into effeminacy. They wore
golden collars, and not unfrequently precious stones round the neck;
and the wealthy wore costly bracelets and rings. They had silk, linen,
and woollen garments. Silk, from its costliness, was used only by the
wealthy. The fashion of their garments of course varied. They had large
mantles, which were ornamented with gold and gems; close coats or tunics,
girded with a belt, which Strutt represents as having been put on over
the head like a shirt. Many Englishmen are not aware that the smockfrock
of the husbandmen of our own day is a pure piece of old-English costume;
and if it were well made, tightened with a broad belt, and worn by a man
of good carriage, it would form a much handsomer dress than the unmeaning
stiff-cut coats of our time. Socks and stockings, and other covering for
the legs, are mentioned by English writers.
The articles of costume were of great variety. A taste for gorgeous
finery appears in the dress of the male sex. We read of a king's
coronation garment being made of silk woven with gold flowers; and of a
cloak studded with gold and gems. The dress of the soldiers and civilians
usually consisted of a close coat or tunic, reaching only to the knee,
and a short cloak over the left shoulder, which buckled on the right.
This cloak was often trimmed with an edging of gold. The kings and nobles
also commonly wore a dress very similar to this, only richer and more
elegant. In the paintings of the MSS. the women are usually represented
in a long loose robe, reaching to the ground, and with loose sleeves, the
latter sometimes hanging a yard in length. Upon the head is a hood or
veil, which falls down before, and is gathered into folds round the neck
and breast. The robe is often ornamented with broad borders of different
colours.
Both men and women wore shoes, or rather slippers; the legs of the
men being covered half way up with a kind of bandage wound round, or
else a straight stocking reaching above the knee. Up to the period of
the Conquest, the taste for gold ornaments had increased; and massive
bracelets for the arms and neck, rings for the fingers, and chains of
gold were common. Among the nobility circlets of gold set with jewels
were worn on the head; and belts and girdles were much admired, and were
often richly ornamented.
[Illustration: QUINTAIN.]
From the paintings of some of the English MSS. a knowledge may be
gathered of their customs at table. In the engraving of "The English
Dinner Party" given on page 101, the table is of an oval form, and
covered with a cloth. Upon it, besides a knife and spoon, there are a
bowl with a fish, two other dishes, and some loaves of bread. At each
end of the table are two attendants upon their knees, with a dish in one
hand, and in the other a spit holding a piece of meat, which they are
presenting to the guests. In other drawings of the MSS. the table is of
a different form; ladies are shown as present, and the two sexes are
arranged apparently without any precise order.
[Illustration: BOB APPLE. (_From Royal MS._, 2 _B._ 7, _fol._ 166 _b._)]
Cups of gold and silver were used, and also of bone and wood. Horns were
much in vogue at table. A curiously carved horn of the Old English times
is still preserved in York Cathedral. Glass vessels were little known in
this country previous to the Norman Conquest. A disciple of Bede applied
to Lullus in France, to know if there was any man in that neighbourhood,
who could make glass vessels well; "for," said he, "we are ignorant and
helpless in this art."
[Illustration: SAXON COSTUMES. (_From Strutt._)]
Of the furniture in use among the English little information has come
down to us. Mention may, however, be made of hangings to be suspended
on the walls of rooms, and adorned with figures of golden birds in
needlework. The love of gaudy colours which prevailed at that day was
apparent in the furniture as well as in the dresses of the people; and
the hangings and curtains were stained with purple and various other
colours. Among the benches and chairs in use, some are represented as
having animals' heads at the extremities.
[Illustration: SAXON COSTUMES. (_Cott. MS. Claud. B._ 4.)]
Candles have probably been in use from a period of high antiquity,
and were certainly known in the tenth century. The English word
for candlestick--_candelsticca_--seems to denote that the earlier
candlesticks were made of wood. At this period the candle was not placed
in a socket, as at present, but fixed on a long spike.
We find mention made of a curtain, sheets, and other clothes
appertaining. A pillow of straw is also mentioned. Bear-skins were
sometimes used as a part of bed furniture.
[Illustration: ENGLISH CROWNS.]
The English seem to have practised great personal cleanliness. The use
of warm baths was common, for mention is made of a nun, who, as an act
of voluntary penance, washed in them only on festivals. It was also
enjoined by the canons as a charitable duty to give to the poor meal,
fire, fodder, bathing, bed and clothes.
