[1] We have endeavoured to gather up all the threads of this strange
tissue, so that every circumstance of importance connected with the
measures of relief may be placed on record; but our narrative does
not, except in a few instances, extend beyond September 1847, and the
progress of events after that date will form the subject of a separate
article.
[2] The author of this paper was the late Mr. Joseph Sabine, the
Secretary to the Horticultural Society.
[3] Sir John Burgoyne’s letter to the “Times,” dated th October, 1847.
[4] The following description of the state of agriculture in West
Clare, previously to the failure in the potato crop in 1845, is taken
from a narrative by Captain Mann of the Royal Navy, who had for some
time previously been stationed in that district, in charge of the Coast
Guard, and when the distress commenced, he took an active and very
useful part in assisting in the measures of relief: “Agriculture at
that period was in a very neglected state; wheat, barley, and oats,
with potatoes as the food of the poor, being the produce. Of the
first very little was produced, and that not good in quality; barley,
a larger proportion and good; oats, much greater, but inferior for
milling purposes. Various reasons were given for this inferiority in
produce, the quality of the land and deteriorated seed being the cause
generally assigned; but I would say that the population being content
with, and relying on, the produce of the potato as food--which had
with very few exceptions hitherto proved abundant--there was a general
neglect and want of any attempt at improvement. Green crops were all
but unknown, except here and there a little turnip or mangel wurzel in
the garden or field of the better class,--the former scarcely to be
purchased. Even the potatoes were tilled in the easiest way, (in beds
called ‘lazy beds’), not in drills, so that the hoe might in a very
short time clear the weeds and lighten the soil.”
[5] We are indebted for these particulars to Mr. Mc Cullagh, who has
lately collected the contemporary accounts of this famine. It appears
that the farmers at this period did not dig their potatoes until about
Christmas, and that few stored them at all for use.
[6] An interesting account by Mr. Bertolacci, of the manner in which
this fund and that collected in 1831 were distributed, will be found in
the “Morning Chronicle” of the 25th November, 1847.
[7] For the details of these operations see the following Parliamentary
papers:--
“Copies of the Reports of Messrs. Griffith, Nimmo, and Killaly, the
civil engineers employed during the late scarcity, in superintending
the Public Works in Ireland; 16 April, 1823 (249).”
“Report from the Select Committee on the employment of the poor in
Ireland; 16 July, 1823 (561).”
It is a remarkable testimony to the improvement effected by such works
in the social habits of the people, that the district between the
Shannon and the Blackwater, which was opened in four directions by
the roads executed by Mr. Griffith, although formerly the seat of the
Desmond Rebellion, and subsequently, in the year 1821, the asylum for
Whiteboys and the focus of the Whiteboy warfare, during which time four
regiments were required to repress outrage, became perfectly tranquil,
and continued so up to the commencement of the late calamity.
[8] The following remarkable passage is extracted from the Report of
the Dublin Mansion House Committee, dated the 22nd October, 1831:--
“But while the Mansion House Committee thus congratulate themselves
and the subscribers upon the success of their efforts to avert famine
and disease for a season from so considerable a portion of the island,
they owe it also to themselves and the subscribers to avow their honest
conviction that similar calls will be periodically made on public
benevolence, unless a total change be effected in the condition of
the Irish peasant. What means should be adopted to remedy these evils
it is not the province of this Committee to suggest; but they deem it
their duty to call the attention of the subscribers particularly to
this state of things, in the hope of some remedy being discovered and
applied before public benevolence is quite exhausted by repeated drains
on its sympathy.”
On the 21st May, 1838, the Duke of Wellington made the following
observations in the debate on the introduction of the Irish Poor
Law:--“There never was a country in which poverty existed to so great a
degree as it exists in Ireland. I held a high situation in that country
thirty years ago, and I must say, that, from that time to this, there
has scarcely elapsed a single year, in which the Government has not
at certain periods of it entertained the most serious apprehension of
actual famine. I am firmly convinced that from the year 1806, down
to the present time, a year has not passed in which the Government
have not been called on to give assistance to relieve the poverty and
distress which prevailed in Ireland.”
[9] The particulars of what took place on this occasion will be found
in a letter from the Poor Law Commissioners to Sir J. Graham, dated the
9th June, 1842, and in a statement dated 18th August, 1842, prepared
under the directions of the Irish Government, showing “the sums issued
for the relief of distress in Ireland from the 17th June to the 17th
August, 1842,” &c.
[10] This Return is for sums “advanced on loan since the Union,” but
in some cases the advances have not been repaid, and in others large
grants were made in addition to loans.
