The Royal Society and the Royal Institution—Scientific
men of the time—Society of Arts—Other learned
Societies—Ballooning—Steam—Steamboats—Locomotives—Fourdrinier and
the paper-making machine—Coals—Their price—Committee of the House
of Commons on coal—Price of coals.
THE ROYAL Institution had just been founded (incorporated 13th January,
1800), and the Gresham lectures were held. The Royal Institution was
patronized by its big elder brother, the Royal Society, for in the
minutes of the proceedings of the latter, on the 15th of April, 1802,
is the following:
“Resolved, that ... the Royal Society be requested to direct their
Secretaries to communicate from time to time to the Editor of the
Journals of the Royal Institution, such information respecting the
Papers read at the Meetings of the Society, as it may be thought proper
to allow to be published in these Journals.”
In the first ten years of this century, no great scientific discoveries
were made; the most prominent being the researches of that marvellous
scientist and Egyptologist, Dr. Thomas Young,[69] in connection with
physical optics, which led to his theory of undulatory light.[70] Yet
there were good men coming forward, the pioneers of this present age,
to whose labours we are much indebted; and any decade might be proud
of such names as Faraday, Banks, Rennie, Dr. Wollaston, Count Rumford,
Humphrey Davy, and Henry Cavendish, whose discovery of the gaseous
composition of water laid the foundation of the modern school of
chemistry.
The Society of Arts, too, was doing good work, and the Society of
Antiquaries, and the Linnæan Society, were also in existence; but the
Horticultural, and Geological Societies, alone, were born during this
ten years.
Ballooning was in the same position as now, _i.e._, bags of gas could,
as is only natural, rise in the air, and be carried whither the wind
listed; and, especially in the year 1802, ærostatics formed one of the
chief topics of conversation, as Garnerin and Barrett were causing
excitement by their ærial flights.
Man had enslaved steam, but had hardly begun to utilize it, and knew
but very little of the capabilities of its energetic servant. Then it
was but a poor hard-working drudge, who could but turn a wheel, or
pump water. Certainly a steamboat had been tried on the Thames, and
Fulton’s steamboat _Clermont_ was tried on the Seine in 1803, at New
York in 1806, and ran on the Hudson in 1807; but the locomotive was
being hatched. The use of iron rails to ease the draft was well known,
and several patents were granted for different patterns of rail, but
they were mainly used in mines, to save horse power. Under the date
of 24th March, 1802, is a “Specification of the Patents granted to
Richard Trevithick and Andrew Vivian, of the Parish of Camborne, in the
County of Cornwall. Engineers and Miners, for Methods for improving
the construction of Steam Engines, and the Application thereof for
driving Carriages, and for other purposes.” Here, then, we have the
germ of the locomotive, which has been one of the most powerful agents
of civilization the world ever saw. But it was not till 1811 that the
locomotive was used, and then only on a railway connected with a
colliery.
It was not a mechanical age, or rather, applied mechanics was as
a young child, and babbled sillily. The only thing I regret, in
writing this book, is the time I have wasted in looking over Patent
Specifications, to find something worthy to illustrate the mechanical
genius of the time. The most useful invention I have found, is
the paper-making machine. This was originally the conception of a
Frenchman, Louis Robert, who sold his invention to Didot, the great
printer, who, bringing it to England, got Fourdrinier to join with him
in perfecting it. It did not, Minerva-like, spring ready armed from its
parent’s brain; but was the subject of several patents; but the one
which approaches nearest to, and is identical in all essential points
with, the present paper-making machine, is his “Specification, enrolled
pursuant to Act of Parliament of the 47th of George the Third, of the
Invention of Henry Fourdrinier and Sealy Fourdrinier, of Sherborne
Lane, London, and John Gamble, of Saint Neots, in the County of
Huntingdon, Paper Manufacturers; for making Paper by means of Machines,
for which several Letters Patent have been obtained at different
periods. Term extended to 15 years from 14th August, 1807.” This
extension had been obtained by means of an Act of Parliament passed the
previous session, and the machine was capable of making the endless web
of paper now in vogue.
The primitive state of our manufactures at this date may be, perhaps,
best understood by a typical illustration or two, taken by Pyne, a most
conscientious draughtsman, who drew all his studies from nature. The
first, on the next page, is an Iron Foundry, casting shot.
Coals were very dear, and that was owing to two things. First, that
only the Sunderland district coals were used in London, because
they only could, in any quantity, be shipped to London; the vast
Staffordshire, and other inland basins, being out of the question,
owing to lack of carriage, except where a canal was handy; and the
other reason for their high price was that there being no steam
vessels, a contrary wind would keep the coal-ships out of port, and,
consequently, denude the market.
[Illustration: AN IRON FOUNDRY—1802.]