At the time of the Conquest the condition of the people in France and
Normandy differed little from what it was in our own country, though
superior refinement reigned at the courts. The nobles and higher
ecclesiastics, all who possessed wealth, or who were in a position to
seize it by force, inhabited their castles and country houses, where
they collected about them whatever the age could afford of objects of
luxury and elegance. Solitude and discouragement reigned around their
dwellings. Industry and the arts languished obscurely in the towns, and
commerce, restrained in its developments, was often conducted in secrecy
and danger. The merchant was compelled to travel with his goods from
the castle of one baron to that of another, and, living without a fixed
residence or depôt for them, he could by this means escape the exactions
of the nobles, who, in fact, were to some extent dependent upon his
services. Frequently the baron would cause some of his serfs to learn
the mechanical arts, so that the several labours of the carpenter, the
armourer, the tailor, &c., might be available at once when required.
[Illustration: ENGLISH SHOES.]
[Illustration: ENGLISH DINNER PARTY. (_From Cotton MS. Tib. C._ 6, _fol._ 5
_b._)]
From an early period the Franks of noble race wore long hair and beards,
and the custom of Christian priests was the same until the third and
fourth centuries. In the time of Charles the Great the costume was still
simple. The Franks piqued themselves upon their elegance; of which an
example may be found in the journey of Rigonda, daughter of Childeric, to
visit the king of the Spanish Goths, to whom she was betrothed. "Rigonda,
daughter of Childeric, arrived at Tours with her treasures. Seeing that
she had reached the frontier of the Goths, she began to retard her march,
and so much the more because those about her said it was necessary for
her to stop in that neighbourhood, because they were fatigued with the
journey; their clothes were dirty, their shoes worn out, and the harness
of their horses and chariots in a bad condition. They insisted that it
was necessary, first, to place these things in good order, so as to
continue the journey, and appear with elegance before their lady's future
husband, lest, if they arrived badly equipped among the Goths, they
should be laughed at."[2]
[Illustration: CLOAK-PIN (A), BUCKLE (B), AND POUCH (C) OF THE TWELFTH
CENTURY.
(_A and C from the effigy of Berengaria of Navarre on her tomb at
Fontevrault; B from the effigy of Isabella d'Angoulême at Fontevrault.
From Stothard's "Monumental Effigies."_)]
The Normans, who arrived with their short dresses and coats of mail,
adopted the costume of the Franks, which they followed in all its phases;
and in the following century they began to introduce the fashions of the
Continent into England. At the time of the Conquest, however, the custom
generally prevailed among the Normans of shaving not only the beard, but
the back of the head, as appears from the figures in the Bayeux tapestry.
In the tenth and eleventh centuries the costume of the higher classes
usually consisted of a long tunic, confined by a girdle, over which was a
large cloak. The soldiers wore a short coat of mail over a tunic, which
descended to the knees; their arms comprised the long-bow, the crossbow,
the sword, lance, buckler, and gisarme. The gisarme is said to be the
weapon called the brown bill by Chaucer. It was in general use in the
twelfth century, and was retained as late as the battle of Flodden.
The costume of the women of Normandy consisted of a simple head-dress,
with long robes girded about the waist. In paintings of this period
the hair is seldom seen, but the manner in which it was worn appears
to have varied. Sometimes it is represented as gathered tightly about
the head, and sometimes it descends in long plaits upon the shoulders.
Princesses and ladies of rank wore a robe of ermine, or a tunic either
with or without sleeves; a veil was also added, which covered the head,
and descended in folds over the bosom.
[Illustration: EARLY ENGLISH CANDLESTICK.]
After the death of Charles the Great literature and the arts in France
experienced a gradual decline until the tenth century, when a new and
remarkable impetus was given to learning by the Moors in Spain. English
learning, which had flourished during the reigns of Alfred and his
immediate successors, began rapidly to decay during the stormy period
of the Danish invasions; and from the time of the accession of Canute
to that of the Norman Conquest little or no revival of letters appears
to have taken place. During the period which intervened between these
two events the country enjoyed a considerable degree of repose, and it
can hardly be doubted that some of the schools and religious houses were
re-established; but the long period of peace was marked by the growth of
indolence and sensuality among the people, rather than by the spread of
education.
[Illustration: ENGLISH BED. (_Cotton MS. Claud. B._ 4, _fol._ 27 _b._)]
William the Conqueror, says a modern writer, "patronised and loved
letters. He filled the bishoprics and abbacies of England with the most
learned of his countrymen, who had been educated at the University
of Paris, at that time the most flourishing school in Europe. Many of
the Norman prelates preferred in England by the Conqueror were polite
scholars. Godfrey, Prior of St. Swithin's, at Winchester, a native of
Cambray, was an elegant Latin epigrammatist, and wrote with the smartness
and ease of Martial; a circumstance which, by the way, shows that the
literature of the monks at this period was of a more liberal cast than
that which we commonly annex to their character and profession."
[Illustration: CHAIRS. (_Cotton MS. Tib. C._ 6.)]
