with the colonists, owing greatly, it is said, to the influence of
the chief, White Eyes, who was a firm friend to the colonists, in
opposition to another chief, named Pipe. At a council held in Pittsburg
to deliberate on the question, he boldly declared that he would not
join in a war the object of which was to destroy a people born on the
same soil with himself. The Americans, he said, were his friends and
brothers, and no nation should dictate to him, or his tribe, the course
they should pursue. In the course of the war which followed, he also
sent a message to the Shawanese, with whom he had been allied, warning
them against taking part in it. The language is characteristic of the
Indian. “Grandchildren,” says he, “some days ago, a flock of birds,
that had come on from the east, lit at Goschochking, imposing a song
of theirs upon us, which song had well-nigh proved our ruin. Should
these birds, which, on leaving us, took their flight towards Scioto,
endeavour to impose a song on you likewise, do not listen to them, for
they lie.”
Notwithstanding all the efforts of this chief, however, the Delawares,
as well as other Western Indians, eventually became hostile in
their feelings towards the Americans. In the spring of 1778, Pipe
nearly succeeded in involving them in the contest. Instigated by the
loyalists, he assembled a great number of warriors, and proclaimed
every one an enemy to his country, who should endeavour to persuade
them against fighting the Americans, and declared that all such ought
to be put to death. But White Eyes also collected his people, and
addressed them with great earnestness and pathos. Seeing that some of
them were preparing to take up the hatchet, he told them that such a
course was fraught with destruction to themselves. If, however, they
disbelieved him, and were resolved to go forth to the war, he would go
with them. “But,” he added, “it shall not be as when the hunter sets
his dogs on the bear to be torn in pieces by his paws, while he keeps
at a safe distance. No; I will lead you on to the thickest of the
fight; I will myself be in the front rank, and the first to fall. You
have now but to decide on your course. For my part, I am determined not
to survive my slaughtered and ruined nation. I will not spend the last
lingering of life in mourning over the doom of my people.”
The chief was now seconded by the arrival of a message of peace from
the Americans, and the Indians determined to follow his advice. This
state of things, however, did not long continue. The Shawanese had been
for some time carrying on a warfare with Colonel Daniel Boone and the
pioneers of the western settlements, and various skirmishes took place.
In February, 1778, Boone was taken prisoner, and adopted into one of
the Shawanese families as a son. But shortly after, he found means to
escape, and returned home.
During the summer of this year, Colonel Clarke and Captain Bowman
performed some brilliant exploits against the Indians at Kaskaskia
and St. Philip’s, in the territory of Illinois. In 1779, the Indians,
having suffered severe defeats, held a conference with Colonel Brodhead
at Fort Pitt. The chiefs of the Delawares, Wyandots, and Hurons, with
the king of the Maquichees, a branch of the Shawanese, were present.
A partial treaty was formed, but hostilities were still continued
along the frontier. In 1780, the Indians were severely chastised, and
portions of them were overawed for a time. In 1782, under the vigorous
operations of General Clarke, the war on the western border was brought
to a close. During this protracted struggle, most of the tribes, from
Michilimackinac to the mouth of the Ohio, were engaged against us, and
many events of deep interest occurred. The war was marked with those
acts of daring and atrocity which we might expect from exasperated
savages and woodsmen, little accustomed to emotions of fear or pity.
A troubled and dubious peace continued for a time; but questions of
boundary, about which the Indians were always dull and confused, soon
became the occasion of irritation. Hostilities followed in the western
parts of the Ohio territory, and the Indians, being wrought upon by
English emissaries, were not appeased by all the efforts of General
Washington at negotiation. Strong measures became necessary, and
General Harmar was sent against them in September, 1790, with a force
of 1,450 men. On his approach, the Indians abandoned their principal
town, after setting it on fire, but, rallying again, made an attack on
a detachment of two hundred and ten men, thirty of whom were regulars.
