GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF FISHES
[Illustration:
VARIATIONS IN THE COLOR OF FISHES
The Oniokose or Demon Stinger, _Inimicus japonicus_ (Cuv. and Val.),
from Wakanoura, Japan. From nature by Kako Morita.
Surface coloration about lava rocks.
Coloration of specimens living among red algæ.
Coloration in deep water; _Inimicus aurantiacus_ (Schlegel).
]
A GUIDE
TO
THE STUDY OF FISHES
BY
DAVID STARR JORDAN
_President of Leland Stanford Junior University_
_With Colored Frontispieces and 507 Illustrations_
IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL II.
"I am the wiser in respect to all knowledge
and the better qualified for all fortunes
for knowing that there is a minnow in that
brook."—_Thoreau_
[Illustration]
NEW YORK
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
1905
Copyright, 1905
BY
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
Published March, 1905
CONTENTS
VOL. II.
CHAPTER I.
THE GANOIDS.
PAGE
Subclass Actinopteri.—The Series Ganoidei.—Are the Ganoids a 1
Natural Group?—Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.—Gill on the
Ganoids as a Natural Group.
CHAPTER II.
THE GANOIDS (_Continued_).
Classification of Ganoids.—Order Lysopteri.—The Palæoniscidæ.—The 13
Platysomidæ.—The Dorypteridæ.—The Dictyopygidæ.—Order
Chondrostei.—Order Selachostomi: the Paddle-fishes.—Order
Pycnodonti.—Order Lepidostei.—Family Lepisosteidæ.—Embryology of
the Garpike.—Fossil Garpikes.—Order Halecomorphi.—Pachycormidæ.—
The Bowfins: Amiidæ.—The Oligopleuridæ.
CHAPTER III.
ISOSPONDYLI.
The Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.—Order Isospondyli.—The 37
Classification of the Bony Fishes.—Relationships of
Isospondyli.—The Clupeoidea.—The Leptolepidæ.—The Elopidæ.—The
Albulidæ.—The Chanidæ.—The Hiodontidæ.—The Pterothrissidæ.—The
Ctenothrissidæ.—The Notopteridæ.—The Clupeidæ.—The
Dorosomatidæ.—The Engraulididæ.—Gonorhynchidæ.—The
Osteoglossidæ.—The Pantodontidæ.
CHAPTER IV.
SALMONIDÆ.
The Salmon Family.—Coregonus, the Whitefish.—Argyrosomus, the Lake 61
Herring.—Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.—Oncorhynchus,
the Quinnat Salmon.—The Parent-stream Theory.—The Jadgeska
Hatchery.—Salmon-packing.
CHAPTER V.
SALMONIDÆ (_Continued_).
Salmo, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.—The Atlantic Salmon.—The 89
Ouananiche.—The Black-spotted Trout.—The Trout of Western
America.—Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.—Hucho, the Huchen.—
Salvelinus, the Charr.—Cristivomer, the Great Lake Trout.—The
Ayu, or Sweetfish.—Cormorant-fishing.—Fossil Salmonidæ.
CHAPTER VI.
THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT.
The Grayling, or Thymallidæ.—The Argentinidæ.—The Microstomidæ.— 120
The Salangidæ, or Icefishes.—The Haplochitonidæ.—Stomiatidæ.—
Suborder Iniomi, the Lantern-fishes.—Aulopidæ.—The
Lizard-fishes.—Ipnopidæ.—Rondeletiidæ.—Myctophidæ.—
Chirothricidæ.—Maurolicidæ.—The Lancet-fishes.—The
Sternoptychidæ.—Order Lyopomi.
CHAPTER VII.
THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES.
The Eels.—Order Symbranchia.—Order Apodes, or True Eels.—Suborder 139
Archencheli.—Suborder Enchelycephali.—Family Anguillidæ.—
Reproduction of the Eel.—Food of the Eel.—Larva of the Eel.—
Species of Eels.—Pug-nosed Eels.—Conger-eels.—The Snake-eels.—
Suborder Colocephali, or Morays.—Family Moringuidæ.—Order
Carencheli, the Long-necked Eels.—Order Lyomeri or Gulpers.—
Order Heteromi.
CHAPTER VIII.
SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI.
Ostariophysi.—The Heterognathi.—The Eventognathi.—The Cyprinidæ.— 159
Species of Dace and Shiner.—Chubs of the Pacific Slope.—The Carp
and Goldfish.—The Catostomidæ.—Fossil Cyprinidæ.—The Loaches.
CHAPTER IX.
THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES.
The Nematognathi.—Families of Nematognathi.—The Siluridæ.—The Sea 177
Catfish.—The Channel Cats.—Horned Pout.—The Mad-toms.—The Old
World Catfishes.—The Sisoridæ.—The Plotosidæ.—The Chlariidæ.—The
Hypophthalmidæ or Pygidiidæ.—The Loricariidæ.—The
Callichthyidæ.—Fossil Catfishes.—Order Gymnonoti.
CHAPTER X.
THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND XENOMI.
Order Scyphophori.—The Mormyridæ.—The Haplomi.—The Pikes.—The Mud 188
minnows.—The Killifishes.—Amblyopsidæ.—Kneriidæ, etc.—The
Galaxiidæ.—Order Xenomi.
CHAPTER XI.
ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI.
Order Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.—Suborder 208
Synentognathi.—The Garfishes: Belonidæ.—The Flying-fishes:
Exocœtidæ.
CHAPTER XII.
PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI.
Suborder Percesoces.—The Silversides: Atherinidæ.—The Mullets: 215
Mugilidæ.—The Barracudas: Sphyrænidæ.—Stephanoberycidæ.—
Crossognathidæ.—Cobitopsidæ.—Suborder Rhegnopteri.
CHAPTER XIII.
PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII, LOPHOBRANCHII, AND
HYPOSTOMIDES.
Suborder Hemibranchii.—The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteidæ.—The 227
Aulorhynchidæ.—Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidæ.—The Trumpet-fishes:
Aulostomidæ.—The Snipefishes: Macrorhamphosidæ.—The
Shrimp-fishes: Centriscidæ.—The Lophobranchs.—The
Solenostomidæ.—The Pipefishes: Syngnathidæ.—The Sea-horses:
Hippocampus.—Suborder Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegasidæ.
CHAPTER XIV.
SALMOPERCÆ AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL GROUPS.
Suborder Salmopercæ, the Trout-perches: Percopsidæ.— 241
Erismatopteridæ.—Suborder Selenichthyes, the Opahs: Lamprididæ.—
Suborder Zeoidea.—Amphistiidæ.—The John Dories: Zeidæ.—
Grammicolepidæ.
CHAPTER XV.
BERYCOIDEI.
The Berycoid Fishes.—The Alfonsinos: Berycidæ.—The Soldier-fishes: 250
Holocentridæ.—The Polymixiidæ.—The Pine-cone Fishes:
Monocentridæ.
CHAPTER XVI.
PERCOMORPHI.
Suborder Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches.—The Mackerel 258
Tribe: Scombroidea.—The True Mackerels: Scombridæ.—The Escolars:
Gempylidæ.—Scabbard and Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopidæ and
Trichiuridæ.—The Palæorhynchidæ.—The Sailfishes: Istiophoridæ.—
The Swordfishes: Xiphiidæ.
CHAPTER XVII.
CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS.
The Pampanos: Carangidæ.—The Papagallos: Nematistiidæ.—The 272
Bluefishes: Cheilodipteridæ.—The Sergeant-fishes:
Rachycentridæ.—The Butter-fishes: Stromateidæ.—The Rag-fishes:
Icosteidæ.—The Pomfrets: Bramidæ.—The Dolphins: Coryphænidæ.—The
Menidæ.—The Pempheridæ.—Luvaridæ.—The Square-tails:
Tetragonuridæ.—The Crested Bandfishes: Lophotidæ.
CHAPTER XVIII.
PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES.
Percoid Fishes.—The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderidæ.—The Pigmy 293
Sunfishes: Elassomidæ.—The Sunfishes: Centrarchidæ.—Crappies and
Rock Bass.—The Black Bass.—The Saleles: Kuhliidæ.—The True
Perches: Percidæ.—Relations of Darters to Perches.—The Perches.—
The Darters: Etheostominæ.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES.
