rest. Although, conformably to the usage of their nation, they made
no attempt to renew the combat during the night, they nevertheless
bivouacked around the fortress, and disturbed the slumbers of their
enemy by insulting taunts and menaces, which indicated but too clearly
that their ferocity was in no degree subdued by the terrible havoc
dealt out to them during the two preceding days.
In the hope of influencing the Mexicans, Cortés now brought out
Montezuma to command them to cease from hostilities. At the sight
of their venerated sovereign in his royal robes, they dropped their
weapons, and silently bowed their heads in prostration to the ground.
Obeying Cortés’s directions, he addressed them, and plied them with
arguments to urge them to peace. When he ceased, sullen murmurs and
indignant reproaches ran through the ranks, and, in a rage, deeming
their sovereign only the supple instrument of their foe, flights of
arrows and volleys of stones were poured forth on the ramparts where he
stood, so that, before he could be protected, Montezuma fell, wounded
by the hand of one of his own subjects. Horror-struck, the Mexicans
fled; while Montezuma, disdaining to live after this degradation, died
in the Spanish quarters.
Cortés, knowing that affairs had arrived at the greatest extremity,
now prepared for his retreat, which he was not, however, suffered to
effect, till after long and bloody conflicts, in one of which his own
life was endangered by the devotion of two young Mexicans, who seized
on him and hurried him to the edge of the platform of the temple,
intending to cast him and themselves down, that they all might be
dashed in pieces. Many of his soldiers were driven into the lake,
and there perished; others were killed, and others still were taken
prisoners. He lost, it is said, more than half his army, escaping with
only about 400 foot soldiers and twenty horsemen, with which force
he broke through the multitudes by whom he was everywhere hemmed in.
He lost also his artillery, baggage, and ammunition; besides 4,000
Tlascalans who were killed and taken prisoners, which latter the
Mexicans sacrificed to their gods.
The retreat continued for six days, during which time Cortés and his
soldiers were forced to feed on berries, roots, and stalks of green
maize. On the seventh day, they reached Otumba, on the route from
Mexico to Tlascala, the point towards which he was directing his
course. The Mexicans, as he advanced, hung on his rear, exclaiming,
exultingly, “Go on, robbers! go where you shall quickly meet the
vengeance due to your crimes!” On reaching the summit of the mountain
range, they understood too well the meaning of this threat; for the
whole wide plain below them in front was covered with a vast army,
drawn up in battle array. The Mexicans, leaving the smaller portion of
their force to pursue the flying enemy on one side of the lake, had
gathered the main body of their army on the other side, and, marching
forward, posted it in the plain of Otumba.
Cortés, without a moment’s hesitation, lest the sight of such vast
numbers might strike his troops with dismay, led them on to the charge;
and, notwithstanding the fortitude of the Mexicans, succeeded in
penetrating their dense battalions. But, as one quarter gave way, the
Mexicans rallied on another, and continued to pour upon the foe in
such numbers, that, but for a fortunate event which turned the tide
of battle, the Spaniards must have been overpowered from exhaustion.
Cortés, availing himself of the knowledge which his stay at Mexico had
enabled him to gain, directed his efforts against the quarter where the
standard was carried before the Mexican general, assured, that, by the
capture of this, he could throw the whole Mexican army into confusion.
The event justified his expectation; for when, in spite of the
resistance of the nobles, he killed the Mexican general, and seized on
the standard, the whole Mexican army, panic-struck, threw down their
weapons and fled to the mountains. The spoils of the field in some
degree compensated the Spaniards for the losses they had sustained in
their retreat from the capital. Pursuing their march without further
molestation from the enemy, they shortly afterwards reached Tlascala,
where they were received with the greatest kindness by their faithful
allies. Here Cortés remained, raising recruits, and forming new plans
for the subjugation of the empire.
