THE DANISH INVASIONS AND THE REIGN OF ALFRED.
Character of the Invaders--Reign of Ethelwulf--Reigns of
Ethelbald and Ethelbert--The Conquest of East Anglia--Battles
near Reading--The Accession of Alfred--The Extinction of the
Kingdom of Mercia--The Invasion of Wessex--The Year 878--Alfred
at Athelney--Death of Hubba--Victory of Alfred and the Treaty
of Wedmore--Renewal of the War--Alfred's fleet--Expeditions of
Hastings--Remainder of the Reign--Character of Alfred--His Rules
of Life--His Legislation--Encouragement of Learning.
We have arrived at the period of the Danish invasions, which has been
divided by Professor Freeman into three parts:
(1) When the Danes came to plunder.
(2) When they came to settle.
(3) When they came to conquer England.
Of the first division little is to be said, and in part it has already
been dealt with incidentally while tracing the rise of the kingdom of
Wessex. The first descent upon the English coast seems to have been made
upon Northumbria in 787.
The Danes were a brave and unscrupulous race, inhabiting not only
Denmark, but also Norway. Bound by a limited territory, in a climate
where population rapidly increases, it is not to be wondered at that
Denmark and Norway were overstocked with inhabitants, and, consequently,
forced to send away large colonies. Their natural inclination to a sea
life made these exiles readily abandon their country; and the great booty
the first adventurers gained tempted the richest and most powerful of
their countrymen to urge their fortune in the same manner; to which end
they entered into associations, and fitted out large fleets to seek and
ravage foreign countries. These associations were much of the same nature
with those formed in later times by the corsairs of Barbary; and they
became so entirely devoted to this mode of life, that very considerable
fleets were put to sea. They had the authority and example of their
highest leaders, who occasionally commanded them in person, for what they
did. These leaders were known by the name of Sea-kings. Their fleets
made much devastation in several parts of Europe, particularly France,
England, and the Low Countries. In France they were called Normans--that
is, men of the north; but in England they were generally styled Danes.
There is no doubt that the Swedes very often joined with the Danes in
their piratical expeditions; and it appears that the Frieslanders also
were concerned with them in ravaging the coasts of France and England.
Egbert died in 839, after having reigned thirty-seven years, during
the last ten as sole monarch of England. He was succeeded by his son
Ethelwulf, in whose reign the ravages of the Danes became yet more
frequent. In a great battle fought at Charmouth the English were once
more defeated by their fierce enemy, who retired to their own country
again with the spoils they had collected, without attempting any
settlement.
The Danes now seldom failed to visit England yearly for the sake of
plunder. In 845, the Aldermen Enulph and Osric, aided by Bishop Alstan,
obtained a considerable victory over them. In 851, the barbarians landed
again on the coast of Wessex, where they plundered the country, but were
met by Ethelwulf's general, the Alderman Ceorl, who defeated them at
Wembury with great slaughter. Shortly afterwards, Athelstan, the King of
Kent, encountered them upon their own element, and succeeded in capturing
nine of their ships. Next year the Danes sailed up the Thames with 300
vessels, and pillaged London, after which they marched into Mercia, and
would have overrun all England if the preparations of Ethelwulf had not
deterred them. They re-passed the Thames, and were defeated at Okely, in
Surrey. The year 855 is an important one, for the Danes then wintered in
England for the first time, selecting the Isle of Sheppey for their camp.
Ethelwulf appears to have been in some respects a weak, but by no means
a cruel prince. He was very religiously minded, and was led for years,
in all religious matters, by Swithin, Bishop of Winchester, and Alstan,
Bishop of London. By the advice of the former, he is said to have
granted to the Church the tithe of all his dominions. He also sent his
youngest son, Alfred, when a mere boy, to Rome, and in 855 visited the
Eternal City himself. On his return, he passed through France, where he
married Judith, or Leatheta, as she is named in the Saxon Chronicles, the
daughter of Charles the Bald, a princess only twelve years of age. During
his absence, his son Ethelbald and Bishop Alstan plotted against him,
and on his arrival in England he was compelled to resign the kingdom of
Wessex to the former to prevent a civil war. The aged monarch survived
this partition but two years.