[11] “Observations upon certain evils arising out of the present state
of the Laws of Real Property in Ireland, and Suggestions for remedying
the same.”--Dublin: Alex. Thom, 1847. The author of this pamphlet is
Mr. Booth, who has for many years past held the responsible office of
Clerk of the Survey in Ireland, under the Master-General and Board of
Ordnance. It will be seen by a perusal of the pamphlet, that this able
and deserving officer has fully availed himself of the opportunities
which his situation afforded, for making himself acquainted with the
social state of Ireland; and that he has successfully applied to the
consideration of the subject, that practical ability from which the
public service has derived so much benefit.
[12] “Observations on the evils resulting to Ireland from the
insecurity of Title and the existing Laws of Real Property, with some
Suggestions towards a remedy.”--Dublin: Hodges and Smith. London:
Ridgway; 1847. The author of this pamphlet is Mr. Jonathan Pim, who, in
the capacity of joint secretary, with Mr. Joseph Bewley, of the Dublin
Friends’ Relief Committee, took the lead in the admirably benevolent
and practical measures adopted by that excellent society for the relief
of the distress, and the re-establishment of the industry of Ireland on
a more secure and satisfactory footing than before. Mr. Pim is also the
author of a more extended work, entitled “The Condition and Prospects
of Ireland,” which has just been published, and which, if we mistake
not, will prove one of the most useful publications which have yet
appeared on this deeply interesting subject.
[13] It is perfectly true that the unembarrassed holder of an entailed
estate is often not sufficiently owner of it to be able to do justice
to it. He cannot sell a portion to improve the remainder, however
much both the part sold and the part retained would be benefited
by it. He can burden the estate to provide for younger children’s
portions, but not to carry on improvements which would increase its
annual produce. Improvements are generally made out of capital, and
not out of income. Owners of entailed estates, for the most part, live
up to their means; and when they do not, their savings are seldom
sufficient to carry on works of any importance. Over the capital sum
representing the aggregate value of the estate, they have no command,
except for purposes which make them poorer, and consequently still
less able to execute any useful design. At the present crisis of our
national affairs, it behoves us to consider what course will be the
best both for the landowners and for the community at large. There is
a fearful surplus population in Ireland and the north-western part of
Scotland which must be provided for; while in England itself thousands
of railway labourers and Irish paupers roam unemployed about the
country; and the question is, whether, by removing the obstacles which
at present oppose the profitable employment of the enormous capital
invested in land, we might not obtain new resources which would enrich
the owners of land, diffuse comfort and enjoyment in each locality, and
help to provide for the unemployed population which is sitting like an
incubus upon all the three kingdoms.
[14] The following Table gives the leading particulars relating to the
estates under the management of the Courts in Ireland during the years
1841-2 and 3:
_Court of Chancery._
+-----------+------+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
| | | | Arrears of Rent. |
| |No. Of| Rental of +-----------------+----------------+
| |Causes| Estates. | When Receiver | When Receiver |
| | | | was appointed. | last accounted.|
+-----------+------+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
| | | £ s. d.| £ s. d. | £ s. d. |
| 1841. | 698 |598,635 13 10¾| 39,358 16 4½ |347,226 14 10 |
+-----------+------+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
| 1842. | 595 |548,783 12 9 | 3,105 0 10 |299,554 10 8 |
+-----------+------+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
| 1843. | 764 |563,022 2 4 | 39,265 13 1 |290,292 4 10 |
+-----------+------+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
|Average of | 686 |570,147 2 11¾| 27,243 3 5 |312,357 16 10 |
|three years| | | | |
+-----------+------+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
| | | _Court of Exchequer._ | |
|From 1836 | | | | |
|to 1843 | 316 |132,675 2 3 | 56,163 6 6 | 87,849 0 11¼ |
|inclusive. | | | | |
+-----------+------+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
The arrears of rent have since greatly increased, although the object
of the Courts is confined to getting in the Rents, improvements being
seldom attempted. The condition of the people on these neglected, and
with reference to their present state of cultivation, over-populated
estates, is melancholy in the extreme.
[15] “Observations upon certain evils,” &c.
[16] “Observations upon certain evils,” &c.
[17] “Observations upon certain evils,” &c.
[18] “Observations on the evils resulting to Ireland,” &c.
[19] Treasury Minute, October 15, 1847.
[20] These useful reforms were suggested by Mr. Pierce Mahony, who
is entitled to the gratitude of the public, for the perseverance
and ability with which he has, for many years past, with little
encouragement either from the public or from those who have
administered the Government of the country, advocated these and other
measures directed to the extremely important object of simplifying,
facilitating, and rendering more secure the transfer and tenure of land.