The Mexicans, on the death of Montezuma, had raised to the throne his
brother, Cuitlahua, who showed himself worthy of the choice. After
expelling Cortés from the capital, he repaired the fortifications,
provided magazines, caused long spears to be made, headed with the
swords and daggers taken from the Spaniards, gathered the people
from the provinces, and exhorted them to prove faithful. He also
sent embassies to Tlascala, to persuade that people to break off
their alliance with men who were the avowed enemies of the gods, and
who would assuredly impose on them the yoke of bondage. It was no
easy matter for Cortés to withstand the influence of such reasonable
suggestions on the minds of the Tlascalans; and had he not been on the
spot, their fidelity might perhaps have wavered.
But, while Cuitlahua was thus planning the defence of his kingdom, and
performing the part of a wise and valiant prince, he was attacked by
the small-pox, a disease introduced, it is said, by the Spaniards, and
fell a victim to this scourge of the natives of the New World. He was
succeeded by his nephew, Guatemozin, a young man of great ability and
valor.
In the mean time, Cortés was busily employed in making arrangements for
the renewal of operations against Mexico. Reinforcements of troops,
arms, and ammunition came in from various quarters. The strongholds on
the Mexican frontier were reduced, and the people of the surrounding
country, who had made demonstrations of hostility, were summarily
chastised and subdued. Cortés likewise gave orders for the construction
of thirteen brigantines at Tlascala, which, when finished, might be
taken to pieces and transported to Mexico, to be employed in the siege
of the city.
His arrangements being now completed, on the 24th of December, 1520,
Cortés set forward on his march. On reëntering the Mexican territories,
he found that various preparations had been made to oppose him. He,
however, forced his way, and took possession of Tezcuco, the second
city of the empire, situated on the lake about twenty miles from
Mexico. Fixing his head-quarters here, he now occupied himself in the
subjugation of the towns around bordering on the lake. By treating
the inhabitants kindly, he won them to himself, and, as they had been
originally independent, and were reduced by the Mexican power, he
promised them a restoration to their former privileges, subject only to
the sway of the king of Castile. In this manner, the Mexican monarch
and those who remained faithful to him became more and more limited in
their resources, while Cortés was gaining additional strength.
Having finally completed the preparation of the materials for his
brigantines, he sent a strong convoy to transport them to Tezcuco. The
Tlascalans furnished him 8,000 _tamanes_, or carriers, and appointed
15,000 warriors to accompany the Spanish troops. The materials were
carried sixty miles across the mountains, and finally reached Tezcuco
in safety.
A new reinforcement of soldiers, with horses, battering cannon, and
ammunition, now also joined him from Hispaniola, whither he had sent
to raise recruits. The brigantines were soon finished; for the purpose
of floating them into the lake, a canal, two miles long, was made by
deepening a small rivulet, and amid shouts, firing of cannon, and
religious ceremonies, they were launched.
The force, destined for this final attack on Mexico, amounted to 86
horsemen and 818 foot-soldiers, of whom 118 were armed with muskets or
crossbows; a train of artillery of three battering cannon, and fifteen
field pieces. Each brigantine was manned by twenty-five Spaniards, and
bore one of the small cannon. These Cortés commanded in person. The
points selected for the attack were, from Tepejacac on the north side
of the lake, from Tacuba on the west, and Cojohuacan towards the south,
corresponding to the causeways which have been heretofore mentioned.
By cutting off the aqueducts, the inhabitants were reduced to great
distress; and the efforts of the Mexicans to destroy the fleet were
entirely unsuccessful.
Cortés, now master of the lake, pushed on his attack from all points,
broke down the barricades, forced his way over the trenches, and
sought to penetrate into the heart of the city. The Mexicans, though
losing ground every day, repaired the breaches by night, laboring
with incredible effort to recover their posts. With his small force,
the Spaniard dared not attempt a lodgment where he might be hemmed in
by numbers, and thus defeated. Finally, however, his troops, by the
most desperate assaults, penetrated into the city; a success which
was shortly turned into a disastrous and nearly fatal defeat, in
consequence of the commander of one of the divisions, Juan de Alderete,
neglecting his instructions to fill up the canals and gaps in the
causeways, as he proceeded, in order to secure the means of retreat.
