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[Illustration: _From the painting by W. H. Margetson._
HIS MAJESTY KING EDWARD VII.]
CASSELL'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND
From the Roman Invasion to the Wars of the Roses
With Numerous Illustrations, Including Coloured and Rembrandt Plates
VOL. I
The King's Edition
Cassell and Company, Limited
London, New York, Toronto and Melbourne
MCMIX
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.
THE ROMAN RULE IN BRITAIN. PAGE
Earliest Notices of the British Isles--The Celts--Their
Settlement in Britain--Their Character and Customs--Druidism--Its
Organisation and Authority--Its Tenets--Stonehenge and other
Remains--Cæsar's Preparations--The First Invasion--Peril of
the Romans and their Retirement--The Second Invasion--Cæsar's
Battles with Cassivelaunus--Claudius in Britain--The
Resistance of Caractacus--His Defeat and Capture--His Speech
before Claudius--The Conquest of Anglesea--Boadicea's
Rebellion--The Capture of Camulodunum and London--Her Defeat and
Death--Agricola in Britain--His Campaigns and Administration--His
Campaign against the Caledonians--His Recall--The Walls of
Hadrian and Severus--Rivals to the Emperor--Constantine's
Accession--Christianity in Britain--Invasions of the Picts and
Scots--Dismemberment of the Roman Empire and Departure of the
Romans--Divisions and Administration of Britain under the Romans 2
CHAPTER II.
ROMAN REMAINS IN BRITAIN.
Two Varieties of Masonry--Dover Castle--Richborough
Castle--Newport Gate, Lincoln--Hadrian's Wall--Its Direction and
Construction--Outworks--Ornamental Detail--Roman Roads and Camps 19
CHAPTER III.
THE FOUNDATION OF THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS AND THEIR CONVERSION TO
CHRISTIANITY.
The Jutes, Angles, and Saxons--Their Village Communities--Larger
Combinations, Gradations of Rank--Morality and Religion--Hengist
and Horsa found the Kingdom of Kent--The Kingdoms of Sussex,
Wessex, and Essex--The Anglian Kingdoms--Mercia--The
Welsh--Gregory and St. Augustine--Augustine and Kent--Conversion
of Northumbria--England becomes Christian--The Greatness of
Mercia--King Offa 25
CHAPTER IV.
RISE OF WESSEX AND OF THE SOCIAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND.
Ceawlin and his Successors--Cedwalla--Ina--Subjection to
Mercia--Accession of Egbert--He subdues his Rivals--His Wars with
the Welsh and Danes--Land-owning System--Local Assemblies--The
Hundred Moot--The Shire Moot and its Business--Methods of Trial
and Punishments--The Wergild--The Witena-gemot--Its Powers--The
King--Class Distinctions--The Church 31
CHAPTER V.
THE DANISH INVASIONS AND THE REIGN OF ALFRED.
Character of the Invaders--Reign of Ethelwulf--Reigns of
Ethelbald and Ethelbert--The Conquest of East Anglia--Battles
near Reading--The Accession of Alfred--The Extinction of the
Kingdom of Mercia--The Invasion of Wessex--The Year 878--Alfred
at Athelney--Death of Hubba--Victory of Alfred and the Treaty
of Wedmore--Renewal of the War--Alfred's fleet--Expeditions of
Hastings--Remainder of the Reign--Character of Alfred--His Rules
of Life--His Legislation--Encouragement of Learning 38
CHAPTER VI.
EDWARD THE ELDER AND DUNSTAN.
Settlement of the Danes--Edward the Elder and his
Cousin--Reconquest of the Danelagh--Edward becomes King of
all England--Conspiracy of Alfred against Athelstan--Wars in
Northumbria--The Death of Edwin--The Battle of Brunanburgh--The
Power of Athelstan--Edmund's Wars with the Danes--Their
Submission to Edmund--Rebellion and Reconquest--The Conquest of
Cumberland--Death of Edmund--Final Conquest of Northumberland--The
Rise of Dunstan--His Banishment--Edgar's Rebellion--His Accession
to the Throne--Wars with the Welsh--Dunstan Archbishop of
Canterbury--His Ecclesiastical Policy--The Reign of Edward the
Martyr--Dunstan's Struggles with the Opposition--Death of the King
46
CHAPTER VII.
ETHELRED THE UNREADY.
The Retirement of Dunstan--Character of Ethelred--Sweyn in
Denmark--Character of the Invasions and the Resistance--The
Danegeld--The Arrival of Sweyn--Ethelred's Expedition--The
Massacre of St. Brice's Day--Return of Sweyn--Defeats of the
English--Edric Streona--Failure of the English Fleet--Treacheries
of Edric--Death of St. Alphege--Sweyn's Conquest of
England and his Death--Return of Ethelred and Departure of
Canute--Misgovernment of the King--Canute's Return and the Death
of Ethelred 57
CHAPTER VIII.
EDMUND IRONSIDE AND CANUTE.
A Double Election--Battles of Pen Selwood and
Sherstone--Treacheries of Edric--Division of the Kingdom--Death
of Edmund--Election of Canute--His Treatment of his Rivals--The
four Earldoms--Canute's Marriage with Emma--His Popular
Government--His Expeditions to Northern Europe--Submission of the
King of Scots--Canute at Rome--The Story of his Rebuke to his
Courtiers--His Death 63
CHAPTER IX.
EARL GODWIN AND HAROLD.
Harold and Harthacanute--The Murder of Alfred--Accession of
Harthacanute--His Reconciliation with Godwin--The Punishment
of Worcester--Edward the Confessor--His Election--Influx of
Normans--The Family of Godwin--Conduct of Sweyn--The Outbreak at
Dover--Godwin's Rebellion and Outlawry--William of Normandy's
Visit to England--Godwin's Attempt to Return--His Appearance
in the Thames--His Restoration to Power--Death of Godwin--His
Place taken by Harold--Siward's Invasion of Scotland and his
Death--Death of Leofric and Punishment of Ælfgar--Church Building
of Harold and Edward--Harold's Conquest of Wales--Turbulence of
Tostig--Death of the Atheling Edward--Candidature of Harold 66
CHAPTER X.
THE NORMAN INVASION.
The Normans--Their Settlement in France--Their Gradual
Civilization--Richard the Good--Robert the Devil--William's
earlier years--His Consolidation of Power--Harold's Adventures
in Normandy and the Story of his Oath to William--Death and
Character of Edward--Election of Harold--William's Claims--He
Obtains the Sanction of the Church--His Preparations--Proceedings
of Tostig--Harold's Forces dwindle--Invasion of Tostig and Harold
Hardrada--Battle of Stamford Bridge--Landing of William--Harold in
London--Desertion of Edwin and Morcar--Negotiations--Harold at
Senlac--Account of the Battle--Death of Harold and Discomfiture of
the English--His Burial--Legend of his Escape 75
CHAPTER XI.
ENGLISH AND NORMAN ARCHITECTURE AND CUSTOMS.
Saxon Architecture; Theories about it--Documentary
Evidence--Ancient Churches--Characters of the Saxon
Style--Illustrations from an Anglo-Saxon Calendar--Old
Manuscripts--English Scholarship--Music and the Minstrels--Musical
Instruments--Games and Sports--Costume--The Table--Household
Furniture--Material Condition of the People--Norman
Costumes--Condition of Learning and the Arts--Refinement of the
Normans--The Bayeux Tapestry 83
CHAPTER XII.
THE REIGN OF WILLIAM I.
After Hastings--Election of Edgar Atheling--Submission of London
and Accession of William--Tumult during his Coronation--Character
of his Government--Return to Normandy--Affairs during his
Absence--Suppression of the First English Rebellion--Rebellion in
the North--The Last National Effort--The Reform of the Church--The
Erection of Castles--Plan of a Norman Castle--End of Edwin and
Morcar--"The Last of the Saxons"--Affairs in Maine--Conspiracy of
the Norman Nobles--The Execution of Waltheof--Punishment of Ralph
the Wader--The Story of Walcher of Durham--Expeditions to Scotland
and Wales--Quarrels between William and his Sons--Domesday
Book--The Creation of the New Forest--Punishment of Odo of
Bayeux--The Death of William--Incidents at his Burial--Character
of William 107
CHAPTER XIII.
REIGN OF WILLIAM II.
William's Surname--How he obtained the Throne--Rising in favour
of his Brother Robert--Bishop Odo's Ill-fortune--Surrender of
Rochester Castle--Flight of Odo--Failure of the Conspiracy--Death
of Lanfranc--William's Misrule--Randolf the Firebrand--Appointment
of Anselm to Canterbury--Rufus Invades Normandy--Treaty between
the Brothers--Siege of Mount St. Michael--Malcolm Canmore's
Inroad into England--Building of Castle at Carlisle--Death of
Malcolm--Illness of William--His Treachery towards Robert--Welsh
Marauders--Earl Mowbray's Hard Fortune--The King's Exactions--He
obtains possession of Normandy--The Hunt in the New Forest--Death
of the Red King 123
CHAPTER XIV.
THE FIRST CRUSADE.
The Institution of Chivalry--Affairs in the Holy
Land--Pilgrimages--Persecution of Christians--Peter the
Hermit--Crusade Decided on--Progress of Peter's Mission--The
Council of Clermont--Attitude of Pope Urban--The Truce of
God--Expedition of Walter the Penniless--Excesses of the
Crusaders--Defeat of the Christians by the Turks--Conduct
of the Emperor Alexius--Disaster in Hungary--Geoffrey de
Bouillon--March of his Army--Robert of Normandy and his
Troops--Imprisonment of Hugh of Vermandois--Arrival of Godfrey
before Constantinople--The Byzantine Court--The Church of Santa
Sophia--Scenes of Magnificence--Reception of Godfrey by the
Emperor--Tancred's Army leaves Italy--Bohemond's Submission--Count
Raymond at Constantinople--Arrival of Robert of Normandy--Siege
of Nicæa--Treachery of the Emperor--Severe Struggle with the
Turks--Bravery of Robert--Flight of the Turks--Crusaders'
Sufferings on their March--Siege and fall of Antioch--Defeat
of the Persians--Pestilence at Antioch--Arrival of the
Crusaders before Jerusalem--Fall of the City--Vengeance of the
Crusaders--Godfrey elected King of Jerusalem--Hospitallers and
Templars--Close of the First Crusade 132
CHAPTER XV.
THE REIGN OF HENRY I.
Accession of Henry I.--Robert's Delay in Italy--The Charter
of Liberties--Henry's Popularity--Offers his Hand to
Matilda--Her Lineage--Obstacles to the Marriage--The Church
decides in Favour of it--London at this Period--Coronation
of Matilda--Roger of Salisbury--The Marriage--Punishment of
William's Favourites--Arrival of Robert in Normandy--Prepares
to Attack Henry--Anselm's Services to Henry--Peace effected
between the Brothers--Henry's Dispute with Anselm--Strange Policy
of the Pope--The Dispute Settled--Death of Anselm--The Earl of
Shrewsbury Outlawed--Visit of Robert to England--Campaigns in
Normandy--Robert and Edgar Atheling taken Prisoners--Fate of
Edgar--Captivity and Death of Robert--Normandy in Possession of
Henry--The English King and his Nephew--Return of the King to
England--Betrothal of Henry's Daughter Matilda to the Emperor
of Germany--War with the Welsh--Death of the Queen--Renewed
War in Normandy--Henry before the Council of Rheims--Battle of
Brenneville--Treaty of Peace--Shipwreck and Death of the King's
Son--Henry's Grief--Character of Prince William--More Trouble
in Normandy--The Empress Matilda declared Successor to the
Throne--Her Marriage with the Count of Anjou--Death of William of
Normandy--Last Years of the King's Life--Death of Henry 152
CHAPTER XVI.
REIGN OF KING STEPHEN.