The Cardinal-fishes: Apogonidæ.—The Anomalopidæ.—The Asineopidæ— 316
The Robalos: Oxylabracidæ.—The Sea-bass: Serranidæ.—The
Jewfishes.—The Groupers.—The Serranos.—The Flashers: Lobotidæ.—
The Big eyes: Priacanthidæ.—The Pentacerotidæ.—The Snappers:
Lutianidæ.—The Grunts: Hæmulidæ.—The Porgies: Sparidæ.—The
Picarels: Mænidæ.—The Mojarras: Gerridæ.—The Rudder-fishes:
Kyphosidæ.
CHAPTER XX.
THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND THEIR RELATIVES.
The Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullidæ.—The Croakers: Sciænidæ.— 351
The Sillaginidæ, etc.—The Jawfishes: Opisthognathidæ, etc.—The
Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathidæ.—The Swallowers: Chiasmodontidæ.—
The Malacanthidæ.—The Blanquillos: Latilidæ.—The Bandfishes:
Cepolidæ.—The Cirrhitidæ.—The Sandfishes: Trichodontidæ.
CHAPTER XXI.
LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI.
The Labyrinthine Fishes.—The Climbing-perches: Anabantidæ.—The 365
Gouramis: Osphromenidæ.—The Snake-head Mullets: Ophicephalidæ.—
Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.—The Embiotocidæ.
CHAPTER XXII.
CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI.
Suborder Chromides.—The Cichlidæ.—The Damsel-fishes: 380
Pomacentridæ.—Suborder Pharyngognathi.—The Wrasse Fishes:
Labridæ.—The Parrot-fishes: Scaridæ.
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE SQUAMIPINNES.
The Squamipinnes.—The Scorpididæ.—The Boarfishes: Antigoniidæ.—The 397
Arches: Toxotidæ.—The Ephippidæ.—The Spadefishes: Ilarchidæ.—The
Platacidæ.—The Butterfly-fishes: Chætodontidæ.—The Pygæidæ.—The
Moorish Idols: Zanclidæ.—The Tangs: Acanthuridæ.—Suborder
Amphacanthi, the Siganidæ.
CHAPTER XXIV.
SERIES PLECTOGNATHI.
The Plectognaths.—The Scleroderms.—The Trigger-fishes: Balistidæ.— 411
The File-fishes: Monacanthidæ.—The Spinacanthidæ.—The
Trunkfishes: Ostraciidæ.—The Gymnodontes.—The Triodontidæ.—The
Globefishes: Tetraodontidæ.—The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontidæ.—
The Head-fishes: Molidæ.
CHAPTER XXV.
PAREIOPLITÆ, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES.
The Mailed-cheek Fishes.—The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpænidæ.—The 426
Skilfishes: Anoplopomidæ.—The Greenlings: Hexagrammidæ.—The
Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalidæ.—The Sculpins: Cottidæ.—The
Sea-poachers: Agonidæ.—The Lump-suckers: Cyclopteridæ.—The
Sea-snails: Liparididæ.—The Baikal Cods: Comephoridæ.—Suborder
Craniomi: the Gurnards, Triglidæ.—The Peristediidæ.—The Flying
Gurnards: Cephalacanthidæ.
CHAPTER XXVI.
GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND TÆNIOSOMI.
Suborder Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiidæ.—Suborder Discocephali, 459
the Shark-suckers: Echeneididæ.—Suborder Tæniosomi, the
Ribbon-fishes.—The Oarfishes: Regalecidæ.—The Dealfishes:
Trachypteridæ.
CHAPTER XXVII.
SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA.
The Flatfishes.—Optic Nerves of Flounders.—Ancestry of Flounders.— 481
The Flounders: Pleuronectidæ.—The Turbot Tribe: Bothinæ.—The
Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossinæ.—The Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectinæ.—
The Soles: Soleidæ.—The Broad Soles: Achirinæ.—The European
Soles (Soleinæ).—The Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossinæ.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
SUBORDER JUGULARES.
The Jugular-fishes.—The Weevers: Trachinidæ.—The Nototheniidæ.—The 499
Leptoscopidæ.—The Star-gazers: Uranoscopidæ.—The Dragonets:
Callionymidæ.—The Dactyloscopidæ.