Guatemozin, hearing of this, with great presence of mind, directed the
Mexicans to retire, thus drawing forward the unwary Spaniards; while
chosen bodies of troops were judiciously posted in various places
to act when needed. The Spaniards eagerly pressed on, till, at the
signal, a stroke of the great drum in the temple of the war-god, the
Mexicans poured upon them with the utmost fury, and driving them on
to the causeway, horsemen, foot, and Tlascalans plunged into the gap,
and Cortés was unable to rally them. The rout became general, and he
himself was wounded, and with difficulty saved from being led off
captive by the Mexicans. Besides those who perished in the conflict,
above sixty Spaniards fell into the hands of the victors. These, as
night drew on, illuminated their city, and compelled their captives
to dance before the image of the war-god. They then sacrificed them,
their shrieks reaching the ears of their companions, who were unable to
render them any assistance.
The priests now declared their god to be so propitiated by the
sacrifices which had been offered upon his altar, that in eight days
their enemies should be destroyed, and peace and prosperity restored.
The effect of this confident prediction was such, that the Indian
allies of Cortés abandoned him, and even the Tlascalans, hitherto
faithful, also deserted him.
In this trying emergency, the Spaniards remained true to their
commander. At length, the eight days, prescribed by the priests, having
expired, and their prediction proving false, the superstitious allies
of Cortés, believing that the gods, who had deceived the Mexicans,
had abandoned them, returned. Cortés now prosecuted the siege with
renewed vigor. The Mexicans, as before, disputed every inch of ground
with incredible bravery. Still Cortés gradually advanced his lines
in various quarters, and, giving up his former cherished purpose of
sparing the city, as fast as any portion was gained, it was levelled to
the ground, and the materials were used for filling up the canals.
This course hemmed in the Mexicans more and more closely. Famine
and disease, too, made their appearance in the devoted city. Their
provisions were exhausted, and their supplies of water were cut off.
Still, Guatemozin remained firm, rejecting all the overtures of Cortés,
and determined to die rather than to yield to the oppressors of his
country. At length the Spaniards penetrated to the great square in
the centre of the city. Three quarters of the whole place were now in
ruins: and the remainder was so closely invested, that it could not
long hold out.
The Mexicans finally prevailed upon Guatemozin to attempt an escape
to the remoter provinces, where he might still be able to carry on a
struggle with the invaders. To deceive Cortés, they proposed terms of
submission. The general, however, became aware of their object, and
gave strict injunctions to his officers to watch every motion of the
enemy. The commander of one of the brigantines, perceiving at one time
several canoes rowing across the lake with the greatest rapidity, gave
the signal to make chase. On being overtaken, and seeing preparations
making to fire on one of the canoes, all the rowers dropped their
oars, threw down their arms, and besought the officer commanding the
brigantine not to fire, as their king was among them.
Guatemozin immediately gave himself up, only requesting that no insult
might be offered to his wife and children. When brought before Cortés,
the Mexican chief, with great dignity, said: “I have done what became
a monarch. I have defended my people to the last. I have nothing now
to do but to die. Take this dagger,” laying his hand on one worn by
Cortés, “plant it in my breast, and put an end to a life which can no
longer be useful.”
As soon as the capture of Guatemozin was known, all resistance ceased,
and the city, as much of it as remained, was taken possession of by the
Spaniards. The Mexicans had endured the siege for nearly three months,
during most of which time, attack and defence were carried on with
almost uninterrupted effort. The fatal mistake of the Mexicans was in
allowing Cortés a second time to enter their city, when the officer he
had left in charge was so hemmed in, that he and his troops must soon
have perished by famine. Still, the final conquest is, no doubt, in a
great degree to be attributed to the great disparity of arms, and the
wisdom of Cortés in enlisting the superstition of the Tlascalans and
their enmity to the Mexicans on his side, and thus securing them as
allies.
