is called in Sanscrit Khaloupas’ Waddhaktinka, and is said to
enjoin that the food obtained by the mendicant is to be divided
into three portions: one to be given to any person whom he sees
to be suffering from hunger, and a second to be carried to some
quiet place in the forest, and placed upon a stone for the birds
and beasts. If he does not meet with any one who is in want, he
is not to eat the whole of the food that he has received, but
two-thirds only. By this means his body will be lighter and more
active.... He will be able readily to enter upon the practice of
all good works. When any one eats too greedily ... nothing is
more harmful to the development of reason.” (Quotation from
Remusat’s _Relation des Royaumes Buddhiques_, in Spence Hardy’s
_Eastern Monachism_.)
[13] “The alms-bowl which Sakyamuni used is considered a sacred
relic, and to be used by each of the hundred Buddhas of the
present kalpa. It was first preserved in Vais’ali, whence its
emigrations began to Gandhara, to Persia, to China, to Ceylon, to
Madhyades’a, up into the heaven Tuchita, and down to the bottom
of the ocean, where it is to await (in the palace of Sagara) the
advent of Meitreya Buddha.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.
[Chapter 2]
Upon that occasion, the venerable Subhuti[1] occupied a place in the
midst of the assembly. Rising from his seat, with cloak arranged in
such manner that his right shoulder was disclosed, Subhuti knelt upon
his right knee, then pressing together the palms of his hands, he
respectfully raised them towards Lord Buddha, saying: “Thou art of
transcendent wisdom, Honoured of the Worlds! With wonderful
solicitude, Thou dost preserve in the faith, and instruct in the Law,
this illustrious assembly of enlightened disciples.[2] Honoured of the
Worlds! if a good disciple, whether man or woman,[3] seeks to obtain
supreme spiritual wisdom,[4] what immutable Law shall sustain the mind
of that disciple, and bring into subjection every inordinate desire?”[5]
The Lord Buddha replied to Subhuti, saying: “Truly a most excellent
theme! As you affirmed, I preserve in the faith, and instruct in the
Law, this illustrious assembly of enlightened disciples. Attend
diligently unto me, and I shall enunciate a Law whereby the mind of a
good disciple, whether man or woman, seeking to obtain supreme
spiritual wisdom,[6] shall be adequately sustained, and enabled to
bring into subjection[7] every inordinate desire.” Subhuti was
gratified, and signified glad consent. Thereupon, the Lord Buddha,
with majesty of person,[8] and perfect articulation, proceeded to
deliver the text of this Scripture,[9] saying:—
[1] “A famous dialectician noted for the subtilty of his
intellect. He was a native of Shravasti, a contemporary of
Sakyamuni, and figures as the principal interlocutor in the
_Prajna-Paramita_.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.
[2] “_Pu-Sa_ or Bodhisattva, literally he whose essence (Sattva)
has become intelligence (Bodhi). A being that has only once more
to pass through human existence before it attains to Buddhaship.
The third class of Buddhistic saints comprehending all who are
candidates for Buddhaship as well as those Buddhas who are not yet
perfected by entrance into Nirvana. They are also styled
Mahasattvas (_Mo-Ho-Sa_). The state of a Bodhisattva is considered
as one of the three means of conveyance to Nirvana.”—_Handbook of
Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.
[3] “Women began to ask and received permission to take the
vows. They were called in India Bikshuni.... Ni is the Sanscrit
feminine termination of Bikshu. These female mendicants were
subject to the same code of regulations as the males.”—_Chinese
Buddhism_. Edkins.
[4] “_ho-ru-to-lo-san-mao-san-pu-ti_ (Anuttara Samyak Sambodhi),
literally unexcelled perfect intelligence. Another more
painstaking but arbitrary explanation is untarnished and
unparalleled (Nuttara) correct view (Sam) and complete wisdom
(Myak) with complete possession of the highest sentiments
(Sambodhi). This term, one of the sacred phrases of most frequent
occurrence, signifies the characteristics which every Buddha
possesses.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.
“The unsurpassed, just, and enlightened heart.”—_Kin-Kong-King_.
Beal.
[5] “When a man’s heart is disposed in accordance with his roaming
senses, it snatches away his spiritual knowledge as the wind does
a ship on the waves.”—_Bhagavad-Gita_. J. Cockburn Thomson.
[6] Chinese commentators are careful to explain that the title of
this Sutra, _Po-ro-po-lo-mi_ (_Prajna-Paramita_), means Wisdom, by
which we are enabled to reach the other shore (Nirvana).