[21] The year 1845 was the second and worst in America; and in 1846,
although it still extensively prevailed, the disease was of a milder
type and only partially affected the crop.
[22] The following extract from Captain Mann’s Narrative, descriptive
of what took place at this period in the county of Clare, will be read
with interest: “The early culture of 1846 was in no way improved; a
great proportion of the land was again tilled with potatoes, under
the expectation that, as in former years, the late scarcity would be
followed by a bountiful supply. The first alarm was in the latter part
of July, when the potatoes showed symptoms of the previous year’s
disease; but I shall never forget the change in one week in August. On
the first occasion, on an official visit of inspection, I had passed
over thirty-two miles thickly studded with potato fields in full
bloom. The next time the face of the whole country was changed; the
stalk remained bright green, but the leaves were all scorched black.
It was the work of a night. Distress and fear was pictured in every
countenance, and there was a general rush to dig and sell, or consume
the crop by feeding pigs and cattle, fearing in a short time they
would prove unfit for any use. Consequently there was a very wasteful
expenditure, and distress showed itself much earlier than in the
preceding season.”
[23] The following extract from Captain Mann’s Narrative will give some
idea of the difficulty of prevailing on the people to have recourse
to the new food:--“The first issue of Indian corn meal was in March,
1846. It is impossible to conceive the strong prejudice against it; and
I may here bear testimony to the benevolent and right feeling of the
Rev. J. Kenny, P P. Previously to the sale of the meal being commenced,
a small portion was sent to me by Commissary-General (now Sir Edward)
Coffin, which I placed in the hands of the reverend gentleman. He
tried and approved of it, and in order to overcome any feeling against
it, subsequently, with his two curates, all but entirely lived on
the meal made into bread and stirabout, for nearly a fortnight using
all his influence to convince the people that the pernicious effects
ascribed to it were untrue. Such conduct is above any praise of mine.
The success attending this measure, it is quite unnecessary for me to
allude to; and the merchants profiting by the example, commenced a
trade new to them by importing the article.” The use of Indian corn
meal was adopted in hundreds of households of the higher classes,
both Protestant and Roman Catholic, besides that of Father Kenny,
for the purpose of overcoming the popular prejudice by the force of
example. The Society of Arts awarded a gold medal to Mr. O’Brien,
baker, of Leinster Street, Dublin, for the attention paid by him to the
introduction of cheap popular modes of preparing Indian corn for use;
and tens of thousands of pamphlets and printed sheets were distributed
through the Commissariat containing instructions for cooking the Indian
corn, and showing the people what other cheap descriptions of food were
available to them. Those who know how difficult it is to induce a large
population to adopt new habits, will be surprised at the success which
attended these efforts. The “yellow meal,” as it is called, was first
known as “Peel’s brimstone,” and it was remembered that the attempt
to introduce it in a former season of distress occasioned a popular
commotion, arising from the absurd notion that it had the effect of
turning those who ate it black.
[24] This minute will be found from pages 67 to 71 of the first Board
of Works Series of Parliamentary Papers for 1847.
[25] A member of the Board of Works, writing to a friend, observed as
follows:--“I hope never to see such a winter and spring again. I can
truly say, in looking back upon it, even now, that it appears to me,
not a succession of weeks and days, but one long continuous day, with
occasional intervals of nightmare sleep. Rest one could never have,
night nor day, when one felt that in every minute lost a score of men
might die.”
[26] An officer of the Board of Works, observing the emaciated
condition of the labourers, reported that, as an engineer, he was
ashamed of allotting so little task-work for a day’s wages, while, as
a man, he was ashamed of requiring so much. In some districts proof
of attendance was obliged to be considered sufficient to entitle the
labourer to his wages. The exhausted state of the workmen was one
main cause of the small quantity of work done compared with the money
expended. The Irish peasant had been accustomed to remain at home,
cowering over his turf fire, during the inclement season of the year,
and exposure to the cold and rain on the roads, without sufficient food
or clothing, greatly contributed to the prevailing sickness. In order
to obviate this as far as possible, a Circular Letter was issued by the
Board of Works (1st series of 1847, page 499) directing that, in case
of snow or heavy rain, the labourers should merely attend roll call in
the morning, and be entered on the pay list for half a day’s pay; and
if it afterwards became fine, they were to come to work, which would
entitle them to a further allowance.