Guatemozin, while a captive, bore his sufferings with dignity, and
when subjected with one of his ministers to torture, to make him
reveal the place where his treasures were concealed, he said to his
fellow-sufferer, who, overcome by anguish, was groaning aloud,--“Am I,
then, taking my pleasure, or enjoying a bath?” The favorite, stung by
the reproach, suffered in silence till he expired. The royal victim was
taken by Cortés from this scene of torture and indignity only to be
subjected to further sufferings.
The extensive provinces of the empire readily submitted, on learning
the fall of the capital. Still, the Spaniards did not maintain their
sway without effort. The Mexicans, from time to time, sought to assert
their rights; and their oppressors, considering them as slaves,
punished them in the most ignominious and cruel manner. In Panuco,
a part of the ancient empire, 400 nobles, who were concerned in an
insurrection, were burned to death. On the mere suspicion of a design
to shake off the yoke and excite his former subjects to revolt, Cortés
ordered Guatemozin to be hung, together with the cacique of Tacuba.
The poor inhabitants were everywhere reduced to bondage, and forced
to live under the galling yoke of their oppressors. The Spaniards
revelled in the luxuries and splendors of this ancient empire, while
the descendants of kings and caciques were their vassals and slaves.
The hardships the people endured, while following their conquerors in
their various military expeditions, the attacks of disease, and other
causes, swept off numbers of the original population. After mining was
introduced, they were driven to the mines to procure treasures for
their oppressors. Some of them have since intermarried with the whites,
and thus a mixed race has been introduced. A portion have embraced the
Roman Catholic religion, and have been indebted to the ecclesiastics
for some amelioration of their sufferings.
At present, it is computed that of about 8,000,000 of inhabitants, of
which the republic of Mexico is composed, nearly two fifths are of pure
native blood. They are said to be grave and melancholy, having a taste
for music, great talent for drawing, being skilful in modelling in wood
or wax, and having a great passion for flowers. As a class, though
gentle, they are poor and miserable, yet live to a great age, sometimes
even to a hundred years. They are still much oppressed, and, though
having the nominal rights of citizens, they are often kept as laborers
for years against their will. By tempting their appetite, they are
brought in debt, and then, when they have nothing to pay the creditor,
he assumes the right of a master. They are allowed magistrates of
their own race, but their caciques, degraded themselves, take every
opportunity of oppressing those beneath them.
THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS.
Not many years after the conquest of Mexico, a similar enterprise
was undertaken, which resulted in the overthrow and subjugation of a
people resembling the Mexicans, in their comparative advancement in
civilization, and in the extent and riches of their empire. Peru is
situated on the western coast of South America, and the empire of its
sovereigns then extended, from north to south, above 1,500 miles on
the Pacific Ocean. Its breadth was limited by the range of the mighty
Andes, and therefore varied in different parts of its extent. This vast
territory was originally peopled by independent tribes, characterized
by different manners and forms of policy. According to the Peruvian
traditions, their modes of life were not superior to those of the most
uncivilized savages. They roamed naked through the forests, without any
fixed habitations, living more like wild beasts than men.
For several ages, the tradition declares that they made little or no
advances towards improvement, enduring hardships and privations of all
kinds, till there suddenly appeared, on the banks of the Lake Titicaca,
a man and woman of majestic form, and clothed in decent garments.
These persons called themselves Children of the Sun, and asserted that
they were sent by that benignant deity to instruct those who were the
objects of his pity, and thus to improve their condition and render
them happier. The names of these persons, as given, were Manco Capac
and Mama Oello. The motives they addressed to the poor savages, to
induce them to quit their barbarous mode of life, seem to have been
effectual, and, by their persuasions, these scattered people were some
of them united together, and obeying the supposed divine mandate, they
followed the strangers to Cuzco, where they settled, and commenced the
building of a city.