Stephen of Blois--Arrival in England--His Coronation--Pope
Innocent's Letter--Claims of Matilda--The Earl of Gloucester's
Policy--Revolt of the Barons--The King of Scotland Invades
England--The Battle of Northallerton--Outrage on the Bishops of
Salisbury, Lincoln, and Ely--The Synod of Winchester--Landing
of the Empress Matilda--Outbreak of Civil War--Battle at
Lincoln--Defeat and Capture of Stephen--Matilda's Arrogant
Behaviour--Rising of the Londoners and Flight of Matilda--London
Re-occupied by the King's Adherents--Matilda Besieged in
Winchester--Exchange of the Earl of Gloucester for the
King--Stephen Resumes the Crown--Reign of Terror--Siege of
Oxford--Flight of Matilda--Desultory Warfare--Death of the
Earl of Gloucester--Stephen's Quarrel with the Church--The
Interdict Removed--Further Dangers from Normandy--Divorce of
Eleanor--Her Marriage with Prince Henry--Landing of Henry
in England--Unpopularity of the War--Violence and Death of
Eustace--Treaty Arranged between Henry and the King--Death of
Stephen 167
CHAPTER XVII.
THE REIGN OF HENRY II.
Accession of Henry Plantagenet--Royal Entry into
Winchester--Expulsion of the Flemings--Henry's Dealings with
the Barons--Siege of Bridgenorth Castle--The King's Quarrel
with Geoffrey--Henry's Magnificence--War with, and Submission
of, the Welsh--The King in Brittany--Alarm of the King of
France at Henry's Schemes of Aggrandisement--Henry's Designs
on Toulouse--Origin of _Scutage_--Peace with Louis--The People
of Languedoc--Louis' Third Marriage--Fresh Rupture between the
Two Kings--Marriage of Henry's Son and Louis' Daughter--The Two
Popes--Renewed Reconciliation 180
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE REIGN OF HENRY II.(_continued_).--CAREER OF THOMAS BECKET.
Early Life of Becket--Rapid Advance in the King's
Service--Magnificence of his Embassy to Paris--The King, the
Chancellor, and the Beggar--Depravity of the Clergy--Becket's
Reforming Zeal--Appointed Archbishop of Canterbury--Extraordinary
Change in his Habits--At Frequent Issue with the King--The
Council of Clarendon--Becket Defies the King--Popularity
with the People--His Flight from Northampton--Arrival at St.
Omer--Obtains the Support of Louis and the Pope--Henry's Edict
of Banishment--Defeat of the English by the Welsh--Insurrection
in Brittany--Becket Excommunicates his Opponents--Henry's
Anger--The Pope's Action against Becket--Interview between
Becket and the King--The Two Reconciled--Return of Becket
to England--His Christmas Sermon--The King's Fury--The Vow
of the Conspirators--Scene in Becket's House--Murder of the
Archbishop--Henry's Grief--Review of Becket's Career 187
CHAPTER XIX.
THE REIGN OF HENRY II. (_concluded_).
Events in Ireland--The Irish People--Henry's Designs in
Ireland--Nicholas Breakspeare (Pope Adrian IV.)--The King of
Leinster's Outrage--Dermot obtains Henry's Patronage--Siege of
Wexford--Strongbow in Ireland--Siege of Waterford--Henry and the
Norman Successes in Ireland--Arrival of Henry near Waterford--His
Court in Dublin--The King Returns to England--His Eldest Son
Rebels--The Younger Henry at the French Court--The English King's
Measures of Defence--Defeat of the Insurgent Princes--Success of
the King's Cause in England--Henry's Penance--Capture of King
William of Scotland--Revival of Henry's Popularity--The King
Forgives his Rebellious Sons--Period of Tranquillity--Fresh
Family Feuds--The King at Limoges--Death of Princes Henry and
Geoffrey--Affairs in Palestine--The Pope's Call to Arms for the
Cross--The Saladin Tithe--Richard's Quarrel with his Father--Henry
Sues for Peace--The Conference at Colombières--Death of the
King--Richard before his Father's Corpse--Character of Henry
II.--The Story of Fair Rosamond 199
CHAPTER XX.
NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.
Introduction of Norman Architecture--Remains of
Saxon Work--Canterbury Cathedral--St. Albans and
other Edifices--Periods of Norman Architecture--Its
Characteristics--Towers--Windows--Doorways--Porches--Arches--Piers
and Pillars--Capitals--Mouldings and Ornaments 212
CHAPTER XXI.
REIGN OF RICHARD I.: THE THIRD CRUSADE.
Richard's Show of Penitence--His Coronation--Massacre of the
Jews--Results of the Second Crusade--Richard raises Money
for the Third Crusade--The Regency--Departure for the Holy
Land--The Sicilian Succession--The Quarrel concerning Joan's
Dower--Richard's Prodigality--His Interview with the Monk,
Joachim--Treachery of Philip, and Richard's Repudiation of
Alice--Richard's Betrothal to Berengaria--Adventures on the
Coast of Cyprus, and the Conquest of the Island--The Siege of
Acre and its Fall--Dissension between Richard and Philip, and
Return of the Latter to France--Massacre of Prisoners on Both
Sides--The Battle of Azotus--Occupation of Jaffa--The Advance
towards Jerusalem--Quarrels among the Crusaders, and Negotiations
with Saladin--Chivalry of Saladin--Death of Conrad, and Charges
brought against Richard--Last Advance upon Jerusalem--Battle of
Jaffa--Truce with Saladin 217
CHAPTER XXII.
REIGN OF RICHARD I. (_concluded_).
Shipwreck of Richard--His Arrival in Austria--His Capture
by the Archduke Leopold--He is surrendered to the Emperor
of Germany--Events in England--Renewed Persecution of the
Jews--The Massacre at York--Quarrel between Longchamp and
Pudsey--Stories about Longchamp--His Rupture with John,
and Temporary Compromise--Imprisonment of Geoffrey of
York--Longchamp takes Refuge in the Tower--His Deposition and
Flight to France--Intrigues between John and Philip--Rumours of
Richard's Imprisonment--The Story of Blondel--Richard before
the Diet--Loyalty of Richard's Subjects, and Collection of
the Ransom--Richard's Reception in England--His Expedition
to France--Administration of Hubert Walter--William
Fitz-Osbert--Recommencement of Hostilities with France--The Bishop
of Beauvais--Defeat of Philip--Death of Richard before Chaluz--His
Character 235
CHAPTER XXIII.
JOHN AND THE GREAT CHARTER.
Accession of John--His Position--Arthur of Brittany--Peace
between John and Philip of France--John's Marriage with
Isabella of La Marche--Rupture with France--The Struggle
Begins--Capture of Arthur--The Stories of his Death--The Loss
of Normandy--Peace with Philip--Quarrel with the Pope--The
Kingdom Laid under an Interdict, and Excommunication of
John--John's Desperate Measures--Expedition to Ireland--John
is deposed--Arrival of Pandulph in England--Surrender of the
Kingdom to the Pope--Successes of John--Langton Arrives in
England--He Becomes Leader of the Baronial Party--The Battle of
Bouvines--Insurrection in England--The Barons Confront John--His
Intrigues--Meeting at Brackley--Occupation of London--The
Meeting at Runnymede--Greatness of the Occasion--Provisions of
the Charter--Duplicity of John--Siege of Rochester--John in the
North--His Cause Supported by the Church--The Crown offered
to Louis of France--He Enters London--Sieges of Dover and
Windsor--Reported Conspiracy--John's Disaster at the Wash--His
Death and Character 251
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE REIGN OF HENRY III.
Accession of the King--Renewal of the Great Charter--Messages
of Conciliation--Battle of Lincoln--Destruction of the French
Fleet--Departure of Louis--Reduction of Albemarle--Resumption
of the Royal Castles--War with France--Characters of Richard
of Cornwall and Henry III.--Fall of Hubert de Burgh--Peter des
Roches--Henry is his own Minister--The House of Provence--The
King's Marriage Articles--The Marriage and Entry into
London--Influx of Foreigners--Papal Aggressions--Persecution of
the Jews--Oppression of the Londoners--A Religious Ceremony 277
CHAPTER XXV.
THE REIGN OF HENRY III. (_concluded_).
The King's Misfortunes Abroad and Exactions at Home--Ambition
and Rapacity of the Church of Rome--The Council of Lyons--The
Kingdom of Sicily--Henry Accepts the Crown for his Son--Consequent
Extortions--Richard becomes King of the Romans--Disputes between
the King and the Barons--Simon de Montfort--He becomes Leader
of the National Party--The Mad Parliament and the Provisions of
Oxford--Banishment of Aliens--Government of the Barons--Peace
with France--Henry is Absolved from the Provisions of Oxford--The
Barons Oppose Him--Outbreak of Hostilities--The Award of
Amiens--The Battle of Lewes--The Mise of Lewes--Supremacy of
Leicester--The Exiles Assemble at Damme--The Parliament of
1265--Escape of Prince Edward--Battle of Evesham and Death
of De Montfort--Continuance of the Rebellion--The Dictum de
Kenilworth--Parliament of Marlborough--Prince Edward goes on
Crusade--Deaths of Henry D'Almaine, Richard of Cornwall, and the
King--Character of Henry 290
CHAPTER XXVI.
ARCHITECTURE OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.
Transition from Norman to Gothic Architecture--The Period of
Change--The Early English Style--Examples and Characteristics
of the Style--Towers--Windows--Doorways--Porches--Buttresses
--Pillars--Arches--Mouldings and Ornaments--Fronts 314
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE REIGN OF EDWARD I.
Accession of Edward--His Adventures while on Crusade--Death of
St. Louis--Arrival of Edward at Acre--Fall of Nazareth--Events
at Acre--Departure from Palestine--Edward in Italy--The
"Little Battle of Châlons"--Dealings with the Flemings--Edward
lands at Dover--Persecution of the Jews--Edward's Designs on
Wales--Character of the Welsh--Rupture with Llewelyn--Submission
of the Welsh--Conduct of David--Second Welsh Rising--Death
of Llewelyn--Execution of David--Annexation of Wales--Edward
on the Continent--Sketch of Scottish History--Attack of
the Norwegians--Deaths in the Royal Family--Death of
Alexander--Candidature of Robert Bruce--Death of the Maid of
Norway--Candidates for the Throne--Meeting at Norham--Edward's
Supremacy Acknowledged--He Decides in Favour of Balliol 319
CHAPTER XXVIII.
REIGN OF EDWARD I. (_concluded_).
Banishment of the Jews--Edward's Restorative Measures--Edward's
Continental Policy--Quarrel with France--Undeclared War--Edward
Outwitted by Philip--Re-conquest of Wales--The War with
France--Position of Balliol--He is placed under Restraint--Edward
Marches Northwards--Fall of Berwick--Battle of Dunbar--Submission
of Balliol and Scotland--Settlement of Scotland--Sir William
Wallace--He heads the National Rising--Robert Bruce joins
him--Submission of the Insurgents--Battle of Stirling
Bridge--Invasion of England--Edward Defeats Wallace at
Falkirk--Regency in Scotland--Oppression of the Clergy--The
Barons refuse to help Edward--The Expedition to Flanders--A
Constitutional Struggle--Peace with France--The Pope claims
Scotland--Defeat of the English--Edward's Vengeance--Capture
and Death of Wallace--Bruce takes his place--Death of
Comyn--Defeats of the Scots--Death of Edward--His Character and
Legislation--Sketch of the growth of the English Parliament 335
CHAPTER XXIX.
REIGN OF EDWARD II.