The militia fled, and all but seven of the regulars were slain. The
next day, another bloody battle was fought, between three hundred and
sixty men and a large party of Indians, which resulted in the defeat of
the Americans, with the loss of several officers and one hundred and
eighty-three men. The Indians are said to have lost one hundred and
twenty warriors. The victory was claimed by the Americans, though they
retreated, and the consequences were, that the Indians became more bold
in their incursions on the frontier settlements.
Various efforts were now made to effect a general peace, but, though
several councils were held, and the British governor and other officers
lent their influence to secure this object, the Indians still continued
hostile.
In 1791, therefore, General St. Clair marched towards the country of
the Miamis. His army consisted of about two thousand men. The Indians
hung continually on his path, and, as he advanced, the militia began
to desert, till his whole force was reduced to about fifteen hundred.
Having approached within about fifteen miles of the Miami villages,
the army halted and encamped for the night beside a creek, the militia
passing over to encamp on the other side. Here the intention was to
throw up a temporary defence and await the return of a detachment which
had been sent back to guard the supplies. But the Indians had no idea
of permitting this junction; and about half an hour before sunrise they
attacked the militia, who were a quarter of a mile in advance. These
troops made no stand, but ran in the greatest confusion to the camp,
where they threw the whole force into disorder. The Indians fought
with the utmost fury, charging the artillery on all sides, and, though
driven back by the regulars at the point of the bayonet, they succeeded
in surrounding the Americans. By a furious charge our troops forced a
passage in the rear, and thus effected their retreat. Yet so great was
the terror inspired among the men, that many of them, in their flight,
threw away their arms and accoutrements, even after the pursuit had
ceased.
In this famous engagement the Indians lost about one hundred and
fifty killed, besides the wounded; while of the Americans above five
hundred, including officers and men, were killed, and two hundred and
sixty wounded. They also lost their camp equipage and baggage, six
or eight field-pieces, and four hundred horses. The number of the
Indians engaged is differently estimated at from 1,000 to 1,500. Their
commander is said to have been Meshecunaqua, or the Little Turtle, a
chief of the Miamis. It is also asserted, that Brant, with about one
hundred and fifty Mohawks, had a large share in the action.
For twelve months subsequent to this dreadful defeat, the frontiers
were exposed to more ferocious assaults than before. Numerous instances
are related of the boldness of the Indians in attacking the settlers,
and also of the bravery of those hardy pioneers of the West in
repelling the foe. In one case, a party attacked a dwelling-house and
wounded severely the husband, so that the defence devolved on the wife
and daughter. These succeeded in closing the door, so that the Indians
had to cut an opening by which to enter. On one of them thrusting in
his head, the valiant woman despatched him with an axe, and drew in
the body. Four others, one after another, supposing that the warriors
thus killed had made an entrance, suffered the same fate. Abandoning
this mode of attack, they next mounted the roof, and attempted to
come down the chimney; but the two heroines casting the contents of a
feather-bed on the fire, the enemy, descending, became suffocated, fell
down, and were beaten to death by the maimed husband with a billet of
wood. Another Indian still, on attempting the door again, was severely
wounded, and the party, discouraged at so obstinate a resistance,
and doubtless imagining the force within to be greater than it was,
withdrew.
After some ineffectual attempts at negotiation, in various councils,
General Wayne, who had been appointed to succeed General St. Clair,
advanced into the Miami country. A sharp engagement took place at Fort
Recovery, which had been thrown up on the field of St. Clair’s defeat.
The Indians were led on by Little Turtle, who, having surprised a
detachment of the Americans, drove them into the fort. Pressing on, in
the hope of entering the fort in the pursuit, a heavy fire was opened
on the Indians, who were forced to retreat. They renewed the assault,
however, the next day, but were again driven off.
On the 8th of August, 1794, General Wayne reached the confluence of
the Au Glaize and Miami of the Lakes, where were the principal Indian
villages. Thirty miles from this place, the Indian force, amounting
to nearly two thousand, was gathered close by the British fort.