These extraordinary individuals thus laid the foundation of the great
empire, over which their descendants afterwards reigned for several
generations. Manco Capac taught the men how to till the ground, and
various arts by which their comforts might be increased, while Mama
Oello, at the same time, showed the women how to weave and spin. Having
thus convinced them of their interest in their welfare, and provided
them with food, clothing, and suitable abodes, Manco Capac enacted
various laws, and introduced different institutions, by which the
people might be cemented together as a nation of established character.
He prescribed to them such regulations as might govern them both in
public and private life; defined the relations of all, and constituted
such offices, and appointed such persons to fill them, as comported
with his design of founding a perpetual and well governed state.
This new kingdom was called the Empire of the _Incas_. At first, the
territory of Manco Capac did not extend more than twenty or thirty
miles round Cuzco. He exercised, however, absolute authority, to which
the people rendered a willing obedience. His memory was not merely
cherished in after ages as the founder of their nation, but as a true
benefactor. If this tradition be admitted to be founded on the truth,
it forms an interesting subject of inquiry, who these extraordinary
personages were, and from what part of the world they probably came.[2]
The successors of Manco Capac followed his example, gradually extending
their dominions, and, with this enlargement of territory, rendering
their authority yet more and more absolute. In time, they were
regarded, not only as sovereigns and descendants of the founder of the
empire, but they were adored as divinities. Their blood was considered
sacred, and by forbidding their posterity to intermarry with the people
they continued to preserve their own race and rank pure from all
others. This peculiar family, thus set apart as a royal or noble race,
were also distinguished from all the rest of the nation by a certain
garb and ornaments, which it was unlawful for any of the lower ranks to
assume. The monarch himself appeared with the ensigns which he alone
might wear, and was ever received by his subjects with a deferential
homage scarcely short of adoration.
The character of the people was very different from that of the
Mexicans, for while these latter, as we have seen, were warlike and
ferocious, engaged almost constantly in bloody wars, and preserving
cruel rites, the Peruvians or Quichuas, as they were also termed, were
united in a peaceful subjection to a milder superstition. The Mexicans
pushed forward their conquests by their valor, and, by force of arms,
subdued those who opposed them; but the Peruvian Incas, in the capacity
of legislators and benefactors, extended their sway, and induced
numerous tribes to submit to them, and learn the arts and comforts of
peace and good government. Not one, it is said, out of twelve monarchs,
descendants of Manco Capac, varied from this character.
The empire, by degrees, became one of great extent, comprehending not
only all that which is now called Peru, but also Ecuador, which is
still covered with the monuments of the Incas. In this vast region, the
most perfect order reigned; the fields were tilled; the rivers were
employed in irrigating the soil; mountains were formed into terraces;
canals were prepared, means being taken to preserve the water in
its passage; and many large tracts, before mere deserts, were thus
rendered productive, if not fertile. As a means of communication for
the convenience of the people, a national road was constructed, with
great labor, from Quito to Cuzco, 1,500 miles in length. This was a
surprising work of art. It was not designed, indeed, for carriages,
for no such vehicles were in use among the Peruvians, but for a great
thoroughfare from one end of the empire to the other. Numerous flying
bridges were thrown across the deep ravines, which often interposed
obstacles to the progress of the work that required skill and patient
industry to overcome.
The structures, too, of stone, either temples or palaces, were composed
of immense blocks, inclosing vast spaces, and divided into numerous
apartments, one of which at Caxamalca is said to have been capable
of containing 5,000 men. Instead of the hieroglyphics, by which the
Mexicans preserved the records of their nation, and conveyed from one
to another the knowledge of passing events, the Peruvians used the
_quipos_, or strings, which, by their colors, knots, &c., represented
different parts of the record they wished to preserve. Vast treasures
were accumulated by the Incas, from the rich silver mines in their
dominions, and when they died, many of their vessels and other portions
of their wealth were buried in the grave with them.