Character of the new King--Piers Gaveston--The King's
Marriage--Gaveston is Dismissed to Ireland--His
Return--Appointment of the Lords Ordainers--Their
Reforms--Gaveston Banished--His Reappearance--Rebellion of
the Nobles and Death of Gaveston--Successes of Bruce in
Scotland--The Battle of Bannockburn--The Establishment of
Scottish Independence--Edward Bruce in Ireland--Power of
Lancaster--The Despensers--They are Banished--Sudden Activity of
the King--Battle of Boroughbridge--The King's Vengeance--Peace
with Scotland--Conspiracies against Edward--Machinations
of the Queen--She Lands in England--Edward is Deserted and
taken Prisoner--Dethronement of Edward--Indignation against
Isabella--Murder of Edward--The Lessons of the Reign--Abolition of
the Templars 363
CHAPTER XXX.
THE REIGN OF EDWARD III.
The Regency--War with Scotland--Edward is Baffled--Peace with
Scotland, and Death of Bruce--Kent's Conspiracy--Overthrow
of Mortimer--Edward assumes Authority--Relations with
Scotland--Balliol Invades Scotland--Battle of Dupplin
Moor--Edward supports Balliol--Battle of Halidon Hill--Scottish
Heroines--Preparations for War with France--The Claims
of Edward--Real Causes of the Quarrel--Alliances and
Counter-Alliances--Edward Lands in Flanders--Is Deserted by
his Allies and Returns to England--Battle of Sluys--Dispute
with Stratford--The Breton Succession Question--Renewal of the
War--Derby in Guienne--Edward Lands in Normandy--Battle of Creçy
387
CHAPTER XXXI.
EDWARD III. (_concluded_).
Siege of Calais--Battle of Neville's Cross--Capture of
the Scottish King--Institution of the Garter--The Black
Death--Disturbances in France excited by the King of
Navarre--Battle of Poitiers--The King of France taken Prisoner
and brought to England--Disorders in France--Affairs in
Scotland--Fresh Invasion of France--The Peace of Bretigny--Return
of King John to France--Disorders of that Kingdom--The Free
Companies--Expedition of the Black Prince into Castile--Fresh
Campaign in France--Decline of the English Power there--Death of
the Black Prince--Death of Edward III.--Character of his Reign and
State of the Kingdom 420
CHAPTER XXXII.
THE REIGN OF RICHARD II.
Accession of the King--Attitude of John of Gaunt--Patriotic
Government--Insurrection of the Peasantry--John Ball--The
Poll-tax--Wat Tyler--The Attack on London--The Meeting
at Mile End--Death of Wat Tyler, and Dispersion of the
Insurgents--Marriage of the King--Expedition of the Bishop of
Norwich--Death of Wycliffe--Unpopularity of Lancaster--He Retires
to Spain--Gloucester Attacks the Royal Favourites--Committee of
Reform--The Lords Appellant--The Wonderful Parliament--Richard
sets Himself Free--His Good Government--Expedition to
Ireland--Marriage with Isabella of France--The King's
Vengeance--Banishment of Hereford and Norfolk--Arbitrary
Rule of the King--His Second Visit to Ireland--Return of
Hereford--Deposition and Murder of Richard 449
CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE SOCIAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
Power of the Church--Ecclesiastical Legislation--Rapacity
of the Papacy--Resistance of the Clergy--The Bull "Clericis
Laicos"--Contests between the Civil and Ecclesiastical
Power--The Scottish Church--Literature, Science and Art--State
of Learning--The Nominalists and Realists--Medicine--The
Universities--Men of Learning and Science--Roger Bacon
and his Contemporaries--Historians--Growth of the English
Language--Poetry--Architecture--The Early Decorated Style
and its Characteristics--Domestic Buildings--Sculpture and
Painting--Music--Commerce, Coinage, and Shipping--Manners,
Customs, Dress, and Diversions 486
CHAPTER XXXIV.
REIGN OF HENRY IV.
His Coronation--The Insecurity of his Position--He courts the
Clergy and the People--Sends an Embassy to France--Conspiracy
to Assassinate him--Death of King Richard--Rumours of his
Escape to Scotland--Expedition into Scotland--Revolt of
Owen Glendower--Battle of Homildon Hill--The Conspiracy
of the Percies--The Battle of Shrewsbury, where they are
Defeated--Northumberland Pardoned--Accumulating Dangers--Second
Rebellion of the Percies with the Archbishop of York--The
North Reduced--The War in Wales--Earl of Northumberland flies
thither--The Plague--Battle of Bramham Moor--Reduction of the
Welsh--Expedition into France--Death of Henry 515
CHAPTER XXXV.
THE REIGN OF HENRY V.
Character of the King--Oldcastle's Rebellion--Attempts
to Reform the Church--Henry's Reasons for the French
War--Distracted Condition of France--Henry's Claims on the French
Throne--Conspiracy of Cambridge--Fall of Harfleur--The March to
Calais--The Battle-field of Agincourt--Events of the Battle--Visit
of Sigismund to England--French Attack on Harfleur--Anarchy in
France--Alliance between the Queen and the Burgundians--Henry's
Second Invasion--Final Rebellion and Death of Oldcastle--Reduction
of Lower Normandy--Siege and Capture of Rouen--Negotiations for
Peace--Henry Advances on Paris--Murder of Burgundy--His Son Joins
Henry--Treaty of Troyes--Defeat of the English at Beaugé--Henry in
Paris--His Death 545
CHAPTER XXXVI.
HENRY VI.
Arrangements during the Minority--Condition of France--Death of
Charles VI.--Bedford's Marriage--Battle of Crévant--Release of
the Scottish King--Battle of Verneuil--Gloucester's Marriage
and its Consequences--Rivalry of Gloucester and Beaufort--Siege
of Orleans--Battle of the Herrings--Joan of Arc--The March to
Orleans--Relief of the Town--March to Rheims--Coronation of
Charles--The Repulse from Paris--Capture of the Maid--Her Trial
and Death--Coronation of Henry--Bedford Marries again--Congress
of Arras--Death of Bedford--The Tudors--Contests between Beaufort
and Gloucester--Henry's Marriage--Deaths of Gloucester and
Beaufort--Disasters in France--Fall and Death of Suffolk 576
[Illustration: IONA CATHEDRAL.]
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Landing of the Romans on the Coast of Kent 1
Stonehenge 4
Stonehenge (restored) 4
Druids inciting the Britons to oppose the Landing of the Romans 5
Julius Cæsar 8
Caractacus before Claudius 9
Britons with Coracle 12
Roman Soldiers passing over a Bridge of Boats 13
Roman Soldiers leaving Britain 17
Coins of the Roman Republic and the Empire 20
Newport Gate, Lincoln 21
Transverse Section of the Roman Wall 22
Longitudinal View of the Roman Wall 22
Cornice from Vendalana (Chesterholm) 22
Capital from Cilurnum (Walwick Chesters) 23
Doorway from Bird-Oswald 23
Roman Masonry at Colchester 23
Basement of Station on the Roman Wall 23
Roman Urns 24
Glastonbury Abbey 25
Treaty of Hengist and Horsa with Vortigern 28
Edwin of Northumbria and the Christian Missionaries 32
Meeting of the Shire-Moot 33
Map of England showing the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms and
Danish Districts 37
Danish Ships 40
Alfred in the Neat-Herd's Hut 41
The "Lady of the Mercians" Fighting the Welsh 45
Ethelwulf's Ring 48
Anlaff entering the Humber 49
Dunstan rebuking Edwy in the Presence of Elgiva 52
Edgar the Peaceable being rowed Down the Dee by eight
Tributary Princes 53
Assassination of Edward the Martyr 56
Crucifixion of St. Peter and Martyrdom of other Saints 57
Martyrdom of Alphege 61
Meeting of Edmund Ironside and Canute on the Island of Olney 64
The Riot at Dover 69
The Death of Siward 72
Taking Sanctuary 73
Harold taken Prisoner by the Count of Ponthieu 76
Pevensey Castle 77
William I., surnamed the Conqueror 80
Death of Harold at the Battle of Hastings 81
Gateway of Battle Abbey 84
Building of the Tower of Babel 85
Tower of Sompting Church 86
Window (Saxon) of Deerhurst Church, Gloucester 87
Window (Saxon) of Jarrow Church, Durham 87
Doorway (Saxon) of Barnack Church, Northamptonshire 87
Anglo-Saxon Calendar 88
Anglo-Saxon Calendar 89
Anglo-Saxon Calendar 90
Saxon Calendar 91
Fragment of Copy of the Evangelists, in Latin 91
First Two Lines of Horace's Ode to Mæcenas 92
English Writing of the Sixth Century 92
English Dinner Party 92
Gleemen Juggling 93
Balancing 93
Musical Instruments 93
Dance with Lyre and Double Flute 93
Grand Organ, with Bellows and Double Keyboard 94
Harp of the Ninth Century 94
English Game of Bowls 95
Ladies Hunting 95
Norman Costumes of the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries 96
Hawking Party in the Eleventh Century 97
Hawking 98
Harold 98
Umbrella for Hawks 98
The Lure 99
Sword Play 99
Ancient Quintain 99
Bob Apple 100
Saxon Costumes 100
Saxon Costumes 100
English Crowns 100
English Shoes 101
English Dinner Party 101
Cloak-pin, Buckle, and Pouch of the Twelfth Century 101
Early English Candlestick 102
English Bed 102
Chairs 102
Saxon Comb and Comb-Case 102
Norman Vessel of the Twelfth Century 103
Norman Soldiers 103
Norman Bowmen of the Eleventh Century 103
Woman Spinning 104
Sacramental Wafer Box of the Twelfth Century 104
Incidents copied from the Bayeux Tapestry 105
Incidents copied from the Bayeux Tapestry 106
Great Seal of William I. 109
Plan of a Norman Castle 112
Norman and Saxon Arms 114
Waltheof's Confession 116
Robert asking His Father's Pardon 120
Fitz-Arthur forbidding the Burial of William 121
Departure of Bishop Odo from Rochester 124
William II., surnamed Rufus 125
Great Seal of William II. 128
Surrender of Bamborough Castle 129
St. Helena discovering the True Cross 132
Initiation into the Order of Knighthood 133
Pope Urban II. preaching the First Crusade in the Market-Place
of Clermont 136
The Mosque of Santa Sophia, Constantinople 137
Bird's-Eye View of Christian Constantinople 140
Circus and Hippodrome of Christian Constantinople 141
Statue of Godfrey de Bouillon, Brussels 144
Robert of Normandy rallying the Crusaders 145
Throne of the Emperor of Constantinople 147
Costume of Empress of Constantinople 147
Procession of the Crusaders round the Walls of Jerusalem 148
Pilgrim, Palmer, Hospitaller, Templar Knight, and Conventual
Templar 149
Great Seal of Henry I. 153
Robert of Normandy paying Court to the Lady Sibylla 156
Marriage of Henry I. and Matilda 157
Duke Robert's Son before King Henry 161
Shipwreck of Prince William 164
Henry I. 165
Stephen 168
Great Seal of Stephen 169
Silver Penny of Stephen 172
Interview between the Empress Matilda and Queen Maud 173
Flight of Matilda from Oxford Castle 176
Great Seal of Henry II. 177
English Costumes in the Time of Henry II. 181
Silver Penny of Henry II. 183
Heroism of St. Clair at the Siege of Bridgenorth Castle 184
Becket before his Enemies in the Council Hall at Northampton 185
Henry II. 189
Repulse of the English at Corwen 192
Interview between Becket and King Henry 193
The Murder of Becket in Canterbury Cathedral 197
The Siege of Waterford 200
Henry on His Way to Becket's Tomb 205
Henry receiving the News of John's Treachery 209
Crown of the Twelfth Century 211
St. Clement's, Sandwich, showing the Norman Tower 212