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDÆ.
The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiinæ, Stichæiniæ, etc.—The 507
Quillfishes: Ptilichthyidæ.—The Blochiidæ.—The Patæcidæ, etc.—
The Gadopsidæ, etc.—The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadidæ.—The
Eel-pouts: Zoarcidæ.—The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidæ.—Sand-lances:
Ammodytidæ.—The Pearlfishes: Fierasferidæ.—The Brotulidæ.—
Ateleopodidæ.—Suborder Haplodoci.—Suborder Xenopterygii.
CHAPTER XXX.
OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI.
Order Opisthomi.—Order Anacanthini.—The Codfishes: Gadidæ.—The 532
Hakes: Merluciidæ.—The Grenadiers: Macrouridæ.
CHAPTER XXXI.
ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS.
The Angler-fishes.—The Fishing-frogs: Lophiidæ.—The Sea-devils: 542
Ceratiidæ.—The Frogfishes: Antennariidæ.—The Batfishes:
Ogcocephalidæ.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
VOL. II.
PAGE
Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder, _Paralichthys californicus_ 2
_Palæoniscum frieslebenense_ 14
_Eurynotus crenatus_ 15
_Dorypterus hoffmani_ 16
_Chondrosteus acipenseroides_ 18
_Acipenser sturio_, Common Sturgeon 19
_Acipenser rubicundus_, Lake Sturgeon 20
_Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus_, Shovel-nosed Sturgeon 20
_Polyodon spathula_, Paddle-fish, side-view 21
_Polyodon spathula_, Paddle-fish, view from below 21
_Psephurus gladius_ 21
_Gyrodus hexagonus_ 22
_Mesturus verrucosus_ 23
_Semionotus kapffi_ 24
_Dapedium politum_ 25
_Tetragonolepis semicinctus_ 26
_Isopholis orthostomus_ 27
_Lepisosteus osseus_, Long-nosed Garpike 27
_Caturus elongatus_ 28
_Notagogus pentlandi_ 28
_Ptycholepis curtus_ 28
_Pholidophorus crenulatus_ 29
_Lepisosteus tristœchus_, Alligator-gar 31
Lower Jaw of _Amia calva_, showing the gular plate 33
_Amia calva_, Bowfin (female) 35
_Megalurus elegantissimus_ 36
_Leptolepis dubius_ 41
_Elops saurus_, Ten-pounder 42
_Holcolepis lewesiensis_ 42
_Tarpon atlanticus_, Tarpon or Grand Écaille 43
_Albula vulpes_, Lady-fish 44
_Chanos chanos_, Milkfish 45
_Hiodon tergisus_, Mooneye 45
_Istieus grandis_ 46
_Chirothrix libanicus_ 46
Skeleton of _Portheus molossus_ 47
_Ctenothrissa vexillifera_ 48
_Clupea harengus_, Herring 49
_Pomolobus pseudoharengus_, Alewife 50
_Brevoortia tyrannus_, Menhaden 51
_Diplomystus humilis_ 52
_Dorosoma cepedianum_, Hickory-shad 53
_Anchovia perthecata_, Silver Anchovy 54
_Notogoneus osculus_ 55
_Phareodus testis_ 57
Deposits of Green River Shales, bearing _Phareodus_, at Fossil, 58
Wyoming
A Day's Catch of fossil-fishes, Green River Eocene Shales 59
_Alepocephalus agassizii_ 60
_Coregonus williamsoni_, Rocky Mountain Whitefish 63
_Coregonus clupeiformis_, Whitefish 64
_Argyrosomus nigripinnis_, Bluefin Cisco 66
_Stenodus mackenziei_, Inconnu 67
_Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, Quinnat Salmon (female) 69
_Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, King-salmon (grilse) 70
_Oncorhynchus nerka_, Male Red Salmon 70
_Oncorhynchus gorbuscha_, Humpback Salmon (female) 72
_Oncorhynchus masou_, Masu 72