William founded the abbeys of Battle and Selby, with other religious
houses, and endowed them with ample revenues. Many of his nobles were
incited by his example to the erection of monasteries upon their estates.
These institutions, which afforded leisure and protection to men of
letters, acted as powerful incentives to the pursuit of learning, and
promoted in no small degree the interest of literature.
[Illustration: SAXON IVORY COMB AND CASE, FOUND AT YORK. LENGTH 5½
INCHES. (_British Museum._)]
The art of the sculptor had made little progress in Europe previous
to the tenth century. Two centuries later, the Burgundian school was
in its zenith, and enriched the churches and monasteries of France
with many admirable specimens of sculpture. Bernard II., Abbé of
Montier-Saint-Jean, in rebuilding the door of his church, caused it to
be adorned with representations of the Saviour and the twelve apostles;
and in other instances the arts were applied to decorate the religious
houses, or the graves of the illustrious dead.
In Normandy we find at this period the names of several sculptors
celebrated for their works. Among these was Otho, the sculptor of the
tomb of William the Conqueror, in 1087, and other monuments of a similar
kind; Azo, builder of the cathedral of Sens, and of several others.
The masons and sculptors of Normandy formed at this epoch an important
corporation.
[Illustration: NORMAN VESSEL. (_From Strutt._)]
At the beginning of the twelfth century, when the Normans became securely
established in their conquests, they displayed the utmost activity in the
erection of magnificent buildings both in England and Normandy. According
to William of Malmesbury,[3] churches rose up in every village, and
monasteries in the towns and cities, built in a style unknown before.
"You might behold ancient buildings restored upon their sites throughout
the country, so that each wealthy man considered that day as lost to him,
on which he neglected to perform some magnificent action."
The Anglo-Norman barons who engaged in these works obtained from their
own country and from France the assistance of the best architects and
sculptors. William of Sens, one of these artists, reconstructed the
cathedral of Canterbury in 1176; and other foreign artists were employed
to restore the abbeys of Croyland, of York, of Monkwearmouth, and others.
[Illustration: NORMAN SOLDIERS. (_From the Bayeux Tapestry._)]
While it is evident that results highly favourable to the progress of
literature and the arts in this country were produced by the Norman
conquest, there is also every reason to believe that the tendency to
sensuality, which was so strong among the English people, experienced
a salutary check from the introduction of Norman manners. The foreign
invasion entailed immediate sufferings upon the conquered race, but its
results were favourable to the progress of civilisation, and tended in no
small degree to the advance of the nation in power and greatness.
[Illustration: NORMAN BOWMEN OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY.]
The Normans are understood to have introduced into England many
elegancies and refinements in the habits of common life and the customs
of the table. It has been already stated that the English were a people
of gross appetite, who were accustomed to spend many hours of the day
at feasts. The Normans, on the other hand, appear, on their arrival
in England, to have distinguished themselves by the moderation and
refinement of their mode of living. Among the dainties held in the
highest esteem by the Normans were the peacock and the crane. The boar's
head was considered a regal dish, and it was brought in at great feasts
in a kind of procession, preceded by musicians.
[Illustration: WOMAN SPINNING. (_Royal MS._, 10 _E._ 4, _fol._ 187.)]
It would appear that the improvements thus introduced were rather moral
than material, as we find no mention made of new articles of furniture
or other conveniences as having appeared at the time of the Conquest.
Our information on this subject, is, however, scanty, and it is probable
that the improvement of taste and increased wealth were soon manifested
in the application of the useful and decorative arts to the conveniences
of domestic life.
A most faithful and valuable record of costumes and manners at the time
of the Conquest is to be found in the remarkable work known as the
Bayeux Tapestry, which tradition has, probably with justice, ascribed to
Matilda, the wife of the Conqueror.
The Bayeux tapestry is a chronicle of the conquest of England by the
Normans, opening with the mission of Harold to Duke William, and
terminating with the battle of Hastings. The designs, which were probably
the work of an Italian artist, are represented in worsted work, the
colours of which, notwithstanding the great age of the tapestry, are
still bright and distinct. The tapestry was placed at an early period
in a side chapel of the cathedral of Bayeux, where it was regarded with
veneration by the people. During the consulate of Napoleon, the ancient
relic was removed from Bayeux to Paris, where it remained for several
months, and was visited by the First Consul himself. At the present time
the tapestry is preserved in the library of the town of Bayeux, and is
exposed to view in glass cases.
This remarkable monument of skill and industry originally formed one
piece; and, according to a learned authority,[4] measures two hundred
and twenty-seven feet in length, by about twenty inches in breadth. The
groundwork of it is a strip of rather fine linen cloth, which, through
age, has assumed the tinge of brown holland. The stitches consist of
lines of coloured worsted laid side by side, and bound down at intervals
by cross fastenings. The colours chiefly used are dark and light blue,
red, pink, yellow, buff, and dark and light green.