The Chapel in the White Tower, Tower of London 213
Portion of Doorway, Durham Cathedral 215
Castle Rising, Norfolk 216
Richard I. 217
Coronation of Richard in Westminster Abbey: the Procession
along the Aisle 220
View in Genoa: the Dogana 221
Isaac of Cyprus begging for the Release of His Daughter 225
Richard at the Battle of Azotus 228
Fountain near Jaffa 229
Jaffa, from the Sands 232
Richard landing at Jaffa 233
Richard assailed by the Austrian Soldiers 237
Arrest of Archbishop Geoffrey in a Monastery at Dover 240
South-West View of Old St. Paul's, showing the Chapter-House,
&c. 241
Great Seal of Richard I. 244
Reception of Richard on His Return from the Continent 245
Map of the English Possessions in France 248
Bertrand in Presence of Richard 249
John 253
Great Seal of John 256
Murder of Prince Arthur 257
Interior of Rouen Cathedral 261
John doing Homage to the Pope's Legate 264
St. Peter's Church, Northampton 265
John refusing to sign the Articles of the Barons 269
Runnymede, from Cooper's Hill 272
Specimen of the Writing of the Great Charter 273
The Disaster to John's Army at the Wash 276
Winchester Cathedral 277
Defeat of the French Fleet in the English Channel 281
Great Seal of Henry III. 284
Banquet at the Marriage of Henry and Eleanor of Provence 285
Henry III. 288
Silver Penny of Henry III. 292
Gold Penny of Henry III. 292
View in Sicily: the Amphitheatre, Syracuse 293
Henry's Quarrel with De Montfort 296
The Barons submitting their Demands to Henry 297
Oxford Castle 301
Flight of Queen Eleanor: the Scene at London Bridge 304
Lewes (Sussex) 305
Battle of Evesham: King Henry in Danger 309
Prince Edward introducing Adam Gourdon to the Queen 312
Interior of the Temple Church, London 313
The Choir of Lincoln Cathedral 317
Capital from Salisbury Cathedral 318
Capital from Lincoln Cathedral 318
Tooth Ornament from Lincoln Cathedral 318
View in Tunis 321
Great Seal of Edward I. 324
Edward I. 325
Llewelyn's Last Fight 328
Edward presenting his Infant Son to the Welsh 329
Norham Castle 333
Earl Warrenne showing his Title to his Estates 336
The Sailors' Quarrel near Bayonne 337
The Coronation Chair and "Stone of Destiny," Westminster Abbey 341
The Abbot of Arbroath before King Edward 344
The Abbey Craig and Wallace Monument, near Stirling, with the
Ochil Hills 345
Revolt of the Barons against the King 349
Penny of Edward I. Groat of Edward I. Halfpenny of Edward I. 352
Dunfermline Abbey and Church 353
Wallace on his Way to Westminster Hall 356
Capture of Bruce's Wife and Daughter at Tain 357
South Transept, Westminster Abbey 361
Great Seal of Edward II. 364
Edward II. 365
Piers Gaveston and the Barons 368
Piers Gaveston before the Earl of Warwick 369
The Bore-Stone, Bannockburn, in which Bruce planted his
Standard 372
Bannockburn: Bruce reviewing his Troops before the Battle 373
The Auld Brig, Stirling 376
Halfpenny of Edward II. Penny of Edward II. 377
Escape of Roger Mortimer from the Tower 381
Berkeley Castle 385
Great Seal of Edward III. 388
Robert Bruce's last Orders to Douglas 392
Melrose Abbey 393
Edward III. 396
Interrupting Balliol's Christmas Dinner 397
Black Agnes at the Siege of Dunbar Castle 401
Porch of the Golden Virgin: Amiens Cathedral 404
The Countess De Montfort inciting the People of Rennes to
resist the French King 409
The Church of St. Etienne: Caen 413
Edward the Black Prince 416
The Black Prince at the Battle of Creçy 417
View in Calais: Rue de la Citadelle showing the Belfry 421
Queen Philippa interceding for the Burgesses of Calais 425
Edward receiving King John of France 429
Coins of the Reign of Edward III. 432
The Church of Notre Dame, Calais 433
The Cathedral, Coutances 436
Marcel and the Dauphin of France 437
The Black Prince and the French King's Herald 441
John Wycliffe appearing in St. Paul's Cathedral to answer the
Charge of Heresy 445
Alice Perrers at the Death-bed of Edward III. 448
John Wycliffe 453
Great Seal of Richard II. 456
One of Wycliffe's "Poor Priests" preaching to the People 457
Coins of the Reign of Richard II. 461
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster 465
Betrothal of the Princess Isabella to Richard 469
Arrest of the Duke of Gloucester 473
The Tower of London: the White Tower 480
Conway Castle 481
Arrest of King Richard 485
Costume of Bishop of the Fourteenth Century 488
Facsimile of part of the First Chapter of St. John's Gospel in
Wycliffe's Bible 489
The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Century Colleges of Oxford
University 493
Geoffrey Chaucer 497
Queen Eleanor's Cross, Northampton 499
Window from Meopham 500
Window from St. Mary's, Beverley 500
Decorated Capital, from Selby 501
Ball Flower, with Roll Moulding and Hollow 502
Four-leaved Flower, with Filleted, Round, and Hollow moulding 502
Minstrels at a Banquet in the Fourteenth Century 504
Fair at Westminster in the Fourteenth Century 505
English Ships of the Fourteenth Century 509
Costumes of the Fourteenth Century 512
English Merrymaking in the Fourteenth Century: riding at the
Quintain 513
Henry IV. 517
Great Seal of Henry IV. 520
Arrest of the Conspirators at Cirencester 521
Charge of the Scots at Homildon Hill 525
Warkworth Castle 529
Shilling of Henry IV. 532
The French Fleet arriving at Milford Haven 533
The Dukes of Orleans and Burgundy, at the Church of the
Augustines 537
Prince Henry before Judge Gascoigne 541
King at Table (Fourteenth Century) 544
Great Seal of Henry V. 545
Henry V. 549
The English before Harfleur 553
The Thanksgiving Service on the Field of Agincourt 557
Reception of the Emperor Sigismund 561
Rouen from St. Catherine's Hill 564
Cardinal Orsini's Visit to Henry 565
Henry's Wooing of the Princess Catherine 569
Monmouth Castle (Birthplace of Henry V.) 573
Henry VI. 577
Rothesay Castle 581
Great Seal of Henry VI. 584
Escape of Jacqueline 585
Joan of Arc before Charles 589
The Cathedral, Rheims 593
Trial of Joan of Arc 596
Place de la Pucelle, Rouen 597
Denbigh 601
Angel of Henry VI. 604
Arrest of the Duke of Suffolk 605
LIST OF PLATES
ILLUMINATED TITLE PAGE.
KING JOHN GRANTING MAGNA CHARTA. (_By Ernest Normand_) _Frontispiece_
PHŒNICIANS BARTERING WITH THE ANCIENT BRITONS.
(_By Lord Leighton_) _To face p._ 2
"THE ROMANS CAUSE A WALL TO BE BUILT FOR THE PROTECTION
OF THE SOUTH." (_By W. Bell Scott, R.H.A._) " 15
THE DANES SAILING UP THE ENGLISH CHANNEL.
(_By Herbert A. Bone_) " 41
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR GRANTING A CHARTER TO THE CITIZENS
OF LONDON. (_By J. Seymour Lucas, R.A._) " 118
PETER THE HERMIT PREACHING THE FIRST CRUSADE.
(_By James Archer, R.S.A._) " 135
CRUSADERS ON THE MARCH.
(_By Sir John Gilbert, R.A., P.R.W.S._) " 150
THE BATTLE OF THE STANDARD.
(_By Sir John Gilbert, R.A., P.R.W.S._) " 177
MAP OF THE PLANTAGENET DOMINIONS IN FRANCE, A.D. 1185 " 206
ST. BERNARD PREACHING THE SECOND CRUSADE.
(_By James Archer, R.S.A._) " 219
PRINCE ARTHUR AND HUBERT. (_By W.F. Yeames, R.A._) " 257
THE TRIAL OF SIR WILLIAM WALLACE.
(_By Daniel Maclise, R.A._) " 354
QUEEN PHILIPPA INTERCEDING FOR THE BURGHERS OF CALAIS.
(_By J.D. Penrose_) " 426
INTERVIEW OF RICHARD II. WITH HIS UNCLE, THE DUKE OF
GLOUCESTER, AT THE CASTLE OF PLESHY, IN ESSEX.
(_From the Froissart MS. in the British Museum_) " 449
TOURNAMENT AT ST. INGLEVERE, NEAR CALAIS.
(_From the Froissart MS. in the British Museum_) " 465
THE CHARITY OF WHITTINGTON.
(_By Henrietta Rue--Mrs. Normand_) " 478
THE CORONATION OF HENRY IV. IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
(_From the Froissart MS. in the British Museum_) " 515
THE MORNING OF AGINCOURT.
(_By Sir John Gilbert, R.A., P.R.W.S._) " 554
[Illustration: _From the Design for the Cartoon in the Royal Exchange._
KING JOHN GRANTING MAGNA CHARTA.
BY ERNEST NORMAND.]
CASSELL'S ILLUSTRATED
HISTORY OF ENGLAND
[Illustration: LANDING OF THE ROMANS ON THE COAST OF KENT. (_See p._ 6.)]
CHAPTER I.
THE ROMAN RULE IN BRITAIN.
Earliest Notices of the British Isles--The Celts--Their
Settlement in Britain--Their Character and Customs--Druidism--Its
Organisation and Authority--Its Tenets--Stonehenge and other
Remains--Cæsar's Preparations--The First Invasion--Peril of
the Romans and their Retirement--The Second Invasion--Cæsar's
Battles with Cassivelaunus--Claudius in Britain--The
Resistance of Caractacus--His Defeat and Capture--His Speech
before Claudius--The Conquest of Anglesea--Boadicea's
Rebellion--The Capture of Camulodunum and London--Her Defeat and
Death--Agricola in Britain--His Campaigns and Administration--His
Campaign against the Caledonians--His Recall--The Walls of
Hadrian and Severus--Rivals to the Emperor--Constantine's
Accession--Christianity in Britain--Invasions of the Picts and
Scots--Dismemberment of the Roman Empire and Departure of the
Romans--Divisions and Administration of Britain under the Romans.
Separated from the continent of Europe by the sea, the British isles
were not known to the nations of antiquity until a somewhat late date.
Herodotus was ignorant of their existence; but Strabo, a contemporary of
Cæsar, tells us that the Carthaginians had for a long period carried on
a considerable commerce with the Cassiterides, or tin-islands, which are
usually identified with the Scilly islands, and doubtless included also
part of the Cornish coast. Again, Pytheas, a merchant of Marseilles, who
lived about 332 B.C., visited this country in the course of his life, and
fragments of his diary are still extant. He seems to have coasted round a
considerable portion of what is now England, and his observations on the
inhabitants are singularly acute. About two centuries later, Posidonius,
another Greek traveller, visited Belerion, as he called it--that is,
Cornwall; but, until the invasion of Cæsar, the extent of these islands,
their main geographical features, and the tribes that inhabited them,
were practically a matter of more or less complete ignorance to the
civilised world that dwelt round the shores of the Mediterranean.
From the narrative of Cæsar, we gather that the bulk of the population of
England, Scotland, and Wales at the time of his invasion was of Celtic
origin; that is, it belonged to one of the branches of the great family
of nations which is commonly known as the Indo-European, or Aryan, and
which includes the Celts, the Greeks and Italians, the Germans, the
Lithuanians and Slavs in Europe; and in Asia the Armenians, Persians,
and the chief peoples of Hindustan. Of the Aryan nations, the Celts were
probably the first to arrive in Europe from the East, though the date
of their migration is purely conjectural. They pushed across the great
central plateau, until the vanguard reached the ocean; and at first
probably occupied a very large portion of Europe, but, being driven
out by the stronger Germans, were gradually confined to the Iberian
peninsula, France, Switzerland, and the British isles.