The inland coals were cheap enough in their own localities—_vide_ the
_Morning Post_, August 6, 1800: “At Oldham, in Lancashire, the best
coals are only 6s. 9d. equal to a London chaldron.[71] At Barnsley, in
Yorkshire, the best coals are sold at the pit’s mouth for only 1½d. per
cwt. Surely, permission ought to be granted for coals to be brought to
London, if they can be conveyed by water. This might be done, as the
canals from Lancashire are now cut so as a barge with twenty-five tons
of coals would arrive in London in fourteen days. They cost at the pit
only 8s. 4d. per ton.”
But not only were they unattainable, but many of the coal-fields from
which we now draw our supplies were absolutely unknown. Here is an
instance—_Morning Post_, July 25, 1805: “A very fine _stratum_ of
coal, 15 feet deep, has been lately discovered on the Earl of Moira’s
estate at Donnington, and by which the Leicestershire Canal Shares have
been doubled in their value.”
[Illustration: A COLLIERY—1802.]
In looking at the following list of prices of coals, it must be borne
in mind that these are the market prices for coals _ex ship_; and it
was reckoned that 12s. per ton was a fair price to allow for metage,
carriage, and profit. Add this, and remember that a sovereign at
the commencement of the century had the purchasing power of, and,
consequently, worth, about 30s.; it will then be seen that coals were
excessively dear—such as would now practically extinguish every
manufacture.
Even in 1800, when coals were only about 48s. or 48s. 6d., the price
was considered so excessive, that a Committee of the House of Commons
sat upon the subject, and issued a report, imputing it to the following
causes:
“1. The agreement among the Coal Owners in the North, called ‘The
Limitation of Vends,’ by which each colliery on the Tyne is limited,
so as not to exceed a certain quantity in each year. Those Coal Owners
who are found to have shipped more than their stipulated quantities,
being bound to make a certain allowance at the end of each year,
to those who have shipped less, and to conform to certain other
regulations adopted by the Coal Owners on the river Wear.
“2. The detention of the ships at Newcastle, waiting for the best
coals, sometimes a month or six weeks.
“3. The want of a market in London which would admit of a competition,
perfectly free, in the purchase of coals.
“4. The circumstance of the coal-buyer being, in many instances,
owners both of ship and cargo; which (as appears by the evidence)
leads to considerable abuse.
“5. The want of a sufficient number of Meters, and of craft, for
unloading the ships on their arrival in the river, and the occasional
delays in procuring ballast on their return voyage.
“6. The practice of mixing the best coals with those of an inferior
quality, and selling the whole so mixed as of the best kind; and
“7. To frauds in the measurement, carriage, and delivery of coals.”
That there were great profits made by coals, there can be no doubt.
Mr. Walter, the proprietor of the _Times_, had been a coal-factor, and
had failed in business, before he started his newspaper—in which, in
its early days, he keenly scanned the state of the Coal Market for the
benefit of the public.
Here is a paragraph advertisement from the _Morning Herald_, June
2, 1802, which shows that our grandfathers could advertise in as
catching a style as the present generation: “On Saturday, the following
conversation occurred between two sailors opposite Somerset House: ‘Ah!
Sam, how are you?’ ‘Why, Jack, when I saw you, a few days ago, I _was
near a Gentleman_; but now, through my folly, am a _complete beggar_!’
‘Cheer up, Sam, for you are _near_ a Gentleman now. I have just
received all my prize money and wages; we have been partners in many a
hard battle; we will be partners now. I am going to the London Sea Coal
Company, in Southampton Street, Holborn, to buy a score of coals; and,
by retailing of which, I’ll prove to you, there’s a devilish deal more
satisfaction and pleasure than in throwing the gold dust away on bad
women or public-houses.’” This company were in September, 1804, selling
their coals at 58s. per chaldron.
October 8, 1804: “Pool[72] price of coals: Wallsend, 54s. 6d.; Hebburn
and Percy, 52s. 6d.; Wellington, 52s. 3d.; Temples, 51s. 8d.; Eighton,
48s. 3d. Eight ships at market, and all sold. The addition of 12s. to
the above will give the price at which the coals should be delivered in
town.”
That was in face of approaching winter. In summer time the price was
naturally lower—July 1, 1805: “Coals. Monday, 24 June, 20 cargoes sold
from 39s. 3d. to 49s. 6d. per chaldron. Wednesday, 26 do.; 10 ditto
42s. 9d. to 49s. Friday, 28: 15 ditto 43s. 9d. to 49s. 6d. in the Pool.”
In February, 1808, the retail price of coals was 64s.; and this did not
include metage and shooting. In October, 1809, they rose to 74s., and
in November of the same year they reached 84s.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]