[27] In this month (March) the expenditure upon the Relief Works was
heaviest, viz.:--
Labour and Plant £1,024,518
Extra Staff 26,254
----------
Per Month £1,050,772
In the Week ending 13 March, 1847,
the expenditure for all the above
services was £259,105
which gives a Daily average for
that week 43,184
On the 5th March there was remitted
into the interior for carrying on
Relief Works 68,000
On the 30th March, only 16,000
These two are the extremes during the month.
The mean (for the month) of daily
remittance 38,920
[28] The proceedings of the Government, in reference to this point, are
fully explained in a letter from Mr. Trevelyan to Colonel Jones, and in
the accompanying Treasury Minute, printed in the first Board of Works
Series for 1847, page 97 to 100.
[29] See page 44 of the first Board of Works Series of 1847.
[30] The following shows the extent of the Government interference in
the supply of food in the two seasons of 1845-46 and 1846-47:--
+--------------------------------------------+--------------+---------+
| | Reduced | |
| | to general | |
| | denomination | Cost. |
| | of | |
| | quarters. | |
| +--------------+---------+
|Total quantity of Indian Corn and Oatmeal | | £ |
| provided for the Relief Service during the | | |
| first season of distress, up to August 1846| 98,810 | 163,240 |
| +--------------+---------+
|Of this quantity there remained in store | | |
| at the close of the first season of the | 14,575 | 24,073 |
| operations | | |
| | | |
|Total quantity of provisions of all kinds | | |
| (Indian Corn, Wheat, Barley, the meal | | |
| of those grains, Ryemeal, Biscuit, Peas, | | |
| Beans, and Rice) provided for the Relief | | |
| Service, during the second season of | | |
| distress up to September 1847 | 289,335 | 672,767 |
| +--------------+---------+
| | 303,910 | 696,840 |
| +--------------+---------+
|There remained in store at the close of | | |
| the second season of the operations, about | 108,960 | 249,836 |
+--------------------------------------------+--------------+---------+
[31] This was the amount of the private subscriptions upon which
Government donations were made; but other large sums were raised by
local Irish subscriptions, through the medium of some of the Relief
Committees, of which no account was furnished to the Government,
because the Committees concerned would not submit to the rule of
selling at cost price except in cases of extreme destitution.
Large funds were also administered by private individuals, quite
independently of the Local Relief Committees; of which class of
operations the following account of the expenditure of a Protestant
clergyman in the south-west of Ireland, with a parish of 10,000
inhabitants, no resident gentry, not a single town in the whole of it,
nor a road through the greater part of it, may be taken as a specimen:--
£ s. d.
Gratuitous aid of every sort 306 6 0
Loss by sale of food under market
price, when exorbitant 208 9 0
Payment of labour--making road
to the bog, and other public
works 150 10 0
Seed--corn, wheat, oats, and barley 300 0 0
Turnip seed 15 0 0
Fishing materials 150 10 6
------------
£1,130 15 6
Funds of this sort administered by benevolent and public-spirited
individuals in Ireland, were generally supplied by the exertions of
their relations and friends, or by grants from societies in England
and elsewhere. It was a common practice for ladies in England to
have parishes assigned to them in Ireland, and each lady raised all
she could, and made periodical remittances to the clergyman of her
adopted parish, receiving accounts from him in return, of the manner
in which the money was expended. The self-denial necessary to support
this charitable drain was carried to such an extent at Brighton and
elsewhere, that the confectioners and other trades-people suffered
severely in their business.
[32] Two electoral divisions were sometimes united under one Relief
Committee, but the accounts of each electoral division were kept
separate.
[33] The ration consisted of one pound of biscuit, meal, or flour;
or one quart of soup thickened with meal, with a quarter ration of
bread, biscuit or meal. When bread was issued, one pound and a-half was
allowed. It was found by experience that the best form in which cooked
food could be given, was “stirabout,” made of Indian meal and rice
steamed, which was sufficiently solid to be easily carried away by the
recipients. The pound ration thus prepared, swelled by the absorption
of water to three or four pounds.
[34] Report from Count Strzelecki to the British Relief Association.
[35] Seventh and last Monthly Report of the Relief Commissioners.
[36] Letter from Sir John Burgoyne, quoted by the Chancellor of the
Exchequer in the House of Commons.
[37] Third Report of the Relief Commission.
[38] The small holders in the Barony of Erris, in this county, declined
at first to accept the seed which was offered them, saying that if they
sowed it, the crops would be seized by their landlords. This was not
believed at the time in England, but it has nevertheless turned out
perfectly true. This barony, of which Belmullet is the principal place,
is the darkest corner of Ireland. In some instances broken Landowners
and their families were receiving rations, while their Tenants were
starving.