As it is impossible to fix the date of the Celtic migration into Europe,
so it is equally impossible to conjecture the when and why of the Celtic
invasion of Britain. It is pretty certain that they found other races
here on their arrival; and that they did not succeed by any means in
thoroughly exterminating them. It has been surmised, indeed, that the
Silures, who played a prominent part in the resistance to the Romans, and
who inhabited the south of Wales and Monmouthshire, belonged to some more
primitive race than the Celts. After the Celts, in the same way came the
Belgæ, who were of German origin, and who settled on the southern coast.
But the mass of the population was, as we have said, purely Celtic, and
was composed of two large divisions--the Gaels, who dwelt on the northern
and western coasts of what are now called England and Scotland, and over
the great part of Ireland; and the Britons, who occupied the country
south of the Friths of Forth and Clyde, with the exception of what is now
Hampshire and Sussex, where dwelt the Belgæ.
It was with the Britons, therefore, that the Romans were chiefly
concerned, and we would fain have some information of their manners and
customs other than that derived from the enemy, impartial though Cæsar
and Tacitus were. But there was no British historian to chronicle the
mighty deeds of the Celtic warriors, or to describe the home-life of
the people. The picture we are able to construct, therefore, is derived
almost entirely from the Romans; nevertheless, it is a fairly complete
one. They describe a tall and finely built race, recklessly brave,
strikingly patriotic, and faithful to the family tie; courteous also in
manner, and eloquent of speech, and very fond of novelty, especially
when it took the form of the arrival of a stranger in the village. At the
same time the Britons were an unpractical race, never constant to any one
object, quarrelsome amongst themselves, and utterly unable to combine
against a common enemy.
[Illustration: PHŒNICIANS BARTERING WITH THE ANCIENT BRITONS.
FROM THE WALL PAINTING BY LORD LEIGHTON, IN THE ROYAL EXCHANGE.]
Such was the moral character of the Britons. They dwelt in villages, in
which the cottages were wattled and thatched with straw, and in time of
danger repaired to a fortified and entrenched stronghold, or _dun_. The
name of London records the site of one of these ancient places of refuge.
They had large quantities of cattle, and grew corn, which they stored,
in some districts at any rate, underground. Their breed of hunting dogs
was also celebrated. Pytheas informs us that they made a drink of mixed
wheat and honey, which is still drunk in part of Wales under the name of
mead; while other writers, probably deriving their information from him,
tell us that they drank another liquor made of barley, which is also not
unknown in these days. They fought under their kings and chiefs, and were
well armed with sword, spear, axe, and shield. The chiefs also fought
from chariots, which they managed with great skill, and the onslaught of
the British host was accompanied by loud cries and the blowing of horns,
with which each man was provided.
Religion was in the hands of the Druids, who combined the character of
prophet and priest. It was dark and mysterious as the gloomy forests in
which it first drew birth, and in whose deepest recesses they celebrated
their cruel rites. Its ministers built no covered temples, deeming it an
insult to their gods to attempt to enclose their emblems in an edifice
surrounded by walls, and erected by mortal hands; the forest was their
temple, and a rough unhewn stone their altar. They worshipped a god of
the sky and thunder, whom they identified with Jupiter; a sun-god, whom,
when they were Romanised, they called Apollo; a god of war, afterwards
called Mars; and a goddess who presided over births, like the Latin
Lucina; and Andate, the goddess of victory. Besides these, who may be
regarded as their superior deities, they had a great number of inferior
ones. Each wood, fountain, lake, and mountain had its tutelary genius,
whom they were accustomed to invoke with sacrifice and prayer.
The Druids were ruled by a chief whom they elected; they were the
interpreters of the laws, which they never permitted to be committed
to writing, the instructors of youth, and the judges of the people--a
tremendous power to be lodged in the hands of any peculiar class. There
were also Bards, whose duty it was to preserve in verse the memory of any
remarkable event; to celebrate the triumph of their heroes; and, by their
exhortation and songs, excite the chiefs and people to deeds of courage
and daring on the day of battle.
It is impossible not to be struck by the profound cunning which presided
over the organisation of this terrible priesthood, and concentrated all
authority in its hands. Its ministers placed themselves between man
and the altar, permitting his approach only in mystery and gloom. They
wrought upon his imagination by the sacrifice of human life, and the most
terrible denunciations of the anger of their gods on all who opposed
them. As the instructors of youth, they moulded the pliant mind, and
fashioned it to their purpose; as the judges of the people, there was no
appeal against their decisions, for none but the Druids could pronounce
authoritatively what was the law, there being no written code to refer
to; they alone possessed the right to recompense or punish: thus the
present and future welfare of their followers alike depended upon them.
The severest penalty inflicted by the Druids was the interdiction of the
sacrifice to those who had offended them. Woe to the unhappy wretch on
whom the awful sentence fell! He ceased to be considered a human being.
Like the beast of the forest, his life was at the mercy of any one who
chose to take it. He lost all civil rights, and could neither inherit
land nor sue for the recovery of debts; every one was at liberty to spoil
his property; even his nearest kindred fled from him in horror. They were
also accustomed to sacrifice human victims on their altars, or burnt them
as offerings to the gods, in wicker baskets.
It is now time to give some account of the dogmas of this extinct
religion, once the general faith of Britain. Like the monks of the
Middle Ages, the Druids of the higher orders lived in community in the
remote depths of the vast gloomy forests, where they celebrated their
rites. In these retreats they initiated the youthful aspirants for the
priesthood, who frequently passed a novitiate of twenty years before
being admitted. Disciples of all ranks flocked to them, despite the
severity of the probation, tempted, no doubt, by the honours and great
privileges attached to the order, amongst which exemption from taxation
and servitude was not the least. The mistletoe is said by Pliny to have
been a peculiarly sacred plant in their rites.
The Druids taught the immortality of the soul, and its transmigration
from one body to another, till, by some extraordinary act of virtue
or courage, it merited to be received into the assembly of the gods.
Cæsar, in his "Commentaries," also informs us that they instructed their
pupils in the movements of the heavenly bodies, and the grandeur of the
universe. Their knowledge of mathematics must have been considerable,
since we find it applied to the measurement of the earth and stars. In
mechanics they were equally advanced, judging from the monuments which
remain to us. Of these, the most remarkable in England are Stonehenge,
consisting of 139 enormous stones, ranged in a circle; and that of
Avebury, in Wiltshire, which covers a space of twenty-eight acres of
land. But the largest of all the Druid temples is situated at Carnac,
in the department of Morbihan, in France. It is formed of 400 stones,
varying from five to twenty-seven feet in height, and ranged in eleven
concentric lines. It should be mentioned, however, that some authorities
consider these erections to belong to a period anterior to the arrival of
the Celts in Europe, though they were probably utilised by them.
[Illustration: STONEHENGE FROM THE NORTH-WEST. (_From a Photograph by
Frith & Co, Reigate._)]
[Illustration: STONEHENGE (RESTORED).
(_From the Model in the Blackmore Museum, Salisbury, after the
Restoration by Dr. Stukeley._)]
Such was the country and such the condition of its inhabitants when in
55 B.C. Cæsar undertook its invasion, to which he was led not so much
by the thirst of dominion as by the necessity he found himself under of
doing something to acquire a great name at Rome. He had already partially
subdued the Gauls, and determined on striking a blow at Britain. Having
decided on the expedition, the victorious general commenced his
preparations with his accustomed energy. His first care was to obtain
hostages from the Gauls: he questioned the merchants and others who
had visited Britain as to its resources and extent, the natives which
inhabited it, their manners, customs, and religion, and sent Commius,
whom he had created King of the Atrabates in Gaul, to demand the
submission of the islanders.
[Illustration: DRUIDS INCITING THE BRITONS TO OPPOSE THE LANDING OF THE
ROMANS. (_See p._ 6.)]
On the first news of the intended descent, the Britons, excited by the
Druids and Bards, assembled in arms, in order to defend their coasts, but
at the same time did not neglect other means of warding off the danger
which threatened their independence, and despatched ambassadors to Cæsar
with offers of alliance. They were received courteously, although the
wily Roman knew that, incited by their priests, they had arrested his
messenger, and kept him in chains. Meanwhile Cæsar prepared his fleet,
and assembled his soldiers for the expedition. He embarked the infantry
of two of his legions in eighty vessels, which he assembled at Itius
Portus, supposed by some writers to be Calais, by others the village of
Wissant, between that place and Boulogne. He divided the vessels amongst
his principal officers, and set sail with a favourable wind during the
night. Eighteen galleys at a distant part of the coast had received his
cavalry, and sailed about the same time. At ten the following morning
the expedition appeared off the coast, where the inhabitants were seen
in arms, ready to receive it. The spot, it would seem, was unfavourable
for landing, and Cæsar hesitated, and dropped anchor till three in the
afternoon, hoping for the arrival of his other galleys. Disappointed
in this expectation, he sailed along the coast, and finally decided
on disembarking at Deal, where the shore was comparatively level,
and presented less difficulty for such an enterprise. But here, too,
the Britons were prepared, a considerable force being collected to
oppose him. The galleys drew too much water to permit the invaders to
land at once upon the beach, and the soldiers hesitated. There was a
momentary confusion amongst them. "Follow me, comrades!" exclaimed the
standard-bearer, "if you would not see the eagle in the hands of the
enemy. For myself, if I perish, I shall have done my duty to Rome and to
my general." At these words he plunged into the waves, and was followed
by the men, who leaped tumultuously after him, ashamed, most likely, of
their previous cowardice and hesitation. On reaching the shore, they fell
with the utmost fury on the enemy, whose undisciplined ranks could ill
sustain the shock of the Roman legion; still, they fought desperately,
incited by their bards and priests, who sang the songs of victory, and
exhorted them to renew the combat each time they seemed to waver. At last
they were compelled to give way, and retreat to the shelter of the woods,
with their chariots and broken ranks. Cæsar himself informs us that he
was prevented from pursuing the victory by the absence of his cavalry,
a circumstance which he bitterly laments, since its presence alone was
wanting to crown his fortune.
Although he did not venture to follow the fugitives, they sent
ambassadors, accompanied by Commius, whom the Britons released from
prison and chains, to sue for peace. The victor complained, and with some
show of justice, of the reception he had met with, after they had sent
envoys to him in Gaul with offers of submission, and also of the arrest
of his ambassador; and lamented the blood that had been shed. To this
harangue the Britons artfully replied that they had imprisoned Commius in
order to preserve him from the fury of the people, and with this excuse
Cæsar either was, or affected to be, content. He granted the peace they
came to solicit, and demanded hostages, which were promised, for the
future.
A storm dispersed the eighteen galleys which were to transport the
cavalry of Cæsar, and drove them back upon the coast of Gaul. This was
not the only misfortune the Romans endured. That same night the moon
was at its full; it was the season of the equinox, and the tide rose to
an unusual height, filling the vessels which Cæsar had drawn out of the
reach of danger, as he imagined, on the sands. The larger ships, which
had served him as a means of transport, were driven from their anchors,
and many of them wrecked.
Although perfectly aware of the perils which menaced their invaders,
the Britons appear to have proceeded with the utmost caution. Whilst
a league was secretly being formed to crush the Romans, their chiefs
appeared daily in their camp, professing unbroken friendship. Suddenly
they fell upon the seventh legion, which had been sent to a distance
to forage. The plan was well contrived to defeat the enemy in detail.
Many of their leaders remained in camp, in order to lull suspicion,
whilst their confederates surprised the Romans, who, having laid aside
their arms, were soon surrounded, and must have been cut off but for the
timely arrival of Cæsar, who, warned by his outposts that a cloud of dust
thicker than usual had been seen at a distance, guessed immediately what
had occurred. With a portion of his army he fell upon the assailants,
and, after a desperate struggle, disengaged the threatened legion, and
returned with it to the camp in safety. The lesson was a sharp one, and
the rains soon afterwards setting in, the invader did not attempt to
renew the battle.
