Transcriber’s notes:
The text of this e-book has been preserved as in the original,
including inconsistent capitalisation and hyphenation. Archaic and
inconsistent spellings have also been preserved except where obviously
misspelled in the original. A list of spelling corrections and
inconsistencies is appended at the end. Archaic phraseology has been
retained. Incorrect paragraph numbering on p. 17 has been corrected,
and several missing full stops have been inserted.
VETERINARY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION
OF AMERICA
NOTES ON
VETERINARY ANATOMY
BY
CHARLES J. KORINEK, V. S.
_Graduate of the Ontario Veterinary College, in affiliation with
the University of Toronto, Canada. Hon. Member of the Ontario
Veterinary Medical Society. Ex. State Veterinarian for
Oregon. Ex. President of the Oregon State Veterinary Medical
Board of Examiners. Author of “The Veterinarian”. Principal
of the Veterinary Science Association of America. Sixteen
years of Practical Experience as a Veterinary Surgeon._
[Illustration]
PUBLISHED BY THE
VETERINARY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION
OF AMERICA
COPYRIGHT 1917
by the
VETERINARY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION
OF AMERICA
TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page
Plate I. Skeleton of the Horse 7
Plate II. Muscles of the Horse, superficial layer 29
Plate III. Muscles of the Horse, deep layer 31
Plate IV. Digestive and Urinary Organs of the Horse 37
Plate V. Heart and Chief Blood Vessels of the Horse 69
Plate VI. Nervous System of the Horse 73
Plate VII. Structure of the Horse’s Foot 78
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
Chapter I. Osteology, or Structure of the Bones 8
Chapter II. Arthrology, or Study of the Joints 21
Chapter III. Myology, or Study of the Muscular System 28
Chapter IV. Splanchnology, or Study of the Digestive,
Respiratory, Urinary and Generative Systems 38
Chapter V. Angiology, or Study of the Blood-Vascular
System, as the Heart, Arteries, Veins,
Lymphatic Vessels and Glands 67
Chapter VI. Neurology, or Study of the Nervous Tissue,
as the Brain, Spinal Cord and Their Nerves 73
Chapter VII. Aesthesiology, or the Study of the Organs of
Special Sense, as the Ear, Eye and Organs of
Sensation, as Skin, Hair, Foot, etc. 75
Chapter VIII. Embryology or Development of the Foetus 81
PREFACE
There are a number of excellent works on Veterinary Anatomy, and many
of them will amply repay the student for the time taken to master
them, but for quick reference none seem to contain the wants of the
veterinary practitioner and student for which this humble little work
is primarily intended.
It has been my endeavor to briefly describe each organ as found in the
healthy animal; its functions, etc., in a condensed yet complete form.
I am positive that the student or veterinary practitioner will find its
pages highly instructive as well as profitable and interesting.
In compiling this work a few authorities have been consulted and
quoted, while it has not been practical to give individual credit for
the use of ideas and language, a general acknowledgement is here made:
Veterinary Science, Hodgins and Haskett.
Veterinary Anatomy, Strangeways.
CHARLES J. KORINEK, V. S.
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY
Osteology is a term applied to that section of descriptive anatomy
which treats of the bones. _Arthrology_, to the consideration of the
joints or modes of union between the bones, while by _Myology_ is
meant the doctrine of the muscular system. _Splanchnology_ treats of
the viscera, _Angiology_ of the circulatory and absorbent systems.
_Neurology_ deals with the nervous system. _Aesthesiology_ with
the organs of sense; while _Embryology_, as before stated is the
consideration of the animal frame at periods preceding its birth.
In this work the various departments are discussed in the order
here given. The structures which are the subject of the first three
divisions are sometimes classed together as the _Organs of Locomotion_;
for bones form the frame work of the body and often act as levers; the
joints connect the bones, permitting more or less motion between them;
while the muscles move the bones, and so produce motion of a part of
the body--or it may be locomotion, or change of situation in the entire
frame.
In the study of comparative Anatomy the terms _analogy_ and _homology_
are frequently met with. Although these words are unfrequently used
indiscriminately, the following differences should be noted. Organs
are said to be analogous when, though differing in structure, they
perform the same function; but when their functions are different,
which, in the broad sense, they correspond in structure or form, they
are said to be homologous. Thus the middle finger of the human hand is
the homologue of the anterior (front) digit of a horse, because they
have the same general structure, and relation to the rest of the limb;
but as the functions they perform are quite dissimilar, they cannot be
termed analogous. Again, the lungs of a mammal are analogous to the
gills of a fish, for, though they differ widely in structure, position
and form, and are therefore not homologous, their ultimate use is
the same--each of them being an apparatus in which is carried on the
process of purifying the blood.