_Oncorhynchus nerka_, Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male after 76
spawning)
_Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, Quinnat Salmon (dying after spawning) 77
_Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, Quinnat Salmon 79
_Salmo irideus shasta_, Rainbow Trout (male) 98
_Salmo irideus shasta_, Rainbow Trout (female) 99
_Salmo rivularis_, Steelhead Trout 101
Head of Adult Trout-worm, _Dibothrium cordiceps_. From intestine 103
of white pelican
Median segments of _Dibothrium cordiceps_ 103
_Salmo henshawi_, Tahoe Trout 104
_Salmo stomias_, Green-back Trout 105
_Salmo macdonaldi_, Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes 105
_Salmo clarkii spilurus_, Rio Grande Trout 106
_Salmo clarkii pleuriticus_, Colorado River Trout 106
_Hucho blackistoni_, Ito 107
_Salvelinus oquassa_, Rangeley Trout 108
_Salvelinus aureolus_, Sunapee Trout 109
_Salvelinus fontinalis_, Speckled Trout (male) 110
_Salvelinus fontinalis_, Speckled Trout 111
_Salvelinus malma_, Malma Trout 113
_Salvelinus malma_, Dolly Varden Trout 114
_Cristivomer namaycush_, Great Lake Trout 114
_Plecoglossus altivelis_, Ayu, or Japanese Samlet 116
_Thymallus signifer_, Alaska Grayling 120
_Thymallus tricolor_, Michigan Grayling 122
_Osmerus mordax_, Smelt 123
_Thaleichthys pretiosus_, Eulachon or Ulchen 124
Page of William Clark's Handwriting with Sketch of the Eulachon 125
(_Thaleichthys pacificus_)
_Mallotus villosus_, Capelin 126
_Salanx hyalocranius_, Icefish 128
_Stomias ferox_ 128
_Chauliodus sloanei_ 129
_Synodus fætens_, Lizard-fish 130
_Ipnops murrayi_ 131
_Cetomimus gillii_ 132
_Diaphus lucidus_, Headlight-fish 132
_Myctophum opalinum_, Lantern-fish 133
_Ceratoscopelus madeirensis_, Lantern-fish 133
_Rhinellus furcatus_ 134
_Plagyodus ferox_, Lancet-fish 135
_Eurypholis sulcidens_ 136
_Eurypholis freyeri_ 137
_Argyropelecus olfersi_ 137
_Aldrovandia gracilis_ 138
_Anguilla chrisypa_, Common Eel 143
_Anguilla chrisypa_, Larva of Common Eel 148
_Simenchelys parasiticus_, Pug-nosed Eel 149
_Synaphobranchus pinnatus_ 149
_Leptocephalus conger_, Conger-eel 150
Larva of Conger-eel, _Leptocephalus conger_ 150
_Xyrias revulsus_ 151
_Myrichthys pantostigmius_ 151
_Ophichthus ocellatus_ 151
_Nemichthys avocetta_, Thread-eel 152
Jaws of _Nemichthys avocetta_ 152
_Muræna retifera_ 153
_Gymnothorax berndti_ 154
_Gymnothorax jordani_ 155
_Gymnothorax moringa_, Moray 155
_Derichthys serpentinus_ 156
_Gastrostomus bairdi_, Gulper-eel 156
_Notacanthus phasganorus_ 158
Inner view of shoulder-girdle of Buffalo-fish (_Ictiobus 160
bubalus_), showing the mesocoracoid
Weberian apparatus and air-bladder of Carp 160
_Brycon dentex_ 162
Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, _Leuciscus cephalus_ 163
_Rhinichthys dulcis_, Black-nosed Dace 164
_Notropis hudsonius_, White Chub 165
_Ericymba buccata_, Silver-jaw Minnow 165
_Notropis whipplei_, Silverfin 166
_Campostoma anomalum_, Stone-roller 167
Head of Day-chub, _Exoglossum maxillingua_ 167
_Semotilus atromaculatus_, Horned Dace 168
_Abramis chrysoleucus_, Shiner 168
_Ptychocheilus grandis_, Squawfish 169
_Leuciscus lineatus_, Chub of the Great Basin 169