The islanders, meanwhile, had not been idle: messengers had been
despatched in every direction, calling on the various nations to take
arms; the Druids preached war to the death; and a sufficient force was
soon assembled to attack the Romans in their camp. Discipline, however,
again prevailed against the courage of the barbarians, as Tacitus
contemptuously calls them; although he admits at the same time their
bravery, and adds that it was a fortunate thing for Cæsar that the
country was so divided into petty states that the jealousies of their
respective rulers prevented the unity of action which alone could ensure
success. Had the Britons been united, they might have bid defiance to
the legions of Rome. Once more the islanders demanded peace, which Cæsar
granted them; in fact, he was scarcely in a position to do otherwise,
for he already meditated a retreat. He embarked the army suddenly in the
night, and retired to Gaul, taking the hostages he had received with him.
Although the senate of Rome ordered a thanksgiving of twenty days for the
triumph of the Roman arms, the first expedition against the island cannot
be regarded as other than a failure.
For the second invasion, which took place in the following year,
preparations were made commensurate with the importance of the task
proposed. Cæsar having assembled 800 vessels, on board of which were five
legions, and 2,000 horsemen of the noblest families in Gaul, set sail,
and landed without opposition at Ryde. This time there was no enemy to
oppose him; for the Britons, terrified at the appearance of this immense
armament, had retreated to their natural fastnesses, the forests. Leaving
ten cohorts and 300 horsemen to guard the camp and fleet, under the
orders of Quintus Atrius, Cæsar set forward in search of the enemy, whom
he discovered, after a march of twelve miles, on the banks of a river,
where they had drawn up their chariots and horsemen. Profiting by their
elevated position, they accepted, or rather engaged, the combat, and when
repulsed withdrew into an admirably fortified camp, which was not taken
without much difficulty. The Britons, as usual after a defeat, retreated
once more to their woods, where it was impossible for the legions of Rome
to follow, or the cavalry to act against them.
On the following morning, just as the victorious leader was about to
re-commence his march, news arrived from the camp that a violent tempest
had seriously damaged the fleet. Many of his vessels were wrecked, and
others rendered unfit for service. Like a prudent general, Cæsar at once
returned to the camp, to assure himself of the extent of the injury done
to his fleet, and found it more considerable than he imagined. Forty
vessels were lost; the rest could be repaired, though not without great
labour and time. Every artificer in his army was set to work; others were
sent for from the continent; and instructions written to Labienus in Gaul
to construct new galleys to replace those which were lost. The next step
was worthy the genius and reputation of Cæsar. After having repaired his
ships, he caused his legions to draw them out of reach of the tide, high
up on the shore, and enclosed the whole of them in a fortified camp--an
immense work, when we consider that it was executed in an enemy's
country, and the scanty means at his command for such an undertaking.
Meanwhile the Britons had united under Cassivelaunus, head-king of the
tribes north of the Thames, and Cæsar advanced to meet him. The king
proved a doughty opponent, seldom venturing upon a pitched battle, but
harassing the Romans by sudden attacks, in which the chariots proved
particularly formidable. At length Cæsar managed, with difficulty,
to cross the Thames somewhere above London, and ravaged the king's
territory. Fortunately the powerful tribe of the Trinobantes, who
inhabited part of Middlesex and Essex, came over to him at this juncture,
having old scores to pay off against Cassivelaunus, and they were
followed by other tribes. Cæsar was therefore able to storm Verulam,
the stronghold of the British king, and then, finding that his camp on
the coast was being besieged by the four kings of Kent, that his troops
were being wearied out by the constant alarms, and having, in addition,
received unpleasant news from Gaul, he accepted the offers of peace made
by Cassivelaunus, and departed. So ended Cæsar's invasions of Britain.
For nearly a century, that is, until A.D. 43, Britain remained
undisturbed by the Romans; but at length the Emperor Claudius determined
that the island should be thoroughly conquered. Accordingly his general,
Aulus Plautius, landed with an army, and, after gaining considerable
successes, wrote to Claudius inviting him to pass over to the island and
conclude the war himself. The emperor accepted the invitation, and took
the command of his legions in Britain. He crossed the Thames, and seized
upon the fortress of Camulodunum (Colchester or Malden, authorities
are divided as to which), receiving in his progress the submission of
a number of petty kings and chiefs. This had been the stronghold of
Cunobelinus, the Cymbeline of Shakespeare. Having reduced a part of the
country to the condition of a Roman province, Claudius returned to enjoy
the honours of a triumph in Rome. It was celebrated with a degree of
unusual magnificence, splendid games, and rejoicings.
[Illustration: JULIUS CÆSAR.
(_From the Bust in the British Museum._)]
After passing four years on the island, Plautius was recalled to Rome,
where the jealousy of the emperor limited the honours decreed to the
victorious general to a simple ovation. He was succeeded by Ostorius
Scapula, who found, on his arrival, the affairs of his countrymen in the
greatest disorder. The Britons, trusting that a general newly arrived in
the island would not enter on a campaign in the beginning of winter, had
divided their forces, to plunder and lay waste the territories of such
persons as were in alliance with Rome. Ostorius, however, contrary to
their expectations, pursued the war with vigour, gave the dispersed bands
no time to unite or rally, and commanded the people whom he suspected of
disaffection to give up their arms. As a further precaution, he erected
forts on the banks of the Avon and the Severn.
[Illustration: CARACTACUS BEFORE CLAUDIUS. (_See p._ 10.)]
The moment appeared favourable to the victorious general to subdue the
Silures, a fierce and warlike nation, who, under their king, Caractacus,
still held out against the Roman arms (A.D. 50). Hitherto clemency and
force had alike proved unavailing to reduce them to submission, and
Ostorius prepared his expedition with a prudence and foresight worthy of
the struggle on which the establishment of the supremacy of Rome in the
island, in a great measure, depended. He first settled a strong colony of
his veteran soldiers at Camulodunum, on the conquered lands, to keep in
check the neighbouring tribes, and spread by their example a knowledge
of the useful arts. He then set forth at the head of his bravest legions
in search of Caractacus, who had retreated from his own states, and
transported the war into the country of the Ordovices, in the middle
of Wales. The warlike Briton had assembled under his command all who
had vowed an eternal resistance to the invaders, and fortified his
position by entrenchments of earth, in imitation of the Roman military
works. In Shropshire, where the great struggle is supposed to have taken
place, there is a hill which the inhabitants still call Caer Caradoc.
It corresponds exactly with the description which Tacitus has given of
the fortifications erected by Caractacus, and answers to the Latin words
_Castra Caractaci_. This warrior, whose devotion to the liberties of his
country merited a better fate, did all that a patriot and a soldier could
do to excite the spirit of his countrymen. He reminded the chiefs under
his command that the day of battle would be the day of deliverance from a
degrading bondage, and at the same time appealed to their patriotism, by
reminding them that their ancestors had defeated the attempts of Cæsar.
The address was received with acclamation, and the excited Britons bound
themselves by oaths not to shrink from the darts of their enemies.
The cries of rage with which the invaders were received, the resolute
bearing of the Silures, astonished the Roman general, who examined with
disquietude the river which defended the rude entrenchment on one side,
the ramparts of earth and stone, not unskilfully thrown up, and the
rugged rock, which towered above them, crowned with numberless defenders.
His soldiers demanded to be led on, urging that nothing was impossible
to true courage; the tribunes held the same language, and Ostorius led
on his army to the attack. Under a shower of arrows it crossed the
river, and arrived at the foot of the rude entrenchment, but not without
suffering severely. Then was seen the advantage of discipline over
untrained courage. The Roman soldiers serried their ranks, and raising
their bucklers over their heads, formed with them an impenetrable roof,
which securely sheltered them whilst they demolished the earthworks. That
once accomplished, the victory was assured. The half-naked Britons, with
their clubs and arrows, were no match against the well-armed legions of
Rome; but from the summit of the rocks still poured death upon their
enemies, till the light troops succeeded in slaying or dispersing
them. The victory of the Romans was complete. The wife and daughter
of Caractacus were taken prisoners, and the illustrious chief of the
Silures soon afterwards shared a similar destiny. His mother-in-law,
Cartismandua, Queen of the Brigantes, to whom he had fled for shelter,
delivered him in chains to his enemies. Ostorius sent him and his family
to Rome, as the noblest trophies of his conquest.
The fame of Caractacus had penetrated even to Italy. The Roman citizens
were anxious to behold the barbarian who had so long braved their power.
Although defeated and a captive, the natural greatness of his soul did
not abandon him. Tacitus relates that his first remark on beholding the
imperial city was surprise that those who possessed such magnificent
palaces at home should envy him a poor hovel in Britain. He was conducted
before the Emperor Claudius, who received him seated on his throne, with
the Empress Agrippina by his side. The prætorian guard were drawn up in
line of battle on either side. First came the servants of the captive
prince; then were borne the spoils of the vanquished Britons; these were
followed by the brothers, the wife, and daughter of Caractacus, and last
of all by Caractacus himself, calm and unsubdued by his misfortune.
Advancing to the throne, he pronounced the following remarkable
discourse, which Tacitus has preserved for us:--"If I had had, O Cæsar,
in prosperity, a prudence equal to my birth and fortune, I should have
entered this city as a friend, and not as a captive; and possibly
thou wouldest not have disdained the alliance of a man descended from
illustrious ancestors, who gave laws to several nations. My fate this
day appears as sad for me as it is glorious for thee. I had horses,
soldiers, arms, and treasures; is it surprising that I should regret the
loss of them? If it is thy will to command the universe, is it a reason
we should voluntarily accept slavery? Had I yielded sooner, thy fortune
and my glory would have been less, and oblivion would soon have followed
my execution. If thou sparest my life, I shall be an eternal monument of
thy clemency." To the honour of Claudius, he not only spared the life
of his captive, but the lives of his brothers, wife, and daughter, and
treated them with respect. Their chains were removed, and they expressed
their thanks, not only to the emperor, but to Agrippina, whose influence
is supposed, not without reason, to have been exerted in their favour.
The public life of Caractacus ended with his captivity; for the tradition
that he afterwards returned to Britain, and ruled over a portion of the
island, rests on so uncertain a foundation as to be unworthy of belief.
The senate, in its pompous harangues, compared the subjection of this
formidable chief to that of Syphax by Scipio, and decreed the honours
of a triumph to his conqueror, Ostorius, who died, however, shortly
afterwards, worn out by the perpetual attacks of the Silures.
Ostorius was succeeded in the government of Britain by Avitus Didius
Gallus, who, unlike his warlike predecessor, sought to establish the
Roman dominion in the island by fomenting internal dissension. He made an
alliance with the perfidious mother-in-law of Caractacus, Cartismandua,
Queen of the Brigantes, whose subjects had revolted. His government
lasted but four years, during which period the armies of Rome made but
little progress on the isle. Nero assigned the government of Britain to
Veranius, who died a year afterwards, in a campaign he had undertaken
against the Silures.