[7] “Bringing into captivity every thought to the obedience of
Christ.”—The Apostle Paul.
[8] Compare the Chinese text of the famous Buddhist tract entitled
_Awakening of Faith_, written by _Ma-Ming_ (Asvaghocha), “who
flourished A.D. 50, under the Indo-Scythic king, Gondophares.”
[9] “This work contains the germ of the larger compilation
_Prajna-Paramita_ in one hundred and twenty volumes. The
abstractions of Buddhist philosophy, which were afterwards
ramified to such a formidable extent as these numbers indicate,
are here found in their primary form, probably as they were taught
by Sakyamuni himself.”—_Chinese Buddhism_. Edkins.
[Chapter 3 and 4]
“By this wisdom shall enlightened disciples be enabled to bring into
subjection every inordinate desire! Every species of life, whether
hatched in the egg, formed in the womb, evolved from spawn, produced
by metamorphosis, with or without form or intelligence, possessing or
devoid of natural instinct—from these changeful[1] conditions of
being, I command you to seek deliverance,[2] in the transcendental
concept of Nirvana.[3] Thus, you shall be delivered from an
immeasurable, innumerable, and illimitable world of sentient life;
but, in reality, there is no world of sentient life from which to
seek deliverance. And why? Because, in the minds[4] of enlightened
disciples there have ceased to exist such arbitrary concepts of
phenomena as an entity, a being, a living being, or a personality.”[5]
“Moreover, Subhuti, an enlightened disciple ought to act spontaneously
in the exercise of charity,[6] uninfluenced by sensuous phenomena[7]
such as sound, odour, taste, touch, or Law.[8] Subhuti, it is
imperative that an enlightened disciple, in the exercise of charity,
should act independently of phenomena. And why? Because, acting
without regard to illusive forms of phenomena, he will realise in the
exercise of charity, a merit inestimable and immeasurable.”
“Subhuti, what think you? Is it possible to estimate the distance
comprising the illimitable universe of space?”[9] Subhuti replied,
saying: “Honoured of the Worlds! It is impossible to estimate the
distance comprising the illimitable universe of space.” The Lord
Buddha thereupon discoursed, saying: “It is equally impossible to
estimate the merit[10] of an enlightened disciple, who discharges the
exercise of charity, unperturbed by the seductive influences of
phenomena. Subhuti, the mind of an enlightened disciple ought thus to
be indoctrinated.”[11]
[1] “The first of six Paramita—charity, morality, endurance,
energy, contemplation, wisdom—cardinal virtues, or means of
progressing towards Nirvana. The virtue of religious charity,
implying all kinds of self-denying acts, almsgiving, sacrifice,
etc.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.
[2] “The kind of craving excitement, which follows on sensation,
and causes the delusion of self and the lust of life—creating
either delight in the objects that present themselves, or an eager
desire to supply a felt want—this eager yearning thirst growing
into sensuality, desire of future life, or love of the present
world, is the origin of all suffering. Sorrow and suffering will
be overcome, extinguished, if this ‘thirst’ be quenched, this lust
of life destroyed. ‘He who overcomes this contemptible thirst,
sufferings fall off from him like water drops from a lotus
leaf.’”—_Buddhism_. T. W. Rhys Davids.
[3] _Fah_, the Chinese equivalent of Dharma—Law, appears to be a
generic term for all religious doctrines incidental to Buddhism.
The Buddhas are invariably referred to as _Fah-Wang_—Princes of
the Law. The Sutras are frequently alluded to as _Fah-Pao_—Jewels
of the Law. The monks are usually designated _Fah-Men_—Disciples
of the Law. The interminable process of transmigration is depicted
by _Fah-Luen_—Wheel of the Law. The dissemination of Buddhistic
tenets is typified by _Chuan-Fah-Luen_—Revolving Wheel of the Law.
Religious designations consonant with the idea of Law, are held in
high esteem amongst the Buddhist ecclesiastical orders. Of such
are _Fah-Ai_—Lover of the Law; _Fah-Lien_—Approved in the Law;
_Fah-Ming_—Brightness of the Law (compare Eitel’s _Handbook of
Chinese Buddhism_.
[4] “Subhuti, can the western, or southern, or northern regions of
space be measured? or the four midway regions of space (_i.e._,
N.E., S.E., S.W., N.W.), or the upper and lower regions: can
either of these be accurately measured or defined?”—
_Kin-Kong-King_. Beal.