Ethelwulf, by his will, disposed of the kingdom of Kent to his second
son, Ethelbert, and the kingdom of Wessex to Ethelbald, Ethelred, and
Alfred, in order of seniority, and directed his heirs to maintain one
poor person for every tithing in his hereditary lands. He died in 857,
having reigned eighteen years, leaving behind him four sons and one
daughter, who was married to Burhred, King of Mercia, and died at Pavia
in 888. Ethelbald, the eldest son, was already in possession of the
kingdom of Wessex; and Ethelbert, his brother, succeeded to Kent, Essex,
Surrey, and Sussex, comprised under the name of the kingdom of Kent.
Ethelbald, a prince of but little capacity, reigned not quite three years
after his father's death, his brother Ethelbert succeeding him. In the
reign of the last-named king, the Danes once more renewed their ravages
in England, and penetrated as far as Winchester, from which city they
were beaten back to their ships at Southampton by the Aldermen Osric and
Ethelwulf.
On their landing, in the autumn of the same year, in the Isle of Thanet,
Ethelbert offered them a large sum of money to retire, which they
promised to do, but broke faith with him, and commenced ravaging the
kingdom of Kent, and carried off their booty in safety. In 866 Ethelbert
died, and was succeeded by his brother, Ethelred I.
In this reign the Danish invasions assume a more terrible aspect; and
the second period, the transition to which was marked by the wintering
in Sheppey, may be considered to have fully begun. During his short
reign, Ethelred, who was a brave warrior, was engaged in almost incessant
conflict with these savage heathens. The struggle began in 867, when the
brothers Ingvar and Hubba, thirsting, according to a not very probable
legend, to avenge their father, who had been put to death by Ella, the
sub-king of Northumbria, landed in East Anglia, and took York. In the
following year they marched upon Mercia. Nottingham fell; but Ethelred
and his brother Alfred came to the assistance of the Mercian king,
Burhred, and drove the enemy back into Northumberland. This success
was, however, only temporary, for, advancing from York in 870, under
a leader named Guthrum, they conquered East Anglia, and it became a
Danish kingdom. The under-king of East Anglia was named Edmund; he was
defeated near Thetford, and taken prisoner. For his refusal to abjure
Christianity, the barbarians shot at him with arrows while he was bound
to a tree, and at last beheaded him; wherefore Edmund was deservedly
honoured as a saint. Over the whole of East Anglia and Mercia hardly a
church or monastery was left standing. All were committed to the flames.
With East Anglia as a basis of operations, the Danes extended their
advance over parts of England which had as yet escaped. In 871 they
penetrated into Wessex; but here their task was not so easy. Nine great
battles were fought round Reading; some of them being won by the English,
some by the Danes. Of these, the most famous was that of Ashdown, in
which Alfred bore the brunt of the fray, while his brother was praying
for success. At Easter, King Ethelred died, probably from the effects of
a wound. His valour and piety gained for him the title of saint.
The general outlook, when Alfred was chosen king of the English in
succession to his brother, must have been terrible indeed. The Danes,
already masters of Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia, were in the very
heart of the kingdom of Wessex; and, notwithstanding the many battles
Ethelred had fought with them, they were in possession of several towns;
and not only maintained their position in the island, but had reason to
hope they should soon complete the conquest of it. The new monarch had
only been a month on the throne, when he found himself obliged to take
the field against these formidable enemies, who had advanced as far as
Wilton, whither he marched to attack them. Victory for some time inclined
to his side, then suddenly changed in favour of the Danes; but Alfred's
loss was not so considerable as to make him despair, though the victory
certainly belonged to the enemy. He laboured incessantly to put his army
in condition to give them battle again, before they should be reinforced;
they were astonished at his expedition, and, though victorious, sued for
peace, finding themselves unable to continue the war. As they offered to
march out of his dominions, on condition he would not molest them in any
other part of England, Alfred accepted their offer, and gained by this
treaty time to prepare against a new invasion.