Suetonius Paulinus, who was despatched to Britain by Nero in 58, proved
himself fully equal to the task he had undertaken. Hitherto the Britons
had been excited to revolt by the exhortations of the Druids, whose
principal sanctuary was in the island of Anglesea, which, up to the
period of his government, had preserved its independence, and served
as a refuge to the malcontents and vanquished. Of this important spot
Suetonius resolved to obtain possession, as the most effectual means of
crushing the spirit of resistance still existing amongst the people. By
means of a number of flat-bottomed boats, which he had constructed for
the purpose, he crossed the arm of the sea which separates Anglesea from
Britain. Tacitus has left a vivid description of the effect produced
upon the Romans on approaching the island: the army of the enemy drawn
up like a living rampart on the shore, to oppose their landing; the
women, in mournful robes of a sombre colour, rushing wildly along the
sands, brandishing their torches and muttering imprecations; the Druids,
with their arms extended in malediction. The invaders were appalled;
and, but for the exhortations of their leaders, the expedition, in all
probability, must have suffered a defeat. Excited by their reproaches,
the standard-bearers advanced, and the army, ashamed to desert their
eagles, followed them, striking madly with their swords, and crushing all
who opposed them. Finally, they succeeded in surrounding the Britons, who
perished, with their wives and children, in the fires which the Druids
had commanded to be kindled for their hideous sacrifices. The victory
was a terrible blow to the influence of the Druids, who never recovered
their power in the island; and its consequences would have been even more
severely felt, but for an insurrection which shortly afterwards broke out
in that portion of Britain which had been reduced to the condition of a
Roman colony.
The imposts were excessive, and exacted with rigour. Hundreds of
distinguished families saw themselves reduced to indigence, and,
consequently, to servitude. Their sons were torn from their hearths, and
compelled to serve on the continent in the auxiliary cohorts. All these
evils, great as they were, might have been borne, had not an outrage
been added more infamous than any the insolent invaders had yet ventured
to perpetrate: an outrage which filled the hearts of the Britons with
fury, and drove them once more to rebellion. Prasutagus, a king of the
nation of the Iceni, had for many years been the faithful ally of Rome;
on his death, the better to ensure a portion of his inheritance to his
family, he named the emperor and his daughters as his joint heirs. The
Roman procurator, however, took possession of the whole in the name of
his imperial master, a proceeding which naturally aroused the indignation
of Boadicea, the widow of the deceased prince. Being a woman of resolute
character, she complained bitterly of the spoliation, and for redress
was not only beaten with rods like a slave, but her daughters were
dishonoured before her eyes. On hearing of these indignities, the Iceni
flew to arms; the Trinobantes and several other tribes followed their
example, and a league was formed between them to recover their lost
liberties.
The first object of their attack was the colony of veterans established
at Camulodunum, where a temple, dedicated to Claudius, had been raised,
the priests of which committed infamous exactions, under the pretence of
thus honouring religion. It was affirmed, as is generally the case on the
eve of any great event, that numerous omens preceded the catastrophe.
The statue of Victory fell in the temple with its face upon the ground;
fearful howlings were heard in the theatre; and it is even pretended that
a picture of the colony in ruins had been seen floating in the waters of
the Thames. The report of all these prodigies, which, if they really took
place, were doubtless the contrivances of the Druids, froze the veterans
with terror, and raised the courage of the Britons to the highest pitch.
In the absence of Suetonius, the colonists demanded succour of the
procurator, who sent them only 200 men, and those badly armed; and with
this feeble reinforcement, the garrison shut themselves up in the temple.
With the cunning which seems peculiar to all semi-barbarous nations, the
Britons continued to reassure their enemy of their pacific intentions.
The consequence was that instead of raising a rampart and digging a
ditch round the building, which they might easily have done, the Romans
remained in a state of fancied security, neglecting even to send away
their women and children, and such as from age and sickness were unable
to bear arms. Suddenly the mask was thrown off. The insurgents, who had
gained sufficient time to collect their forces and mature their plans,
fell upon the colony, destroying everything before them, and sparing
neither sex nor age. After a siege of several days, the temple was taken
by assault, and the garrison put to the sword.
[Illustration: BRITONS WITH CORACLES.]
Emboldened by their success, the victors marched to meet Petillius
Cerealis, who, at the head of the ninth legion, was hastening to the
assistance of his countrymen. After a bloody battle, in which the Britons
massacred all his infantry, the Roman lieutenant was compelled to seek
refuge with his cavalry in the camp. Terrified at the disaster which his
avarice and cruelty had caused, the procurator, Cato Decianus, fled to
Gaul, followed by the maledictions of the inhabitants of the province on
which he had brought so many evils.
Whilst engaged in the subjugation of the natives of Anglesea, Suetonius
Paulinus received intelligence of the revolt of the Britons against
the colonies of the eastern parts of the island. Immediately he set
out on his march for London. This is the first mention which we have
in history of this city by the title of Londinium--a city destined, in
after years, to become the chief centre of political power and commercial
enterprise in Europe; to rival, if not to eclipse, the most famous cities
of antiquity in splendour and in influence. But the small force under
his command was unable successfully to govern it against the fury of
the native enemies, who eagerly panted for the destruction of a town
which was at once the monument of Roman triumph and the stronghold of
Roman tyranny. Anxious that his small army should not be destroyed in
an attempt to defend what was hopeless, Suetonius resolved to retreat
and give up the city to the plunder of the Britons. All such as were
willing to leave it were taken into his army, and, amid the cries and
lamentations of the inhabitants, the city was abandoned by the Roman
troops. It was not long before the storm burst upon the wretched
inhabitants, whom the insurgents massacred without pity or remorse,
although the majority of them consisted of their own countrymen, against
whom their rage appeared quite as much excited as against the Romans,
on account of their submission to the common enemy. Seventy thousand
are computed to have perished in the slaughter. Never before had such
an indiscriminate destruction been witnessed in the island. Tacitus, in
speaking of the Britons, says:--"They would neither take the vanquished
prisoners, sell them, nor ransom their lives and liberties; but hastened
to massacre, torture, and crucify them, as if to avenge themselves
beforehand for the cruel punishments which the future had in store for
them."
[Illustration: ROMAN SOLDIERS PASSING OVER A BRIDGE OF BOATS. (_From the
Trajan Column._)]
Suetonius, uniting the fourteenth legion, the auxiliaries of the
twenty-first, and the garrisons of the neighbouring towns, soon found
himself at the head of 10,000 men; and with such an army no longer
hesitated to meet the enemy, before whom he had hitherto deemed it
advisable to retreat. With great skill he took up his position at the
entrance of a narrow defile, his infantry in the centre, the cavalry
forming the wings. The Britons, a countless multitude, advanced to battle
without order or discipline, animated by the desire of vengeance and
the hope of recovering their liberty. Before the struggle commenced, a
chariot was seen, drawn slowly through their ranks; in it was a female
of tall stature and dignified bearing, enveloped in the folds of a long
mantle, a chain of gold round her waist, and her long hair floating
to the ground. It was the outraged Boadicea, who, accompanied by her
daughters, appealed to the courage of her countrymen. "The Britons,"
she cried, "are accustomed to fight under the command of a woman; there
is no question now of avenging my illustrious ancestors from whom I am
descended, my kingdom, or my plundered treasures. Avenge me as a simple
woman, as one of your own class. Avenge my outraged liberty; my body torn
by the scourge; and the dishonoured innocence of my daughters! The Romans
respect neither the age of our old men nor the chastity of our children;
their avarice is insatiable. Are not our persons taxed? do we not pay
even for the permission to bear our heads? Nor is that all; the tax must
be paid for those who cease to live. It was reserved for the execrable
tyranny of the Romans," she added, "to raise a revenue from the dead. But
there are just gods, avenging gods. A legion that dared oppose us has
perished; the rest of the Romans conceal themselves, or already think of
flight. They cannot hear without trembling the cries of so many thousand
men; how, then, will they support the shock of your blows? Consider your
countless battalions, reflect on the motives of this war, and you will
understand that the day has arrived on which we must vanquish or die.
Such will be, such shall be the fate of one woman; let men live slaves if
they will."
Animated by these inspiring words, the recollection of their injuries,
and the blood they had already shed, the Britons commenced the combat.
The legion, with their eyes fixed upon their chief, waited the signal. It
was given, and they advanced in a triangular battalion; the auxiliaries
followed the impetuous movement, and the squadrons charged with their
lances in rest. Nothing could resist that fearful shock. The immense
multitude was put to flight, but the chariots containing their wives and
children, who had followed to be spectators of their victory, barred the
way. The victors spared neither women, children, nor animals. The carnage
was fearful: 80,000 Britons remained dead upon the plain. Boadicea, the
witness and victim of this sad defeat, kept the promise she had made, not
to fall into the power of the Romans, but ended her life by poison. This
victory re-established the reputation of the Roman arms; but it was not
permitted to Suetonius to complete the task he had begun; he was shortly
afterwards recalled to Rome, to answer charges brought against him by his
enemies, and, although acquitted, he lost the favour of a prince in whose
reign no man of celebrity was spared.
In the reign of Vespasian, his general, Cerealis, reduced the Brigantes
in the years A.D. 69 and 70, and his successor, Julius Frontinus,
conquered the Silures. But it was reserved to another general to achieve
the conquest of a proud and warlike nation, and to render it durable by
the qualities of justice and moderation. The great man who gave this
useful lesson to the world was Agricola, named governor of Britain in the
year 78 of the Christian era. He had already visited the island, having
served in the army as tribune under the command of Suetonius Paulinus,
who esteemed and treated him as a friend. His first step was to repress
the revolt of the Ordovices, whom he punished with rigour; he next
renewed the attack on the island of Anglesea, which he took, owing to
the courage of his German auxiliaries, who, not having vessels at their
command, swam over the arm of the sea which divides it from Britain. In
the following campaign he extended the limits of the Roman government to
the Tay, leaving strong garrisons at all the important points. In his
fourth campaign Agricola crossed the Forth to the southern frontier
of Caledonia, or the Scottish Highlands, and erected, to repress the
invasion of the warlike inhabitants, a line of fortifications between the
Forth and the Clyde.
But it is as an administrator or civil governor that Agricola chiefly
merits our praise. He lessened, as much as possible, the tribute levied
on the vanquished Britons by an equitable adjustment, suppressed the most
onerous monopolies, and multiplied the means of transport and commerce.
Having succeeded in gaining the good opinion of the people he was called
to rule over by his valour and equity, the governor next tried to keep
them peaceable by inculcating a taste for the arts and pleasures. He
encouraged the erection of temples and forums, aided all public works by
grants from the treasury, and caused the sons of the principal chiefs
and princes to be instructed in the sciences. Gradually those who had
disdained the language of the conquerors devoted themselves to its
attainment. They assumed the toga, and affected the tastes, and in too
many instances the vices, of their masters.
Titus, who had succeeded to the throne of his father, Vespasian, reigned
but two years, and left the empire to Domitian, who, like most men of
suspicious nature, felt jealous lest any other name should become greater
than his own. He did not venture, however, to recall Agricola, who was
permitted to pursue his career of glory, and, in the fifth year of his
government, advanced with his legions to the west, as far as the coast
opposite to Ireland. A statesman, administrator, and soldier, like the
illustrious pupil of Suetonius, must have comprehended the advantage of
conquering the sister island; the facilities which it would afford to
the increasing commerce between Spain, Gaul, and Britain: he renounced,
however, the enterprise from some unknown reason, and Ireland, for nearly
a thousand years longer, preserved her independence.
He now turned his attention to the people north of the Forth, whom
Tacitus calls the Caledonians. In his first campaign against them, which
commenced in the sixth year of his government, the Romans experienced
a severe check, as the enemy nearly forced their camp, and were only
repulsed after causing considerable damage. In the seventh and last year
of his residence on the island, Agricola made his great attempt to subdue
these ferocious nations, and his preparations were worthy his great
military reputation and the magnitude of the task he had undertaken. He
joined to his legions and auxiliaries from the continent cohorts of
Britons, drawn from the southern portion of the island; and supplied his
army by means of a numerous fleet, which sailed along the coast.
[Illustration: "THE ROMANS CAUSE A WALL TO BE BUILT FOR THE PROTECTION OF
THE SOUTH."
AFTER THE WALL CARTOON BY W. BELL SCOTT. R.H.A., AT WALLINGTON.
BY PERMISSION OF THE RIGHT HON. SIR GEORGE O. TREVELYAN.]