The central portion of the tapestry is occupied with the delineation of
the narrative, and there is also an ornamental border at the top and
bottom of the field, which contains figures of birds and beasts. Many
of these are of fantastic shapes, and are, probably, meant to represent
the dragons, griffins, and other fabulous creatures which are so often
referred to in the romances of that period.
[Illustration: SACRAMENTAL WAFER BOX OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY.]
The two upper lines of the engraving of the tapestry on page 105 are
consecutive. They have been chosen for illustration as affording a
favourable view of the character of the design. The story is taken up
at the part where Harold, after swearing fealty to William of Normandy
on the relics of the saints, returns to England, and presents himself
to King Edward. The first words which occur over the figures at the top
of the page are, "_Anglicam terram_." The complete sentence, the former
part of which is omitted in the engraving, reads thus:--"_Hic Harold
dux reversus est Anglicam terram_" ("Here the Lord Harold returned
to England"). The horsemen of Harold's train are represented on their
way to the court; "_Et venit ad Edwardum regem_" ("And came to Edward
the king"). Farther on we see Edward seated on his throne, and Harold
receiving audience and communicating the ill success of his adventure.
[Illustration: INCIDENTS COPIED FROM THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY. (_After
Stothard._)]
The tapestry proceeds to depict Harold's unfortunate descent upon the
Norman coast, his capture by Guy of Ponthieu, his release by William the
Conqueror, the expedition into Brittany, and the ceremony of the fateful
oath. "_Hic Willelmus venit Bagias ubi Haroldus sacramentum fecit_"
("Here William comes to Bayeux, where Harold takes an oath") is all the
information we have on this most important event.
Worn down by anxiety, and by the anticipation of evils which he foresaw,
but was unable to prevent, Edward the Confessor soon afterwards died,
and was buried at Westminster, in the church which he had himself built
in a new and costly style of architecture. The tapestry shows us the
church of St. Peter, at Westminster, and the funeral procession of the
king. It will be observed that the church, which was built in the Early
Norman style, is provided at one end with a weathercock, which a workman
is represented in the act of putting up. "By this," says the authority
already quoted, "the designer of the tapestry means to show that the
work was but just completed, when the interment of the Confessor took
place. A hand appears over the western end of the church to denote the
finger of Providence, and to indicate that it was the will of God that
the remains of the deceased king should be deposited in that building."
The arrangements of the funeral procession are simple--a boy appears at
each side of the bier ringing bells, and various attendants and priests
are following. The words written above are: "_Hic portatur corpus Edwardi
regis ad ecclesiam sancti Petri Apostoli_" ("Here the body of King Edward
is carried to the church of St. Peter the Apostle").
Then the artist represents to us the election of Harold; the appearance
of the comet at Eastertide which filled men's mind with fear, and the
anger of Duke William when he heard of the choice of the English.
Then follows a series of most spirited representations of the Norman
preparations; the working men felling trees, preparing planks, and
dragging the ships to the shore. Presently the great armament is observed
in full sail across the Channel, and a little farther on the horses
disembark. Then comes a series of tableaux representing the movements of
William and his comrades until Harold comes southwards. "_Hic milites
exierunt de Hestengâ et venerunt ad prelium contra Haroldum regem_"
("Here the soldiers have departed from Hastings and march to battle
against Harold the king").
[Illustration: INCIDENTS COPIED FROM THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY. (_After
Stothard._)]
The engraving on this page is taken from another portion of the tapestry,
and represents the battle of Hastings. The thick of the combat is here
delineated, according to the inscription, "_Hic ceciderunt simul Angli et
Franci in prelio_" ("Here at the same time English and French fell in the
battle"). Horses and men are tumbling about in the agonies of death. The
mailed coats and pointed helmets of the Normans are easily distinguished
from the English costume. Farther on we find a party of English posted on
the hill, who are making a desperate stand against the enemy with their
lances. At a time when the fortune of the day seemed turning against
the Normans, Odo of Bayeux galloped among the soldiers, and restored
their drooping courage. He is represented in the tapestry with a staff,
probably a badge of authority, and the inscription above is: "_Hic Odo
episcopus, tenens baculum, confortat pueros_" ("Here Bishop Odo, holding
a staff, encourages the soldiers").
The last figure in the engraving is that of the Duke of Normandy, who is
represented at the head of his troops waving his sword. The inscription
runs: "_Hic est Dux Wilhelm_" ("This is Duke William").
The tapestry itself goes on to delineate other details of the battle,
describes the place where Harold fell, and ends with the flight of the
English before the conquering troops of Normandy.