DISSECTION.
Students must dissect as many animals as possible, so as to familiarize
themselves with the _frame work or structure_, and the location of the
_digestive, nervous and blood systems_, as it will aid materially in
the art or process of determining the nature of various diseases.
During cool weather an animal for dissecting purposes can be kept for a
considerable length of time without preservatives
It is well to have a copy of Anatomy at hand when dissecting for
it will show the location of the various organs and explain their
functions.
[Illustration: PLATE I.
SKELETON OF HORSE--AFTER MEGNIN.]
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I
SKELETON OF THE HORSE
1. Skull, or skeleton of the head.
2. Cervical vertebræ or neck bones.
3. Dorsal vertebræ or back bones.
4. Lumbar vertebræ or loin bones.
5. Sacral vertebræ or rump bones.
6. Coccygeal vertebræ or tail bones.
7. Pelvic or hip bones.
8. Sternum or breast bone.
9. Ribs.
10. Scapula or shoulder blade.
11. Humerus or shoulder bone.
12. Radius or bone of the fore-arm.
13. Ulna or bone of the fore-arm.
14. Carpus or bones of the knee.
15. Os Melacarpi Magnus, metacarpal, or cannon bone.
16. Ossa Melacarpi Parva, or splint bones.
17. Proximal Phalanx, os suffraginis, or large pastern bone.
18. Great Sesamoid Bones.
19. Medium Phalanx, os coronæ, or small pastern bone.
20. Distal Phalanx, os pedis, or coffin bone.
21. Os Naviculare, small sesamoid, or shuttle bone.
(This bone can be plainly seen Plate VII).
22. Femur, or thigh bone.
23. Patella, or stifle bone.
24. Tibia, or leg bone.
25. Fibula. (This bone is little developed in the horse.)
26. Tarsus or hock bones.
27. Metatarsus, or os metatarsi magnus.
28. Ossa Metatarsi Parva, or splint bones of the hind leg.
Names of joints placed according to numbers.
I. Shoulder Joint.
II. Elbow Joint.
III. Carpus or knee joint.
IV. Fetlock Joint.
V. Pastern Joint.
VI. Coffin Joint.
VII. Hip Joint.
VIII. Stifle Joint.
IX. Tarsus or hock joint.
CHAPTER I.
OSTEOLOGY.
STRUCTURE OF THE BONES--Bones are hard, yellow-white, insensitive
objects, which form the skeleton and give attachment to soft structures
(muscles, tendons and ligaments); they are of various sizes, forms and
densities. In the limbs the bones are ordinarily more or less long,
circular bodies, with expanded ends, effectually supporting the body,
supplying leverage and attachment for soft structures, and forming the
basis of all joints. Where cavities, such as the cranium, chest, and
pelvic, enclosing the organs requiring protection and support, the
bones tend to assume a flat, expanded form.
Living bone is bluish pink, insensitive, and elastic; on exposure to
air it becomes diseased and blackened, very sensitive and painful; (the
teeth excepted) which are harder and of a higher specific gravity than
any other bone formation.
Bones are composed of two kinds of substance--animal, which makes the
bone tough and flexible; earthy, which makes it hard and fragile.
In young animals the animal matter forms about one-half of the bone
substance; in the adult, it diminishes to about a third, while in old
animals it is still less; hence the bones of very old animals are
brittle, more liable to fracture and harder to mend.
Bones in a six-year-old horse contained, Phosphate of Lime, 54.37 per
cent; Carbonate of Lime, 12.00 per cent; Phosphate of Magnesia, 1.83
per cent; Soluble Salts, 0.70 per cent, or mineral matter, 68.90 per
cent. While they contain Cartilage, 27.99 per cent; Fat, etc., 3.11 per
cent, or animal matter 31.10 per cent.
In bone tissue there are two modifications of texture, the _compact_
and the _cancellated_. The former--hard, dense, and ivory-like, is
always situated externally; the latter porous and spongy lies within.
Although the compact tissue appears uniformly dense, and destitute of
porosity, yet, if we transversely sectate the shaft of a long bone, and
examine it under the microscope, by transmitted light, it is found to
contain numerous round openings. These are called _Haversian canals_.