Notwithstanding Wayne’s precautions, the Indian leader was aware of
his approach, and prepared for battle. An attempt at negotiation was
once more made by the American officers, but it proved unsuccessful.
The Indians were formed in three lines near the fort, within suitable
distance of each other. The attack commenced, and they attempted to
turn the left flank of the American army. Wayne’s disposition of his
forces was happily so made as to counteract the plans of the enemy. The
fight was severe, but the Indian forces were soon driven from their
position, leaving to the Americans a complete victory.
Seven nations are said to have been engaged in this action,--the
Miamis, Wyandots, Potawatomies, Delawares, Shawanese, Chippewas, and
Ottawas. Every Wyandot chief present was killed, and many others also
fell. Little Turtle, it is said, was averse to fighting, believing
that Wayne was a more vigilant officer than those with whom they had
before contended. But Blue Jacket, a great warrior among the Shawanese,
prevailed in the council, and the engagement we have described, with
the consequent defeat, was the result.
The whole Indian country, which was thickly peopled, was laid waste for
twenty miles around. “The margins of the rivers,” says Wayne, in his
despatches, “appeared like one continued village, and the fields of
corn were immense.” Yet these were made a scene of desolation. The year
after this, all hope of succour from the English being removed by Jay’s
treaty, the Indians became desirous of peace, and terms were proposed
and accepted on the 3d of August, 1795.
[Illustration]
FOOTNOTES:
[12] For the particulars of Pontiac’s life, see “Lives of Famous
American Indians.”
[13] See “Lives of Famous American Indians.”
WESTERN AND SOUTHERN INDIANS.
The peace, noticed at the close of the last chapter, continued till
near the opening of the last war with England. At that period, the
famous Tecumseh entered upon his design of embodying the Western
Indians in a grand effort to check the advance of the American
settlements. A plan so extensive had never before been attempted by
an Indian chief. His brother, the Prophet, in his sacred character,
visited the distant tribes, even those beyond the Mississippi, and
poured out his stirring eloquence upon the warriors as far as the foot
of the Rocky Mountains. Had the confederacy been actually perfected,
the history of events had been written in bloodier lines than those
which portray the reality.
While the Prophet was marshalling the West, Tecumseh, with burning
words, was rousing the fiery passions of the Southern Indians. Without
much difficulty, he succeeded in inspiring the Creek warriors with a
portion of his own fire, and the buried hatchet was once more lifted in
a fierce attack on the settlements within their reach. But a part of
the Creek nation, however, were engaged in these transactions; some
of them still remaining friendly to our people. The principal chiefs
bore the names of Weatherford, Big Warrior, and Little Warrior. The
great argument which Tecumseh held out to them was the prospect of an
approaching war between the United States and Great Britain, which, he
said, would afford to the Indians the opportunity of avenging their
wrongs and regaining their rights.
The first onset was the well known attack and capture of Fort Mimms.
This was commanded by Major Beasley, with one hundred volunteers;
besides whom, a large number of the inhabitants, foreseeing the storm,
had gathered there for safety. Though warned of the contemplated
attack, the fort was surprised, about noon, on the 30th of August,
1812. The sentinel had scarcely time to announce the approach of the
Indians, when they rushed, with a terrific yell, towards the open
gate. The garrison was instantly under arms, and the commander, with
some of his men, flew towards the entrance to close it, and drive out
the enemy; but he fell mortally wounded. The conflict was desperate.
The gate, however, was at last closed, and the Indians, who had
taken possession of a blockhouse near, were finally expelled, after
much bloodshed. The assault continued for an hour, on the outside
of the pickets, and the portholes were several times carried by the
assailants, and retaken by the garrison.
The Indians, for a short time, withdrew, apparently disheartened; but,
being urged on by their fiery leader, Weatherford, they returned to
the attack, cut away the gate with their axes, forced the pickets, and
got possession of the open space within, compelling the garrison to
retreat to the buildings. Here they met a gallant resistance, but the
Indians at length succeeded in setting fire to the roofs, and a scene
of carnage ensued. Women and children, the old and the young, were
all crowded together in these dwellings, and, in the spirit of savage
warfare, all were sacrificed. Scarcely a soul escaped from the terrific
scene, and nearly two hundred and sixty persons are said to have
perished.