[5] “Of all the modes of acquiring merit, that of almsgiving is
the principal; it is the chief of the virtues that are requisite
for the attainment of the Buddhaship; it is the first of the four
great virtues, _viz_.: almsgiving, affability, promoting the
prosperity of others, and loving others as ourselves; it is
superior to the observance of the precepts—the path that all the
Buddhas have trod—a lineage to which they have all belonged....
The giving of alms softens the mind, and brings it into
subjection, by which the ascetic is prepared for the exercise of
the rites he is afterwards to practise.... The faithful are
required to give in alms of that which they have honestly earned
by their own personal exertions.... There must be a willing mind
respecting that which they offer, from the time that the intention
of making the offering is formed to the time when it is presented,
as well as after it has been made.... When the gift, the giver,
and the receiver are all pure, the reward is proportionately
great.”—_Eastern Monachism_. Spence Hardy.
[6] “Let his livelihood be kindliness,
His conduct righteousness,
Then in the fulness of gladness
He will make an end of grief.”—_Buddhism_. T. W. Rhys Davids.
[1] Discoursing upon illusory ideas concerning the world of
sentient life, the Lord Buddha stated that these were already
eliminated from the minds of his enlightened disciples. The
reference in the text is to disciples in process of instruction,
and these the Lord Buddha commanded to relegate to oblivion the
deceptive idea of the reality of sentient life, to dissolve within
their minds its nauseous dregs, to put away its horrid stain, and
cause it to vanish like snow in a glowing furnace.—_Chinese
Annotation_.
“The very nature of phenomena demonstrates that they must have had
a beginning, and that they must have an end.”—_Lay Sermons_.
Huxley.
[2] By adopting the term _Mieh-Tu_, Chinese Buddhists appear well
prepared to refute a prevalent notion that their concept of
deliverance is equivalent to annihilation. _Mieh_ usually means
annihilation, but _Tu_—to cross over in safety, is the antithesis
of annihilation. After due consideration of the significance of
the terminology, perhaps it will be generally conceded that
English renderings of _Mieh-Tu_ as Deliverance or Salvation, are
not without some degree of justification.
“All these I command and exhort to enter on the state of the
unsurpassed Nirvana (Pari Nirvana), and for ever to free
themselves from the conditions of being to which they severally
belong.”—_Kin-Kong-King_. Beal.
[3] “The dewdrop slips into the shining sea.”—_Light of Asia_.
Sir Edwin Arnold.
“The dewdrop re-becomes the shining sea.”—_Chioh-Hsien_ (a
Chinese monk).
“The popular exoteric systems agree in defining Nirvana negatively
as a state of absolute exemption from the circle of transmigration
as a state of entire freedom from all forms of materiality, from
all passion and exertion, mentally and emotionally, a state of
indifference therefore alike to joy and pain. Positively they
define Nirvana as the highest stage of spiritual liberty and
bliss, as absolute immortality through absorption of the soul into
itself. Individuality is preserved, and Buddhas who have entered
Nirvana occasionally reappear again to intervene on behalf of the
faithful.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.
[4] The able commentator _Ti-Ching_ observes that many people,
like Ananda—a favourite disciple of Buddha—are in error when they
suppose their minds to be located within their material bodies.
This interesting aspect of Buddhist psychology is made tolerably
clear in the familiar narrative known generally as _The
Enlightenment of Ananda_. Therein the Lord Buddha endeavours to
prove that as objects within ourselves are invisible, the
illuminating mind cannot be asserted to inhabit exclusively our
material bodies. He also indicates that it cannot be affirmed to
occupy any appointed sphere outside ourselves, it being usually
understood that we observe only those objects by which we are
environed. The Lord Buddha also controverts the theory, enunciated
by Ananda, that the mind is secreted somewhere within the organs
of sense; which assumption is based upon a notion that the seeing
eye, and differentiating mind, are mysteriously correlated.
[5] “This belief in self is regarded so distinctly as a heresy
that two well-known words in Buddhist terminology have been coined
on purpose to stigmatise it. The first of these is Sakkayaditthi,
‘the heresy of individuality,’ the name given to this belief as
one of the three primary delusions (the others being doubt, and
belief in the efficacy of rites or ceremonies) which must be
abandoned at the very first stage of the Buddhist path of
holiness. The other is Attavada, ‘the doctrine of soul or self,’
which is the name given to it as a part of the chain of causes
which lead to the origin of evil. It is there classed—with
sensuality, heresy (as to eternity and annihilation), and belief
in the efficacy of rites and ceremonies—as one of the four
Upadanas, which are the immediate cause of birth, decay, death,
sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair.”—_Buddhism_. T. W.
Rhys Davids.