They transmit bloodvessels, and run in a longitudinal or slightly
oblique direction, opening on either the outer or inner surface of the
bone.
The external (outer) surface of every bone is covered by a tough,
fibrous, inelastic membrane called periosteum, which can be seen by
examining the bone of an animal which has recently died. The only
exception to this is at the joints where one bone articulates with
another, and where a tendon or muscle plays over a bone; here we find
its place taken by articular cartilage. By its strength it sometimes
retains bones in contact after an oblique fracture; in the young, it
is thicker and more vascular than in the adult. Blood-vessels which
penetrate the periosteum pass directly to the bone; the outer surface
of the bone is always studded with numerous _foramina_ through which
these enter.
The periosteum owing to its inelasticity, is, when inflamed, the seat
of intense pain; and should any part of it be stripped off, there is
every probability of the denuded bone dying and separating.
CONTENTS OF BONE.--Red marrow is found in the extremities or near the
ends of bones, white marrow is found in the shaft.
CLASSES OF BONES.--Bones are classed as long, flat, and irregular.
Long or cylindrical bones are found in the limbs or extremities, and
serve as levers and pillars for traveling and to support the body.
Descriptively, a long bone is divisible into a center or _shaft_ and
two ends or extremities. Flat bones are found where visceral organs
need protection. As the shoulder or scapula and ribs, to protect the
heart and lungs; pelvic or hip bones, to protect the rectum and
urinary and genital organs; also the cranial bones, to protect the
vital organ called the brain. Irregular bones are found in the spinal
column and in the joints, such as the knee or carpus, hock or tarsus,
where great strength is required. They usually possess many angles and
indentations, with surfaces for articulation and tendonous attachment,
and consist of a thin, dense, external (outer) case of compact bone
enclosing cancellated tissue. In proportion to their size they present
a much larger extent of articular surface and greater mechanical
strength than any other class.
1. SKULL, or skeleton of the head, the most anterior (forward) part
of the horse’s skeleton, articulates with the first cervical vertebra
(or atlas), from which it is suspended by its posterior (or back part)
extremity, its anterior (forward) extremity being free. Its position
varies with the attitude of the animal; but in our descriptions we
shall always suppose it to be placed in a horizontal position.
In the young animal the skull is composed of a number of bones, all of
which, with the exception of the lower jaw, the teeth, the bones of the
tongue, and ossicles of the ear, become united by ossification (growing
together) in the adult.
In speaking of the different points of importance in connection with
the head bones of the horse, and other animals, suppose a cross or
longitudinal section of the head is made. It will be noticed that it is
full of cavities or sinuses. The uses of these are to lighten the head
and also to warm the air as it passes into the nostrils, on its way
down to the lungs. It will also be found full of foramen or small holes
through which the nerves from the brain and various blood vessels pass
to the organs situated in the head, such as the tongue, lips and the
various glands in and around the head.
Then there are the cavities in which the eyes are situated, one on each
side of the head, called the orbital fossa. In examining this fossa you
will find a small opening or foramen, through which the optic nerve
passes in coming from the brain to the eye. This is the nerve of sight.
Then the most important part of all to consider is the cranial cavity
in which that very important organ is situated called the brain, which
controls all the various functions and movements of the body.
Another important point is the situation of the ear drum. It is
situated in the hardest bone found in the whole skeleton, called the
petrosal. The nerve that gives the function called hearing comes from
the brain down to the petrosal bone and enters by a small foramen or
hole into the drum of the ear to give hearing. This nerve is called the
auditory nerve.
2. CERVICAL VERTEBRAE OR NECK BONES.--These bones are seven in number.
The first and second bones proceeding from the head receive special
names. The first one is called the atlas, from which the head is
suspended and to which it is attached; it somewhat resembles the body
of a bird with wings extended. The second bone receives the name
of dentata. This is the bone which allows the head to turn in any
direction, hence it is sometimes called the axis or pivot of the neck.
Between these two bones, on the upper surface, is the only place where
the spinal cord is not covered with bone, a spot about three-fourths of
an inch in diameter. The next four bones receive no name, and are about
the same in size and length. The last, or the seventh bone, is only
about one half the length of the preceding ones and receives no special
name.
3. DORSAL VERTEBRAE OR BACK-BONE.--Dorsal bones are eighteen in number.
The chief point of interest about them are the height of the spines on
the upper surface of the bones. These large spines form the withers of
the horse, as will be noticed in the skeleton. On either side of these
bones the ribs are attached, 18 pairs corresponding with the number of
bones in this region.
4. LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (or the bones which form the skeleton of
the loins). These bones are six in number, and they are situated
immediately above the kidneys.
5. SACRAL VERTEBRAE OR RUMP BONES.--There are five of these bones in
the young horse, but in the adult they unite as a single bone, somewhat
triangular-shape. These are situated between the upper hip bones and
help to form the rump. Beneath these bones the bladder is situated.
6. COCCYGEAL VERTEBRAE OR TAIL BONES.--These are 18 to 20 in number.
There is no complete canal, like in the previous vertebraes, for
enclosure of the spinal cord.
7. PELVIC OR HIP BONES.--The pelvic bones are flat, but somewhat
irregularly-shaped, and they form the sides, floor, and part of the
roof of the pelvic cavity. Above they are connected with the sacrum,
and below united to each other, in the adult, by ossification (union
of bone). In the young animal, as above stated, and especially in the
foetus, each side consists of three parts, which retain their names of
ilium, ischium, and pubis, even after union by ossification. They all
three meet in the acetabulum, or articular cavity for the femur or hip
bone.
8. STERNUM OR BREAST BONE.--This bone is small and short in the horse
and is situated on the lower surface of the chest cavity. The principle
points to be noted in this bone are that of its softness, and that the
first eight pairs of ribs are attached to it on either side. This bone,
in the horse resembles the keel and cut-water of a boat.
9. RIBS.--In the horse the ribs usually number eighteen on each side.
They extend in a series of arches of varying curvature from the dorsal
vertebrae above, towards the sternum and sides of the abdomen below.
Their shape, in a great measure, determines the conformation or
shape of the thorax or chest cavity; they protect its contents, and
materially aid in its contraction and expansion. They are continued
downward and forward by a small piece of cartilage or gristle, and are
just slightly attached to the breast bone or sternum; these are called
the false ribs. Note that, starting with the first rib, they get longer
until the ninth rib is reached; they then get shorter, the last rib
being only a few inches long.
10. SCAPULA OR SHOULDER BLADE.--The scapula is a flat bone situated on
the antero-lateral (front side) surface of the thorax or chest cavity,
it is triangular in shape, the base being turned upwards. The inferior
or lower extremity articulates with the humerus or shoulder bone.
11. HUMERUS OR SHOULDER BONE.--The humerus is a long bone extending
from the scapula to the radius and ulna in an oblique direction
downwards and backwards. Like all long bones it possesses a shaft and
two extremities and two articular surfaces.
12. RADIUS, OR BONE OF THE FORE-ARM.--The radius is a long bone, and
occupies a vertical position between the humerus and the carpus.
13. ULNA, OR BONE OF THE FORE-ARM.--The ulna is an irregular bone,
in form triangular, with the base uppermost, and is placed on the
supero-posterior or (upper and back) part of the radius.
14. CARPUS, OR KNEE.--The carpus, knee or wrist, as it is incorrectly
termed in quadrupeds, is composed of seven and often of eight small,
irregular bones arranged in two rows of three each, one above the
other, the seventh being at the back of the three in the upper row,
and the eight, when present, in a similar position with respect to the
lower row. Their names are as follows: scaphoid, lunar bone, cuneiform
bone, trapezium, trapezoid, os magnus, unciform, pisiform, which is not
always present.
15. OS METACARPI MAGNUS, METACARPAL OR CANNON BONE.--The large
metacarpal, or cannon bone, is a long, straight bone, placed in a
vertical direction. Its superior or upper extremity articulates with
the carpus and its inferior or lower extremity articulates with the os
suffraginis and the two sesamoids.
16. OSSA METACARPI PARVA, OR SPLINT BONES.--The two small metacarpal,
or splint bones, tuberous in form (marked or covered with projections)
at the carpus and tapering distally (lower portion), are attached to
the large bone, one on each side of its posterior (back) surface, by
ligaments in the young animal, and by ossification (union of bone) in
most grown up, and in all old animals.
17. PROXIMAL PHALANX, OS SUFFRAGINIS, OR LARGE PASTERN BONE.--The os
suffraginis, or large pastern bone, passes obliquely downwards and
forwards, and articulates with the cannon bone above, and the median
phalanx or os coronae below. It belongs to the class of long bones.
18. GREAT SESAMOID BONES.--These bones, two in number, are placed side
by side at the postero-inferior (back and lower) part of the metacarpus
and postero-superior (back and upper) part of the os suffraginis; they
are irregular in shape, their back parts are covered with cartilage,
for the passage of the flexor tendons of the digit or the last four
bones of the limb. Their superior or upper surface is roughened, and
their sides, which are grooved for the reception of the suspensory
ligament. (This is called the fetlock joint.)