The Danes, quitting Wessex, retired to London, which they had taken
during the late war. Ingvar was gone back to Denmark, having left the
command of the army to his brother Hubba, who, being prevented from
attacking Wessex, turned his arms against Mercia. Burhred, its king,
knowing he was unable to resist, since Alfred was bound not to send him
any succours, thought it his wisest course to buy off the Danes with a
sum of money, and save his country from their depredations. Upon the
receipt of the money, they marched towards Northumbria, designing to take
up their quarters with their countrymen; but their provisions running
short, in consequence of the devastations they themselves had made there,
they were under the necessity of returning into Mercia.
Before they had left Northumbria, they deposed Egbert, whom they had
placed on the throne, and put Recsige, a Danish earl, in his room.
Burhred, finding they were come again into his dominions, complained
of their breach of faith; but without regarding his complaints, they
obliged him to give them another considerable sum to save his country
from the destruction it was threatened with; and no sooner was the money
paid, than they fell to plundering and ravaging, and Burhred found
that even his own person was in danger. The fear of falling into their
hands obliged him to abandon his kingdom, and retire to Rome, where he
spent the rest of his days in the English college. Mercia being thus
left without a king, and Alfred being prevented by his own treaty from
lending any assistance, the Danes without difficulty became masters of
that kingdom, and raised Ceolwulf, a servant of Burhred, to the throne,
till they could otherwise dispose of it. Aware of the slight tenure
of his office, the new ruler resolved to make the utmost of his time,
and so oppressed the unhappy Mercians that they suffered more from the
tyranny of their own countryman than from the rapacity of the conquerors.
Meanwhile the Danes were beginning to settle in Northumbria, and Alfred
was employing himself in winning victories over them by sea.
[Illustration: DANISH SHIPS.]
Whilst Alfred flattered himself with the hope of enjoying comparative
peace, new calamities were preparing for his unhappy country. A large
party of Danes, under Guthrum, landed in England, and surprised Wareham
Castle, the strongest fortress in Wessex. The king was obliged to
purchase his retreat. The invaders swore on the holy relics never again
to set foot in Wessex, an oath which they quickly violated. From the very
nature of their government, no treaty could bind the Danes as a nation,
seeing that it was composed of a variety of chiefs and petty powers, who
entered into associations independent of each other. The successful
return of one expedition merely proved an incentive to others of their
countrymen to follow in their track.
[Illustration: THE DANES SAILING UP THE ENGLISH CHANNEL (CIRCA 877).
FROM THE PAINTING BY HERBERT A. BONE.]
[Illustration: ALFRED IN THE NEAT-HERD'S HUT. (_See p._ 42.)]
Alfred, finding it was in vain to conclude treaties with such a
perfidious race of people, resolved to take more effectual measures to
secure himself from their treachery. For this purpose he convened a
general assembly. He represented to them that they had nothing to trust
to but their own valour and courage, to deliver them from their miseries,
and urged upon them the absolute necessity of venturing their lives in
defence of their country, and of sacrificing part of their estates to
preserve the remainder. His eloquent remonstrances having produced the
effect he expected, a force was levied, with which he went after the
enemy, who had taken Exeter. Finding that they could not be dislodged
from the castle, he was once more constrained to treat with the invaders;
and though he could place no great dependence upon their promises, it was
the only way by which he could put an end to a disastrous war. The new
treaty, in which the Danes undertook not to return any more into Wessex,
was somewhat better kept than the former one.
The respite, however, was an exceedingly brief one, and in the year 878
Alfred's fortunes were at their lowest ebb. In the beginning of the
year the Danes fitted out an expedition with great secrecy, the object
of which was to overwhelm Wessex. The attack took place so suddenly
that Alfred was ill prepared to meet it. Chippenham was taken, and the
dispirited English no longer felt courage to prosecute the war. Many
fled, whilst others (and of them not a few) leagued themselves with the
Danes, swearing allegiance to them.