[Chapter 5]
The Lord Buddha interrogated Subhuti, saying: “What think you? Is it
possible that by means of his physical body,[1] the Lord Buddha may be
clearly perceived?” Subhuti replied, saying: “No! Honoured of the
Worlds! It is impossible that by means of his physical body, the Lord
Buddha may be clearly perceived. And why? Because, what the Lord
Buddha referred to as a physical body, is in reality not merely a
physical body.” Thereupon the Lord Buddha addressed Subhuti, saying:
“Every form or quality of phenomena is transient and illusive. When
the mind realises that the phenomena of life are not real phenomena,
the Lord Buddha may then be clearly perceived.”[2]
[1] “Primitive Buddhism distinguished a material, visible, and
perishable body (_Seh-Shen_—_lit_., the Body of Form) and an
immaterial, invisible, immortal body (_Fah-Shen_—_lit_., the Body
of Law) as the constituents of every personality. This
dichotomism, taught, as it seems by Sakyamuni himself, was ever
afterwards retained as regards the nature of ordinary mortals. But
in later ages, when the combined influence of Sivaism, which
ascribed to Siva a threefold body (called _Dharmakaya_—essence,
_Sambhogakaya_—reflex intelligence, and _Nirmanakaya_—practical
issue of his intelligence), and that of Brahmanism with its
Trimurti, gave rise to the Buddhist dogma of a Triratna
(_San-Pao_—the precious Buddha, the precious Law, and the precious
Priesthood), trichotomism was taught with regard to the nature of
all Buddhas. Again they ascribed to every Buddha a triple form of
existence, viewing him: [1] as having entered Nirvana; [2] as
existing in reflex in the world of form; [3] as existing or having
existed on earth.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.
[2] The spiritual Buddha must be realised within the mind,
otherwise there can be no true perception of the Lord
Buddha.—_Chinese Annotation_.
[Chapter 6]
Subhuti enquired of the Lord Buddha, saying: “Honoured of the Worlds!
In future ages, when this scripture is proclaimed, amongst those
beings destined to hear, shall any conceive within their minds a
sincere, unmingled faith?”[1]
The Lord Buddha replied to Subhuti, saying: “Have no such apprehensive
thought! Even at the remote period of five centuries subsequent to the
Nirvana of the Lord Buddha,[3] there will be many disciples observing
the monastic vows,[3] and assiduously devoted to good works.[4] These,
hearing this scripture proclaimed, will believe in its immutability,
and similarly conceive within their minds a pure, unmingled faith.
Besides, it is important to realise that faith[5] thus conceived, is
not exclusively in virtue of the insular thought of any particular
Buddha, but because of its affiliation with the concrete[6] thoughts
of myriad Buddhas, throughout infinite ages. Therefore, amongst the
beings destined to hear this Scripture proclaimed, many, by momentary
reflection, will intuitively[7] conceive a pure and holy faith.”
“Subhuti, the Lord Buddha by his prescience,[8] is perfectly cognisant
of all such potential disciples, and for these also there is reserved
an immeasurable merit. And why? Because, the minds of these disciples
will not revert to such arbitrary concepts of phenomena as an entity,
a being, a living being, a personality, qualities or ideas coincident
with Law, or existing apart from the idea of Law. And why? Because,
assuming the permanency and reality of phenomena, the minds of these
disciples would be involved in such distinctive ideas as an entity, a
being, a living being, and a personality. Affirming the permanency and
reality of qualities or ideas coincident with Law, their minds would
inevitably be involved in resolving these same definitions.
Postulating the inviolate nature of qualities or ideas which have an
existence apart from the Law, there yet remain to be explained these
abstruse distinctions—an entity, a being, a living being, and a
personality. Therefore, enlightened disciples ought not to affirm the
permanency or reality of qualities or ideas coincident with Law, nor
postulate as being of an inviolate nature, qualities or ideas having
an existence apart from the concept of Law.”
“Thus, we are enabled to appreciate the significance of those words
which the Lord Buddha invariably repeated to his followers: ‘You
disciples must realise that the Law which I enunciated, was presented
before your minds in the simile of a raft.[9] If the Law—having
fulfilled its function in bearing you to the other shore
(Nirvana)[10]—with its coincident qualities and ideas must inevitably
be abandoned,[11] how much more inevitable must be the abandonment of
qualities or ideas which have an existence apart from the Law?’”
[1] Compare the question addressed by Jesus to His disciples,
“When the Son of Man cometh, shall He find faith on the earth?”