This catastrophe taught the inhabitants what they had to expect in the
contest thus opening upon them, and produced immediate efforts, both
in Tennessee and Georgia, to prepare for the crisis. It was determined
to carry the war at once into the enemy’s country. The command of the
expedition from Tennessee was committed to a man of prompt decision,
firm and unflinching purpose,--a conqueror in his nature,--General
Andrew Jackson. On marching to the Coosa, he despatched a detachment
to attack the Indian village of Littafutchee, on a branch of the
above-named river. The place was captured, with a number of prisoners.
The Creeks now concentrated their forces at Tallushatches, also on
the Coosa. General Coffee was despatched, by General Jackson, with
nine hundred cavalry and mounted riflemen, against them. The Coosa was
forded, and, as he advanced, the Creeks struck their war-drum, sung
their war-songs, and, with terrific yells, sallied forth from their
village, boldly charging the troops. A fearful struggle followed,
and the Indians, in their fury, disdaining to receive quarter, were
slaughtered in great numbers. Two hundred of their warriors fell, and
the women and children were taken prisoners. In his official account,
General Coffee says that the enemy fought as long as they could stand
or sit, using chiefly the bow and arrow after the first fire, though
occasionally loading and discharging their guns.
This bloody engagement was the first of a series bearing the same
general character. General Jackson soon moved forward to the relief of
the fort at Talladega, which was menaced with the fate of Fort Mimms.
The Creeks were found encamped within a quarter of a mile of that
place, and, as the lines of the American troops advanced, they were
attacked by the Indians, who were, however, compelled to retreat, with
the loss of two hundred and ninety left dead on the field, and many
more wounded.
About the same time, General Floyd, with nine hundred and fifty of the
Georgia militia, and three or four hundred friendly Indians, met the
hostile Creeks of that region on the banks of the Tallapoosa River. An
engagement followed, in which the Indians presented themselves at every
point, and fought with desperate bravery. After a firm resistance, they
were beaten and driven from the plain, and the houses of their two
towns were wrapped in flames.
Notwithstanding their ill success, the Indians were not yet prepared
for submission, and another battle was fought with the forces under
General Claiborne, on the Alabama. Their stronghold was taken, thirty
or forty warriors were slain, and two hundred dwellings burned. Another
town, also, of sixty houses, eight miles above, was destroyed, with
several distinguished chiefs, and all the boats owned by the Indians in
that vicinity.
While these transactions were taking place on the Georgia side, General
Jackson was advancing from the west. Several fierce encounters took
place, but the great battle which broke the strength of the Indians
occurred at the Horseshoe, a bend in the Tallapoosa. Here a thousand
or more of the Creeks were gathered from their towns, and had strongly
fortified themselves. General Jackson, with a force of three or four
thousand men, attacked their position, having stationed a portion
of his troops so that the escape of the enemy might be cut off. The
fort was taken by storm, and the Indians were entirely defeated. Five
hundred and fifty-seven were left dead on the field, and a great number
were killed by the cavalry in attempting to cross the river.
This was, indeed, a dreadful battle. The fighting continued to rage
for five hours. The Indians refused to surrender, answering the
propositions made them to this effect by volleys of fire-arms. Their
numbers were now greatly reduced, and the prophets, by whom they had
been urged on, had nearly all fallen. The humbled savages, at last,
felt it to be hopeless to continue the contest, and accordingly sued
for peace. A treaty was, therefore, concluded on the 10th of August,
1814, by which their territories were once more limited within such
boundaries as might prevent their disturbing the people of the United
States.