Lower Pharyngeal of _Placopharynx duquesnii_ 171
_Erimyzon sucetta_, Creekfish or Chub-sucker 172
_Ictiobus cyprinella_, Buffalo-fish 173
_Carpiodes cyprinus_, Carp-sucker 173
_Catostomus commersoni_, Common Sucker 174
_Catostomus occidentalis_, California Sucker 174
Pharyngeal teeth of Oregon Sucker, _Catostomus macrocheilus_ 175
_Xyrauchen cypho_, Razor-back Sucker 175
_Felichthys felis_, Gaff-topsail Cat 179
_Galeichthys milberti_, Sea Catfish 179
_Ictalurus punctatus_, Channel Catfish 180
_Ameiurus nebulosus_, Horned Pout 181
_Schilbeodes furiosus_, Mad-tom. Showing the poisoned pectoral 182
spine
_Torpedo electricus_, Electric Catfish 183
_Chlarias breviceps_, African Catfish 185
_Loricaria aurea_, Mailed Catfish from Venezuela 186
_Gnathonemus curvirostris_ 189
_Esox lucius_, Pike 191
_Esox masquinongy_, Muskallunge 192
_Umbra pygmæa_, Mud-minnow 193
_Anableps dovii_, Four-eyed Fish 195
_Cyprinodon variegatus_, Round Minnow 196
_Jordanella floridæ_, Everglade Minnow 197
_Fundulis majalis_, Mayfish (male) 198
_Fundulis majalis_, Mayfish (female) 198
_Zygonectes notatus_, Top-minnow 198
_Empetrichthys merriami_, Death Valley Fish 199
_Xiphophorus helleri_, Sword-tail Minnow (male) 199
_Goodea luitpoldi_, a Viviparous Fish 200
_Chologaster cornutus_, Dismal Swamp Fish 201
_Typhlichthys subterraneus_, Blind Cave-fish 202
_Amblyopsis spelæus_, Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave 203
_Dallia pectoralis_, Alaska Blackfish 206
_Tylosurus acus_, Needle-fish 210
_Scombresox saurus_, Saury 212
_Hyporhamphus unifasciatus_, Halfbeak 212
_Fodiator acutus_, Sharp-nosed Flying-fish 213
_Cypselurus californicus_, Catalina Flying-fish 214
_Chirostoma humboldtianum_, Pescado blanco 217
_Kirtlandia vagrans_, Silverside or Brit 217
_Atherinopsis californiensis_, Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey 218
_Iso flos-maris_, Flower of the Waves 218
_Mugil cephalus_, Striped Mullet 221
_Joturus pichardi_, Joturo or Bobo 222
_Sphyræna barracuda_, Barracuda 223
_Cobitopsis acuta_ 224
Shoulder-girdle of a Threadfin, _Polydactylus approximans_ 225
_Polydactylus octonemus_, Threadfin 225
Shoulder-girdle of a Stickleback, _Gasterosteus aculeatus_ 227
Shoulder-girdle of _Fistularia petimba_, showing greatly extended 227
interclavicle, the surface ossified
_Gasterosteus aculeatus_, Three-spined Stickleback 232
_Apeltes quadracus_, Four-spined Stickleback 232
_Aulostomus chinensis_, Trumpet-fish 234
_Macrorhamphosus sagifue_, Japanese Snipefish 234
_Æoliscus strigatus_, Shrimp-fish 235
_Æoliscus heinrichi_ 235
_Solenostomus cyanopterus_ 237
_Hippocampus hudsonius_, Sea-horse 238
_Zalises umitengu_, Sea-moth 240
_Percopsis guttatus_, Sand-roller 241
_Erismatopterus endlicheri_ 242
_Columbia transmontana_, Oregon Trout-perch 242
Shoulder-girdle of the Opah, _Lampris guttatus_ (_Brünnich_), 243
showing the enlarged infraclavicle
Ligatures_Semiophorus velifer_ 246
_Amphistium paradoxum_ 247
_Zeus faber_, John Dory 248
Skull of a Berycoidfish, _Beryx splendens_, showing the 250
orbitosphenoid
_Beryx splendens_ 251
_Hoplopteryx lewesiensis_ 252
_Paratrachichthys prosthemius_ 253