[39] The following interesting account of what took place in the county
of Clare on the subject of seed, is extracted from Captain Mann’s
Narrative:
“The first supply of seed sent for distribution by sale, was received
on the 13th March last, up to which period the prospect of the tillage
of the land being neglected was very alarming. The seed-grain had been
in most cases either partially or wholly consumed for food. Bad advice
had been given, that the Government or the landlords would be forced
into assisting--the former to pay wages for the time while the work
was going on, and the latter to provide seed, if the Government would
not. The supply alluded to was bere and rye. By dint of persuasion, and
having it published by the Roman Catholic clergy, the quantity sent was
taken and planted; and here let me add, that the most sanguine could
not have anticipated the great benefit of this importation. The value
of the bere as an early crop and produce exceeded every expectation. It
was reaped and in the market the latter part of July; and as compared
with other barley, it is stated to me, thrashed out five stone to the
barb, of twenty hand-sheafs, while the other only yielded three stone
from the same quantity. The rye grew on bog merely burnt, and that even
slightly; in some cases the heather being in bloom where the rye in the
same ground was ripe. Thus hundreds of acres were cultivated that might
have lain waste; and as the rye-meal brought by the ‘Sisters’ from St.
Petersburgh to this depôt, and issued as rations, became, after some
opposition, popular with the poor, it does not require any remark to
show the value and importance of this article, when considered as an
auxiliary substitute for the potato food, and the more so because it
can be grown on inferior land here, and not like the Indian corn meal,
which we are forced to look to other countries for.
“The supply of green crop and oat-seed by Her Majesty’s ship ‘Dragon’
was received here the 12th of April last. Some few landlords purchased
of the first, and supplied their tenantry, but of the latter but
little was purchased at that time. The feeling still existed that the
Government or the landlords would be forced into providing seed and
assisting the tillage; but when that vessel sailed, and they became
convinced to the contrary, the most pressing and even distressing
applications were made to me by the people to procure a supply of any
seed; the fact being clear that grain seed (oats and barley) was not to
be procured. Most fortunately, in a few days after, the hired steamer
‘Doris’ arrived with her cargo of oat-seed, the greater part of which
was freely purchased, and a vast quantity of land immediately tilled.
A sudden and favourable reaction took place, all appearing anxious
to raise something, and not let the land run to waste. Turnip-seed
was imported by dealers to a very large amount; and those who could,
bought and sowed it. Subsequently a small quantity was sent to me for
gratuitous distribution. Lists of the parties who received it, and the
quantities allotted, are herewith annexed; and to this were added some
small pamphlets given to me by Lord Robert Clinton, my object being
to assist the poor, and spread the benefit over the greatest possible
extent.
“I have now the pleasure to state, that instead of this part of the
country being as described in the first series, with respect to green
crops, the turnip particularly has become a general produce with even
the poorest. Quantities are daily exposed for sale in the markets, and
with a mixture of Indian corn meal, rice, or flour, it is used as a
substitute for bread. Emulation has been excited; and a few days since
I was invited to view an exhibition at Colonel Vandeleur’s, of the
following:
stone. lbs. lbs.
3 swedish turnips 4 0 weight. Heaviest of
the three 20
3 white ditto 3 11 ” Ditto 20
3 mangle wurzel 3 8 ” Ditto 18
Beside white carrots, &c. Experiments have been tried with the potato
set in drills very successfully; and I do trust that improvement will
make further progress under the system of instruction which it is said
will be adopted.”
[40] The readiness with which the Bank of Ireland, and the Provincial,
National and other banks, undertook the office of Treasurer to the
Finance Committees, and entered into every proposed detail and
accommodation, in support of the operations of the Commissariat, the
Relief Commission, and the Board of Works, is very creditable to the
managers, and deserves the thanks of the public.
[41] All the letters and proceedings of these officers showed that
their predominant feeling was an anxious desire to fulfil the
benevolent mission on which they had been sent. One observed that he
could bear anything but the “careless misery of the children;” another
that his heart was broken by the sobs of the women returning to their
homes with a smaller quantity of food than was sufficient for the
support of their families.
[42] The Four Commissions employed on these operations were composed as
follows:--
The Board of Works.
Lieut.-Col. H. D. Jones, R.E., Chairman.
Richard Griffith, Esq., Deputy Chairman.
Commissioners:
John Radcliff, Esq.
Wm. Thos. Mulvany, Esq.
Captain Larcom, R.E.