The Romans advanced without encountering any serious obstacle as far
as the Grampians, where the Caledonians, under the celebrated chief
Galgacus, were drawn up to oppose them, 30,000 strong. The first ranks,
consisting of the bravest of the tribes, occupied the level plain;
the next and secondary ones covered the sides of the mountain, rising
in half-circles one above another, as in a vast amphitheatre. At the
sight of the Caledonians, it became difficult to keep the Romans in the
entrenchments, and Agricola, seeing their impatience for battle, exhorted
them to conquest. "Defeat itself," he said, "will not be without glory;
but you will not yield. The bravest of the Britons have been already
overcome; those who remain are cowardly and timid, as you behold on the
heights which you will illustrate by a memorable victory. Put an end,"
he concluded, "to so many expeditions, and add another great day to
fifty years of triumph!" At these words the ardour of his soldiers could
no longer be repressed. They quitted the camp, and their brave leader
ranged them in order of battle: the auxiliaries on foot, to the number
of 8,000, in the centre; 3,000 horsemen formed the wings; the legions
being held in reserve. The first line of the Caledonians descended to the
plain, which trembled beneath the galloping of the horses and the rolling
of the war-chariots. Agricola, seeing the superiority of the enemy in
point of numbers, deployed his ranks, resolved neither to fly nor yield.
Favoured by their position, the barbarians had the advantage as long as
they fought at a distance with javelins and arrows; which became useless,
however, when, the Roman general having commanded the auxiliaries to
engage man to man, they rushed to the encounter with their long sharp
swords; another body assailed the rocks, which they carried by assault,
and the Caledonians retreated behind their horsemen and chariots; whilst
the Roman cavalry, falling on the confused mass, completed the rout. The
plain soon became one wide scene of carnage; 10,000 Caledonians perished;
whilst their enemy lost only 360 men. The victors passed the night in
drunkenness and pillage, whilst the vanquished, men and women, wandered
about the country, yielding to despair. In their rage they destroyed
their habitations, to prevent them from being plundered by the Romans.
Agricola rendered an account of his victory to the emperor, in terms
remarkable for their modesty and simplicity. The jealous Domitian
received his letter with apparent joy, but secret wrath: with his usual
cunning, however, he dissembled his real sentiments till time had
weakened the enthusiasm of the people and the favour of the army for
the man he hated. Gradually a report gained ground that the victorious
general was to be recalled from the scene of his triumphs, to take the
command in Syria, and Domitian demanded for him the honours of a triumph.
The victor dared not, however, present himself to the acclamations of
the people, for fear of exciting the jealousy of his imperial master. He
entered Rome privately, and by night, and presented himself before the
tyrant, who received him coldly and in silence. He soon became confounded
with the crowd of courtiers, and only escaped from the peril of his glory
by appearing himself to forget it.
Little is known of the state of Britain from Domitian to Hadrian, when
many of the nations who had been subject to the yoke of Rome began to
show signs of impatience, and all the cares of the new emperor were to
confirm the peace of the world. He re-established the system of Augustus,
abandoned the conquests of Trajan, and limited the empire in the east
to the Euphrates. He visited the provinces, and arrived at last in
Britain, where he corrected many abuses, and built, in order to repress
the incursions of the Caledonians, the celebrated wall (a description
of which will be found in the following chapter) which bore his name.
It extended upwards of eighty miles, from the north of the Tyne to the
Solway (A.D. 120). Rome thus abandoned without a struggle the country
included between the wall of Hadrian and that of Agricola, an extent of
about 100 miles; a portion of it, however, was regained under Antoninus
Pius, the adopted son and successor of Hadrian, in 139, when a rampart
was constructed between the Forth and the Clyde; it was subsequently
strengthened by the Emperor Severus, in 208, and hence is generally
called by his name.
During the third century the empire was agitated by numerous competitions
for the purple, but it was somewhat appeased on the accession of
Diocletian. The legions in Britain now adopted the practice of setting
up emperors of their own. One of them, Carausius, reigned from 287 to
294, and was only got rid of by assassination. The murderer, Allectus,
attempted to succeed him, and maintained himself in the island till
defeated by Constantius, who was created a sub-emperor, with the title of
Cæsar; thus Britain was once more united to the empire. The victor made
himself loved by the Britons, by his equitable and wise administration,
and continued to reside amongst them till the abdication of Diocletian.
At his death, which occurred in York in 306, he recommended to the army,
who were devoted to him, his son, the celebrated Constantine, who was
immediately saluted emperor and Augustus. He was beloved by the Britons,
being the son of a British mother, the "fair Helena of York."
Constantine was a Christian, but, before his accession, had been
compelled to execute the imperial commands against the followers of
that faith. Many of the Romans, who had received the new religion,
and fled from the persecutions of Claudius and Nero, found refuge in
Britain, where the imperial edicts were less rigorously obeyed, till the
persecution of Diocletian, when the churches throughout the empire were
ordered to be closed, and the refusal of the new sect to offer sacrifice
to the gods of Rome was punished with death. Much as Constantine
condemned, he dared not annul the impious mandate he had received.
Ascending his tribunal, before which the principal officers of his army
and household had been summoned, he read aloud the edict, and added
that those who professed the new faith must decide on abandoning either
their faith or their employments. Many, doubtless, chose the former
alternative; since we are told that the prince, in great indignation,
dismissed the apostates from his service, observing that it was
impossible for him to trust those who had denied their convictions. His
lieutenants, however, were less scrupulous, and Christian blood was shed
to maintain the State religion of the empire. Alban, the protomartyr,
as the latter designation implies, was the first who suffered; and the
names of Julius and Aaron, citizens of Caerleon, upon the Usk, have
also been handed down to posterity as two of the earliest victims. But
on the accession of Constantine to the throne, religious toleration was
restored throughout the empire. Christianity now made rapid progress
in the island. A hierarchy became established, and at the Council of
Arles, in 314, three English bishops assisted--those of York, London, and
Camulodunum.
After the death of Constantine the Caledonians disappear and are replaced
by the Picts. There is every reason to believe, however, that these are
only two names for the same race, the Picts (_picti_) being the "painted"
or "tattooed" men. The Scots, another race of northern invaders, were
of different origin: they originally came over from Ireland, where
they inhabited the eastern coasts, settled in the neighbourhood of Loch
Lomond, and made an alliance with the nearest tribes, for the purpose
of ravaging the possessions of the Britons. Both these peoples were
of Celtic origin, and the Scots, or Milesians (from Lat. _miles_, a
soldier), were the dominant race in Ireland. Other plunderers also
attacked the weakened empire, of whom the most important were the Saxons,
of whom we shall read more later on.
They were severely chastised by Theodosius, who visited Britain in 343.
He succeeded in expelling them from the Roman provinces and driving them
back to their wild retreats.
Maximus, who afterwards assumed the title of Augustus, while in Britain,
carried on the war against the Picts and Scots with unrelenting severity;
his ambition, however, led him to attempt the conquest of the whole
western empire, in which he failed, and was beheaded at Aquileia.
His army, comprising a large majority of Britons, never returned to
their native country, which consequently was left in a great measure
defenceless. So favourable an opportunity did not escape the vigilance
of the Picts and Scots, who made successive inroads in the island, and
returned to their mountain fastnesses laden with plunder.
The power of Rome was now shaken by the irruption of barbarians of
various denominations, who, issuing from the east and north, depopulated
her fairest provinces. Assailed at so many points at once, it seemed as
if the nations of the earth had been let loose to uproot her supremacy,
and break the shackles which for so many ages had fettered the greater
part of the world. The Goths, led by Alaric, crossing the Julian Alps,
swept like a torrent over the fertile plains of Italy. Other German
tribes devastated Gaul, and the Roman legions in Britain, deprived of all
communication with the Emperor Honorius, fell back upon their custom of
electing an emperor for themselves.
The first whom they selected for the purple was Marcus, whom his
soldiers, very soon after elevating him to the imperial dignity, put to
death; after him came an adventurer named Constantine, who paid for his
short-lived dignity with his life. A third usurper arose in Gerontius.
[Illustration: ROMAN SOLDIERS LEAVING BRITAIN. (_See p._ 18.)]
When the Emperor Honorius heard of this revolution, he wrote to the
states of Britain, to say that they must provide for their safety, and
govern themselves; by which concession the rule of Rome in the island
was looked on as at an end. The Britons, in despair, rose and drove out
their civil governors. About 367 years after the landing of Plautius,
the evacuation of Britain was complete. No doubt to a large number of
the Imperial soldiers this withdrawal meant the severance of many tender
ties, and some of the leave-takings must have been painful enough.
How frequently do we read, in the history of the world, of a nation
urged by an irresistible, though unknown, impulse, to pursue the path of
conquest, not for their own advantage, but for the ultimate benefit of
the people whom they subject! Such was the result of the Roman invasion
of Britain, which proved neither profitable nor advantageous to the
conquerors. Appianus of Alexandria, who flourished A.D. 123, wrote a
history of all the nations which Rome had subdued, in twenty-four books.
In this work he says: "The Romans have penetrated into Britain, and
taken possession of the greater and better part of the island; but they
do not desire the rest, because that which they already possess is not
of the slightest benefit to them." The historian was right, for despite
the taxes, the produce of the mines, and the exportation of corn, the
island could never have been a source of great profit to the victors;
notwithstanding which, we trace them, urged by a resistless combination
of events, progressing step by step, till the greater part of the country
was subdued.
For nearly a century, the portion of Britain which had submitted to their
yoke formed but a single province; it was first separated into two during
the reign of the Emperor Severus. This division was afterwards extended
to five, the positions of which are not very accurately determined.
1st. _Flavia Cæsariensis_, which is thought to have consisted of the
western portion of the island.
2nd. _Britannia Prima_, the country between the Thames and the Humber.
3rd. _Britannia Secunda_, lying between the Severn and the sea, now known
by the name of Wales.
4th. _Maxima Cæsariensis_, lying to the north of the two preceding ones,
extending to the Wall of Hadrian, between the Tyne and the Solway.
5th. _Valentia_, comprising the lands from the Wall of Hadrian to the
Forth and Clyde.
Each of these provinces, before the period when anarchy set in, had a
separate ruler, subject to the governor-general of Britain, who was named
by the emperor under the title of vicar. He exercised all but sovereign
authority, and united in his hands both the military and judicial
power. Under him was a procurator, or quæstor, who levied the taxes,
and administered the revenues of the island. The principal sources of
revenue were a poll tax, a tax on funerals and inheritances, on slaves,
on all public sales, and an impost upon cattle and agricultural produce.
The tax upon cattle, which was called _scriptura_, from the collectors
visiting the pastures and writing down lists of the number and kind which
each estate nourished, was particularly oppressive to the Britons, and
one of the most frequent causes of revolt. In addition to these burdens,
the Romans levied imposts upon merchandise, either imported or exported,
which formed a considerable item in their revenue, the commerce between
the empire and Britain having been greatly extended. Agriculture also
made immense progress in the island, in which cities of considerable
importance were built. Of these the most important, in a commercial point
of view, were Clausentum and London. In the second century, Britain
contained upwards of a hundred cities; the principal were London,
Colchester, Bath, Gloucester, York, Chester, Lincoln, and Chesterfield;
most of them were built upon lands which the emperors had bestowed upon
the veterans of those legions whose descendants formed the greater part
of the population. The larger cities, about ten in number, enjoyed the
_jus Latii_, which conferred, amongst other privileges, the right of
electing their magistrates. The inferior ones, called stipendiaries, paid
tribute to the emperor, and were governed by officers under the authority
of the prefect. It is extremely improbable, however, that any real
amalgamation of the two races ever took place, or that Roman civilisation
left any permanent effects upon the British character. The Romans were in
fact, from first to last, an army of occupation among a hostile people.