19. MEDIAN PHALANX, OS CORONAE, OR SMALL PASTERN BONE.--The second
phalanx, os coronae, or small pastern bone, has no marrow canal, and
belongs to the class of irregular bones. It is inclined, like the os
suffraginis, obliquely downwards and forwards, and is partly covered
by the hoof. The upper portion of this bone articulates with the os
suffraginis and the two sesamoids, the lower part articulates with the
os pedis.
20. DISTAL PHALANX, OS PEDIS, OR COFFIN BONE.--The third, or ungual
phalanx, os pedis, or coffin bone, is an irregular bone situated within
the hoof, and, when in a healthy state, corresponding somewhat to it in
shape, being semilunar in form, with the convexity to the front. This
bone is very hard and porous, having many openings for the transmission
of arteries and veins. In this bone we notice the wall, the sole, the
tendonous surface, the articular surface, and the alae or wings. This
bone articulates with os coronae superiorly (upper) and posteriorly it
articulates with the os navicular bone.
21. OS NAVICULARE.--The naviculare, third or small sesamoid, or shuttle
bone, is an irregular bone, situated with its long axis transversely,
behind and below the os coronae, and behind the os pedis, with both
of which it articulates, the articulation of the three forming the
so-called _coffin_ joint. The lower surface of this bone is important
as it is covered with cartilage, and together form a kind of a pully
over which plays the great flexor perforans muscle. The remaining
portion of the anterior limb or front leg, will be considered under
anatomy of the foot. The navicular bone can be plainly seen on Plate
VII, anatomy of the foot.
22. FEMUR OR THIGH BONE.--The os femoris, femur or thigh bone, the
largest, thickest, and strongest bone in the body, belongs to the class
of long bones, and is placed in a direction obliquely downwards and
forwards, articulating with the cup-shaped cavity in the pelvic or hip
bones superiorly (or upper), and with the tibia and patella inferiorly
(or below). This bone is roughened for the attachment of the powerful
muscles of the hip.
23. PATELLA, OR STIFLE BONE.--This, the kneepan or stifle bone, is
placed in front of the pully-shaped groove of the femur. It is very
compact, its front surface being irregular, round and very much
roughened, for ligamentous attachment, and its posterior (or back)
surface very smooth to articulate with the groove in the femur,
presenting two depressions divided by a ridge, the inner being the
larger, and in the fresh state enlarged still more by projecting
cartilaginous lip, or elevation. The patella increases the power of the
hind leg, and it is this bone that causes stifle joint lameness when it
slips out of the groove in which it glides normally.
24. TIBIA, OR LEGBONE.--The tibia or leg bone, is a long bone, larger
at its upper than its lower end, situated between the femur and the
astragalus, slanting downwards and backwards. This bone is three-sided,
possessing outer, inner and back surfaces, all of which are wider above
than below. This bone gives attachment to the flexor muscles of the hip.
25. FIBULA.--This is a long slender bone, little developed in the
horse, and is an appendage to the tibia, being attached to the outer
side of that bone, and extending from its head to its lower third, to
which it is affixed by a ligament; the space between the two bones is
called the tibial arch. The fibula gives attachment to the peroneus
muscle, the muscle that is supposed to be severely contracted when an
animal is affected with string-halt.
26. TARSUS, OR HOCK BONES.--The tarsus, or hock, corresponding to the
ankle-joint of a man, is composed of six irregular compact bones,
situated between the lower end of the tibia and the superior or upper
extremity of the metatarsus; they are arranged in two series; one
consisting of the cuboid and three cuneiform bones, the magnum, medium,
and parvum, corresponds to the lower row or carpal bones; the other
upper series consists of the astragalus and calcaneum; the first,
forming with the bone above the mobile portion of the joint, may be
said to correspond to the upper row of carpal bones, while the latter,
being the lever bone, corresponds to the trapezium. These bones, like
those of the carpus, are thickly covered with cartilage on their
articular surfaces, which acts as a protection against concussion.
It is these bones that become diseased and united when an animal is
affected with bone spavin. The calcaneum bone which forms the prominent
part, termed the point of the hock, and corresponds to the heel-bone
of man. This bone gives attachment to the calcaneo-cuboid ligament, and
it is this ligament that is sprained or ruptured in curb of the hock.