The chief, Weatherford, who had led on some of the most daring attacks,
spoke on this occasion with great feeling. “I am in your power,” said
he to General Jackson, who had been appointed to treat with them; “do
with me as you please. I am a soldier. I have done the white people
all the harm I could. I fought them bravely. If I had an army, I
would yet fight, and contend to the last, but I have none; my people
are gone. I can now do no more than weep over the misfortunes of my
nation. Once I could animate my warriors to battle; but I cannot
rouse the dead. My warriors can no longer hear my voice. Their bones
are at Talladega, Tallushatches, Emuckfaw, and Tohopeka. I have not
surrendered myself thoughtlessly. Whilst there were chances of success,
I never left my post, nor supplicated for peace. But my people are
weakened, and I now ask it for my nation and myself. On the miseries
and misfortunes suffered by my country I look back with the deepest
sorrow, and wish to avert still greater calamities. If I had been left
to contend with the Georgia troops alone, I would have raised my corn
on one bank of the river, and fought them on the other; but you have
destroyed my nation. You are a brave man; I rely on your generosity.
You will exact no terms from a conquered people but such as they should
accept. Whatever they may be, it would now be madness and folly to
resist. You have told us where we might go and be safe. This is a good
talk; my nation ought to listen, and they shall listen.”
After this speech, Big Warrior made an address, promising to abide
by the treaty. Since this time, the Creeks, as well as the Cherokees
and Choctaws, have remained at peace. A portion of this nation, who
bear the name of Seminoles, having driven out part of the Uchees from
Florida, incorporated the remnants of that tribe with themselves.
Here, in the Everglades and deep fastnesses, they have maintained
a long and bloody warfare with the United States, during which the
Americans expended millions of money, and lost great numbers of their
soldiers, either by battle or disease. The principal leaders of the
Seminoles were Micanopy, Philip, Creek Bill, and Osceola. The latter,
a half-breed, was the master spirit; but, being captured, he died a
prisoner to the Americans, at Fort Moultrie, in Charleston, South
Carolina, in the year 1838. After a protracted contest, the Seminoles
have been subdued, and the greater part of them, as well as of the
other Southern Indians, have been removed to the west side of the
Mississippi. Agriculture has advanced among the Creeks, and they yet
number some twenty thousand, or more, in the various divisions of their
nation.
The war of the United States with Black Hawk,[14] and the Sacs, Foxes,
and Winnebagoes, in 1832, need not be detailed here. It is sufficient
to say, that it disturbed the northwestern frontier for a time, but
resulted in the entire defeat of the savages, and the surrender of the
chief.
The red man is fast disappearing from the settled portions of the
United States; here and there a small community of Indians is found
east of the Mississippi. Every year has witnessed new aggressions on
their territory by the whites, who have continued to despoil them of
their property, and rob them of their lands. No one can doubt that
great injustice has often been done, and that they have frequently
been forced to yield to the arm of might rather than to the sense of
right. Yet there is one compensation;--the mild spirit of the gospel
has exerted itself among them, and Christian communities, with devoted
and faithful leaders, are found planted in the midst of them. We shall
advert more fully to some facts on this score in a subsequent page,
and now only observe, that the success which has recently attended the
benevolent efforts of the missionaries justifies the hope that some
remnants of these tribes may yet be preserved, and be able, hereafter,
to testify to a more humane policy on the part of their conquerors.
[Illustration]
FOOTNOTE:
[14] See “Lives of Famous American Indians.”
VARIOUS TRIBES OF NORTHERN AND WESTERN INDIANS.
The vast territory, which lies outspread north of the great chain of
lakes which separate the British provinces from the United States, and
far in the west beyond the sources of the Missouri and Columbia Rivers,
is inhabited by numerous tribes of Indians. Among these, in the British
provinces, are the Chippewas, the Assinniboins, the Snake, Stone,
Beaver, Copper, and Hare Indians. These are wandering tribes, who have
no history deserving the name; though they are more or less involved,
from time to time, in wars with each other. The regions in which many
of them dwell are cold and barren, and they subsist almost entirely by
hunting and fishing, furnishing the traders with furs, and receiving
in exchange such articles as they need. Some of them are pensioners on
British bounty, on account of services rendered in former wars.