[2] “In fulness of the times—it fell
The Buddha died, the great Tathagata,
Even as a man ’mongst men, fulfilling all:
And how a thousand thousand lakhs since then
Have trod the Path which leads whither he went
Unto Nirvana, where the Silence lives.”—_The
Light of Asia_. Sir Edwin Arnold.
[3] When a novice seeks admission to a monastic order, an
ordination service is conducted by a chapter of monks, at which
the following vows are administered. “I take the vow not to
destroy life. I take the vow not to steal. I take the vow to
abstain from impurity. I take the vow not to lie. I take the vow
to abstain from intoxicating drinks, which hinder progress and
virtue. I take the vow not to eat at forbidden times. I take the
vow to abstain from dancing, singing, music, and stage plays. I
take the vow not to use garlands, scents, unguents, or ornaments.
I take the vow not to use a high or broad bed. I take the vow not
to receive gold or silver.” (Compare _Buddhism_. T. W. Rhys Davids.)
[4] “The primary motive for doing good, and worshipping Buddha,
according to these scriptures (the Buddha scriptures of Nipal), is
the hope of obtaining absorption into the nature of the god, and
being freed from transmigrations.”—_China_. Sir John Francis Davis.
[5] “And is thy faith so much to give,
Is it so hard a thing to see,
That the Spirit of God, whate’er it be,
The Law that abides and changes not, ages long,
The Eternal and Nature-Born—these things be strong?”—_The
Bacche_. Euripides (translated by Gilbert Murray).
[6] “The elements of faith, like the flowers, appear to have their
roots in eternity.”—_Chang-Ming_ (a Chinese monk).
[7] “Were it possible for a Yogi and a Rahat from India, a Greek
philosopher from one of the schools holding the power of
intuition, an ascetic from the wilds of Syria or the mountains of
Egypt, a heretic from the school at Alexandria, a monk from one of
the monasteries of Europe, a schoolman of the Middle Ages, and a
modern German metaphysician of the school of Schelling to meet
together, and were it possible for them to forget their sectarian
subtleties and nice distinctions, they would find that there was a
vast mass of speculation about the main principles of which they
were agreed. They would be of one mind relative to the four
following propositions: [1] That there is an objective potency of
intellect; [2] That this potency can be rendered subjective by
concentrated thought, ascetic exercises, or determined effort; [3]
That this potency can only be acquired by the initiated; [4] That
the initiated may enlarge this potency to a limitless extent. As
to the efficient cause of the potency, there would be a difference
of opinion; some would ascribe it to intuition alone, while others
would attribute it to an alliance with higher spirits or with God;
but of its existence there would be no doubt.”—_Eastern
Monachism_. Spence Hardy.
[8] “For now I know, by what within me stirs,
That I shall teach compassion unto men
And be a speechless world’s interpreter.”—_The Light of
Asia_. Sir Edwin Arnold.
[9] “(By me) is made a well-constructed raft,—so said Bhagavat—I
have passed over (to Nibbana), I have reached the further bank,
having overcome the torrent (of passions); there is no (further)
use for a raft: therefore if thou like, rain, O
sky!”—_Sutta-Nipata_. Fausböll.
[10] Compare an idea expressed by the apostle Paul, “wherefore the
law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ.” Note, also, the
similarity of a metaphor employed in Christian anthology, “We
shall meet on that beautiful ‘shore.’”
[11] “Our little systems have their day,
They have their day and cease to be;
They are but broken lights of Thee,
But thou, O Lord, art more than they.”—Tennyson.
“Reposing on eternal truth ... when thy mind shall have worked
through the snares of delusion, then wilt thou attain to
indifference to the doctrines, which are either (already)
received, or have yet to be received.”—_Bhagavad-Gita_. J.
Cockburn Thomson.
[Chapter 7]
The Lord Buddha addressed Subhuti, saying: “What think you? Has the
Lord Buddha really attained to supreme spiritual wisdom? Or has he a
system of doctrine which can be specifically formulated?”
Subhuti replied, saying: “As I understand the meaning of the Lord
Buddha’s discourse, he has no system of doctrine which can be
specifically formulated; nor can the Lord Buddha express, in explicit
terms, a form of knowledge which can be described as supreme spiritual
wisdom. And why? Because, what the Lord Buddha adumbrated in terms of
the Law, is transcendental and inexpressible. Being a purely spiritual
concept, it is neither consonant with Law, nor synonymous with
anything apart from the Law. Thus[1] is exemplified the manner by
which wise disciples and holy Buddhas, regarding intuition[2] as the
Law of their minds, severally attained to different planes of
spiritual wisdom.”[3]