So general was the defection, that the unhappy monarch found himself
deserted by all but a few domestics and faithful friends, who still
adhered to his fallen fortunes. In this extremity, he showed himself
greater, perhaps, than when on the throne, and acted with a prudence
and wisdom which few princes would have found courage to imitate. He
dismissed them all; and, with no other support than his courage and
patriotism, set forth a wanderer, alone, and on foot, in the kingdom he
had so lately reigned over.
Such was his poverty that the uncrowned king was compelled to solicit
shelter in the hut of a neat-herd in the island of Athelney, in
Somersetshire, a remote spot, surrounded by a dangerous marsh, wild and
desolate as his own fortunes, and only to be approached by a single
path, and that but little known. Here the fugitive had time to repair
his shattered health, collect his thoughts, and meditate on plans for
the future delivery of his oppressed and outraged country. Savage and
uninviting as was his retreat, it afforded that which he had most need
of, safety.
It is recorded that, whilst Alfred was an inmate of this abode, the
neat-herd's wife, who did not know him, having occasion to quit the
cottage for a time, set him the task of watching the cakes of rye-bread
which were baking on the fire. The king, whose mind was distracted by far
more important subjects, neglected his instructions, and when the woman
returned she found the cakes blackened and burnt. If tradition speaks
truly, the virago chid him soundly, reproaching him that he was more
ready to eat than to work.
In this miserable concealment the fugitive remained six months, when
fortune, tired of persecuting him, appeared to relent, and once more
smiled upon the efforts of the brave, but hitherto unlucky, English.
Hubba, who had been entrusted by his brother Ingvar with the command of
his troops, had invaded Wales, laying the country in flames, ravaging,
and destroying. He afterwards penetrated into Devonshire, in the kingdom
of Wessex, with a similar intent. At his approach the Alderman of Devon
retreated with a body of determined men to Kenworth Castle, on the river
Taw, in order to withstand them. The Danish chief not long before had
decided on attacking the fortress, believing that the scanty garrison
would surrender at his first summons; in which opinion, however, he
was doomed to find himself mistaken, for the earl, seeing that it was
impossible to defend the place with so few men, however devoted, told
them frankly that one only course was left for them, to conquer and
live free men, or die beneath the swords of their relentless enemy. His
harangue had the desired effect: the English, animated by his words,
sallied forth, and fell upon the Danes so unexpectedly, that before they
could recover from their panic their leader was slain; on seeing which,
his followers fled in all directions. The spot where Hubba fell was
afterwards called Hubblestain, or Hubblelaw, from the monument raised
over his remains by his countrymen.
On hearing the joyful intelligence of this victory, Alfred left his
concealment, and called his friends once more to arms. They assembled
in separate bodies in various parts of the kingdom, establishing such
means of communication as might enable them to join their forces together
at the shortest notice; and here a somewhat mythical story is told. It
is said that the great difficulty was to ascertain the position of the
enemy, which dangerous task the patriot king undertook himself. The
story runs that, disguised as a harper, he made his way into the Danish
camp, and stayed there several days, secretly noting the disposition of
their forces all the while. Having acquainted himself with all he wished
to learn, Alfred returned to his countrymen, and named Selwood Forest
for the general place of meeting. His directions were carried out so
expeditiously, that in a comparatively brief space of time the English
monarch was enabled to attack his enemy at the head of a powerful army,
consisting of the inhabitants of Somersetshire, Wiltshire, and Hampshire.
The Danes, though unexpectedly assailed, defended themselves with their
usual bravery, but at last were entirely routed. They attributed their
defeat to the loss of the raven standard, which had been taken when Hubba
fell, and to which they superstitiously attached magical powers--that it
indicated victory and defeat by clapping or depressing its wings. This
battle was fought at Edington, not far from Trowbridge, in 878.
The consequence of this victory for the English was the Treaty of
Wedmore. By it England was divided between Alfred and Guthrum, the Danish
king of East Anglia, the latter receiving by far the larger part of
England, but the former keeping London. The boundary line ran along the
Thames to the mouth of the Lea, thence to Bedford and the Ouse to Watling
Street. Thus Alfred retained Wessex and the south-west of Mercia, where
he established an alderman, called Ethelred, who married his daughter,
Ethelflæd, shortly to become famous as the "Lady of the Mercians."