28. METATARSUS, OR OS METATARSI MAGNUM.--This bone presents the same
general appearance as the large metacarpal or cannon bone, from which
it differs principally in being about one-sixth longer and flattened
from side to side. It is rounded and more prominent in front. This
bone articulates above with the tarsus bones, and its lower portion
articulates with the os suffraginis.
28. OSSA METATARSI PARVA, OR SPLINT BONES OF THE HIND LEG.--These also
present the same general form as the small metacarpal bones of the
front leg; the outer is the longest and largest, and has the largest
head, with two surfaces which articulates with the cuboid bone; the
inner one has also three articular surfaces, two for small, and one for
the middle cuniform bones. The two surfaces on each head articulate
with corresponding ones on the large metatarsal bone. The remaining
bones of the hind extremity, viz.: the three phalanges, with their
three accessory bones, so closely resemble the corresponding bones
of the fore extremity, that it seems at first sight difficult to
distinguish one from the other; the chief differences being, that the
first phalanx of the hind extremity is longer; its upper end larger,
and its lower end smaller, than in the fore extremity.
COMPARATIVE OSTEOLOGY.
In this section we shall endeavor to point out where the skeleton of
the domesticated animals, other than the horse, differ from the typical
skeleton of the latter in any important particular. The following
descriptions are therefore in all cases comparisons, where comparison
is possible, between the typical skeleton and the skeleton in question.
RUMINANTIA.
(Cud Chewing Animal.)
In this class we take the ox as the animal which represents the best
for our purpose, the family of ruminating or cud-chewing animals, as
cattle, sheep and goats.
THE SKULL OR CRANIUM.--In the skull of the ox an important feature is
the development of the frontal or forehead bone, which extends from
below the eyes to the back of the skull, forming the entire forehead
and crest or top, in the middle of which is the forehead tuberosity or
knob-like elevation, which is very large in hornless animals. Springing
from the sides of the top are two processes, varying in size and shape,
but corresponding to the shape of the horns, which they support.
VERTEBRAE.--The true vertebral column is made up of 26 bones divided
into seven cervical or neck-bones, 13 dorsal or back-bones, and six
lumbar or loin bones.
CERVICAL OR NECK-BONES.--The bodies of these bones are shorter than
those of the horse, but same in number.
DORSAL OR BACK-BONES.--These bones are longer than in the horse, but
have the same general form. It gives attachment to 13 ribs on each
side in the same manner as those of the horse.
LUMBAR OR LOIN BONES.--The lumbar vertebrae are longer and thicker than
in the horse, their bodies being more round on the sides and lower
surfaces.
SACRUM, OR RUMP BONES.--The sacrum is larger and more arched, and the
upper surface more round than in the horse.
COCCYGEAL OR TAIL BONES.--The tail bones are from 15 to 20 in number,
are strong and rougher than those of the horse.
PELVIS OR HIP BONES.--The pelvis is larger, but presents the same
general appearance as in the horse.
In studying the bones of the limbs in ruminants, the only point of
difference is in bones below the knee. The large metacarpal bone
presents a vertical groove down its front, which marks the original
division of the bone into two bones. The lower extremity is divided by
a deep groove into two articulations, each resembling the single one
of the horse. The outer one being always the smaller, a rudimentary
metacarpus is placed on the back and outer surface. The pasterns and
sesamoids in either limb are double, one set forming each digit; they
are small and narrow, the coffin bone resembles half of that of the
horse, equally divided.
In the aged ruminant, two bones are commonly found in the heart,
and may be termed the cardiac bones. They are found related with
auriculo-ventricular rings. In shape they present three angles, three
borders, and two surfaces. The left bone is somewhat smaller than the
right.
OMNIVORA.
Animals eating both vegetable and animal food.
The omnivora are represented in veterinary anatomy by the hog.
CARNIVORA.
An order, suborder, or family of mammals, especially wild animals,
including the dog and cat, etc. Animals that eat flesh.
In this order our description alludes mostly to the dog.
AVES.
The scope of the present work will allow only very brief treatment of
this part of the subject.
Of or pertaining to Birds, Poultry, Etc.
The bone tissue or substance of birds are exceedingly compact and hard,
white in color; and some of the bones are pneumatic, or contain air
instead of marrow, notably these are bones of the skull, the sternum
or breast bone, and the upper bones of the limbs. There are a great
variety in the amount of pneumaticity or air possessed by the skeleton
of different species, but it is not necessarily determined by the
flying power of the animal.