Guthrum at this time became a convert to Christianity, and was baptised
under the name of Athelstan. It was not a glorious peace; but the terms
were as good as could be expected, and England was at peace for several
years.
The war was renewed in 893. Shortly before this a body of Danes, headed
by Hastings, earnestly solicited Guthrum to renew the war in Wessex,
but not prevailing, they put to sea, and ravaged the coast of Flanders;
and shortly after, another, and no less numerous troop, informed of
the great booty the first expedition had met with in Kent, embarked to
join them. These two bands, thus united, overran Brabant, Hainault,
Flanders, Picardy, and Artois, perpetrating unheard-of cruelties; after
which, having again divided into two bodies, one of them sailed back to
England, in hopes of plundering the country, where they imagined they
should come unexpected. Having landed in Kent, they marched towards
Rochester, intending to surprise that city; but Alfred, who, contrary
to their expectation, had his army in readiness, hastened to meet them
upon the first notice of their arrival, and his approach was sufficient
to make them fly to their ships with such precipitation that they left
their plunder behind them. His vigilance having prevented their designs
upon England, they returned to France, and, rejoining their companions,
continued their devastations in that kingdom.
Hitherto the English had acted only on the defensive. Exposed to the
continual invasions of the Danes, and uncertain where the enemy would
land, they were generally surprised before it was in their power to
defend themselves; and the sea-coast being uninhabited, there was nothing
to prevent the piratical marauders from landing unopposed. Alfred's first
care, therefore, was to equip a considerable fleet, the advantage of
which he had already experienced, with which he determined to cruise
along the coasts, and attack all Danish ships laden with booty. Sixteen
were surprised in the port of Harwich, in East Anglia, part of which
were captured and the remainder sunk, and a considerable booty was also
obtained.
In 894, the fighting over the south of England was renewed. The Danes,
who, under the conduct of their chief, the celebrated Hastings, had
ravaged France and the Low Countries, where they acquired immense booty,
decided on returning to England, not with the intention of settling
there, but led by the thirst of plunder. Dividing their forces into equal
parts, they set sail for the island. The first expedition reached the
coast of Kent, where they landed, and committed dreadful depredations.
The second, under the command of Hastings, entered the Thames, and landed
at Middleton, making their way to the Severn, where they were defeated by
Alfred's aldermen.
Alfred, who appears to have been in East Anglia at the time of this new
invasion, no sooner received the intelligence than he drew together what
troops he could; and, after receiving the oaths of the Anglian Danes,
marched against the new comers, and defeated another body of the enemy
who were laying siege to Exeter. We have no very distinct accounts of the
wars which ensued. The Danes, under the command of Hastings, returned
to France, perhaps on account of the plague which, about this time, was
committing great ravages in the island. The terror which the name of this
chief inspired had armed all the sea-coasts of France against him; on
discovering which, he resolved to change his course, and steer for the
Mediterranean, where he contrived, by an act of sacrilege and deceit, to
become master of the town of Luna, on the coast of Tuscany. He pretended
that he had merely visited the place in order to gratify his desire of
becoming a Christian, and actually received baptism from the bishop. Some
little time after he caused the simple prelate to be informed that he was
dead, and had left a large sum of money, on condition of his being buried
in the church of Luna. By this stratagem Hastings and a considerable
number of his followers obtained entrance into the town, under pretence
of conducting the funeral, and immediately began to massacre and pillage
the inhabitants. The adventurer ultimately settled in the city of
Chartres, which Charles the Simple, King of France, assigned to him as
the price of peace.
The last battles between Alfred and the Danes occurred in 897, and took
place chiefly by sea, but of their details we know very little. On one
occasion the Danes having penetrated up the river Lea, Alfred diverted
it, and so their ships were stranded. In this year he built a number of
large ships, which were a great improvement on his old navy, both in size
and swiftness, and they doubtless turned the scale in his favour, for the
short remainder of his reign was spent in peace. He was only fifty-two
when he died, in 901, but he had lived a life of almost perpetual strife,
except during the two brief periods of repose after the peace of Wedmore,
and just before his death.
Alfred is one of the most perfect characters in history; not that the
information concerning him is very precise, but that the stories all
point in the same direction, and embody for us the attributes of a brave,
upright, and pious man. He has been accused, but probably unjustly, of
not having sufficient insight into the future, and he was, to a certain
extent, devoid of originality. A characteristic story told of him is that
while he lay concealed in the Isle of Athelney, he made a vow to dedicate
to God the third part of his time, as soon as he should be restored to a
state of tranquillity. He performed his promise, and allotted eight hours
every day to acts of devotion, eight hours to public affairs, and as many
to sleep, study, and necessary refreshment. As the use of clocks and
hour-glasses was not yet introduced into England, he measured the time by
means of wax-candles, marked with circular lines of different colours,
which served as so many hour-lines; and to prevent the wind from making
them burn unsteadily, it is said he invented the expedient of enclosing
them in lanterns.
He also divided his revenues in two parts, one of which was wholly
assigned for charitable uses, and subdivided into four portions: the
first for alms to the poor; the second for the maintenance of the
monasteries he had founded; the third for the subsistence of the teachers
and scholars at Oxford; the fourth for poor monks, foreigners as well as
English. The other half was divided into three parts: one was expended on
his family; another in paying his architects, and other skilled workmen;
and the rest was bestowed in pensions upon strangers invited to his court
for the encouragement and instruction of his subjects.
As a legislator, Alfred by no means accomplished all that has been
attributed to him; indeed, when the facts of his life are considered,
the marvel is that he effected as much as he did towards the improvement
of the moral condition of his subjects. The statements that he divided
England into counties, or that he instituted trial by jury, have long
ago been proved to be baseless. What he actually did was to collect and
codify the laws of that part of England which was under his sway--Kent,
Mercia, and Wessex--preserving on the whole the customs established by
previous legislators, like Ethelbert, Offa, and Ina. "I kept," he says,
"those that seemed to me good, and rejected those that were not good."
Throughout these laws may easily be observed an ardent zeal for justice,
and a sincere desire of rooting out oppression and violence. They were
indeed mild, if compared with those of later ages, seeing they punished
most offences by fines; but the strictness wherewith Alfred caused them
to be observed counterbalanced their lenity. If with respect to private
persons the rigour of the law was somewhat abated, it was not so with
regard to unjust magistrates, for to such Alfred was ever inexorable;
and history informs us that he executed four-and-forty judges within the
space of one year for corruption.
Alfred was, moreover, himself a scholar, and a lover of learned men. As
a scholar, he translated several books from Latin into English, for the
benefit of his subjects. As Professor Freeman observes, his choice was
limited by the fact that heathen authors were held in great dislike,
and he, therefore, did not attempt to acquaint the English people with
the beauties of Horace or Virgil. He translated, however, the _History_
of Orosius, the _Ecclesiastical History_ of Bede, the monk of Jarrow,
which is our main authority for the century and a half that followed the
conversion of England to Christianity, some of the works of Gregory the
Great and Boethius' _Consolations of Philosophy_. This last was a work
written by a Roman while under sentence of death, but there is nothing
in the work to show that he was a Christian, although every one believed
that he was one at the time when Alfred wrote. It is also supposed that
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was put into its present shape in Alfred's
time, in which case we owe him a great debt of gratitude. To regenerate
religion and letters, he drew learned men from other lands, by whose
aid the services of the Church were reanimated, schools were founded,
and English prose, which Alfred, it should be observed, was the first
to write, encouraged. Such men were Asser, who came from Wales, and
who afterwards wrote Alfred's life, Grimbald, and John the Old-Saxon,
who crossed over from the Continent; while nearer home, in Mercia, he
discovered Werfrith and Plegmund who became Archbishop of Canterbury.
[Illustration: THE "LADY OF THE MERCIANS" FIGHTING THE WELSH. (_See p._
46.)]