_Holocentrus ascenscionis_, Soldier-fish 254
_Holocentrus ittodai_ 254
_Ostichthys japonicus_ 255
_Monocentris japonicus_, Pine-cone Fish 256
_Scomber scombrus_, Mackerel 260
_Germo alalunga_, Long-fin Albacore 263
_Scomberomorus maculatus_, Spanish Mackerel 264
_Trichiurus lepturus_, Cutlass-fish 268
_Palæorhynchus glarisianus_ 268
_Xiphias gladius_, Young Swordfish 269
_Xiphias gladius_, Swordfish 270
_Naucrates ductor_, Pilot-fish 273
_Seriola lalandi_, Amber-fish 273
_Trachurus trachurus_, Saurel 274
_Carangus chrysos_, Yellow Mackerel 275
_Trachinotus carolinus_, the Pampano 277
_Cheilodipterus saltatrix_, Bluefish 279
_Rachycentron canadum_, Sergeant-fish 282
_Peprilus paru_, Harvest-fish 284
_Gobiomorus gronovii_, Portuguese Man-of-War Fish 285
_Coryphæna hippurus_, Dolphin or Dorado 287
_Mene maculata_ 288
_Gasteronemus rhombeus_ 289
_Pempheris mulleri_, Catalufa de lo Alto 289
_Pempheris nyctereutes_ 290
_Luvarus imperialis_, Louvar 290
_Aphredoderus sayanus_, Pirate Perch 295
_Elassoma evergladei_, Everglade Pigmy Perch 295
Skull of the Rock Bass, _Ambloplites rupestris_ 296
_Pomoxis annularis_, Crappie 297
_Pomoxis annularis_, Crappie (from life) 298
_Ambloplites rupestris_, Rock Bass 299
_Mesogonistius chætodon_, Banded Sunfish 299
_Lepomis pallidus_, Blue-gill 300
_Lepomis megalotis_, Long-eared Sunfish 300
_Eupomotis gibbosus_, Common Sunfish 301
_Micropterus dolomieu_, Small Mouth Black Bass 303
_Micropterus salmoides_, Large Mouth Black Bass 305
_Perca flavescens_, Yellow perch 308
_Stizostedion canadense_, Sauger 309
_Aspro asper_, Aspron 309
_Zingel zingel_, Zingel 310
_Percina caprodes_, Log-perch 311
_Hadropterus aspro_, Black-sided Darter 311
_Diplesion blennioides_, Green-sided Darter 312
_Boleosoma olmstedi_, Tessellated Darter 312
_Crystallaria asprella_, Crystal Darter 313
_Ammocrypta clara_, Sand-darter 313
_Etheostoma jordani_ 314
_Etheostoma camurum_, Blue-breasted Darter 314
_Apogon retrosella_, Cardinal-fish 316
_Telescopias gilberti_, Kuromutsu 318
_Apogon semilineatus_ 319
_Oxylabrax undecimalis_, Robalo 319
_Morone americana_, White Perch 322
_Promicrops itaiara_, Florida Jewfish 323
_Epinephelus striatus_, Nassau Grouper: _Cherna criolla_ 324
_Epinephelus drummond-hayi_, John Paw or Speckled Hind 325
_Epinephelus morio_, Red Grouper 325
_Epinephelus adscensionis_, Red Hind 326
_Mycteroperca venenosa_, Yellow-fin Grouper 327
_Hypoplectrus unicolor nigricans_ 328
_Epinephelus niveatus_, Snowy Grouper 329
_Rypticus bistrispinus_, Soapfish 330
_Lobotes surinamensis_, Flasher 331
_Priacanthus arenatus_, Catalufa 331
_Pseudopriacanthus altus_, Bigeye 332
_Lutianus griseus_, Gray Snapper 334
_Lutianus apodus_, Schoolmaster 335
_Hoplopagrus guntheri_ 336
_Lutianus synagris_, Lane Snapper or Biajaiba 336
_Ocyurus chrysurus_, Yellow-tail Snapper 337
_Etelis oculatus_, Cachucho 337
_Xenocys jessiæ_ 338
_Aphareus furcatus_ 339
_Hæmulon plumieri_, Grunt 340
_Anisotremus virginicus_, Porkfish 341
_Pagrus major_, Red Tai of Japan 342
_Ebisu_, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai 343
_Stenotomus chrysops_, Scup 344
_Calamus bajonado_, Jolt-head Porgy 345
_Calamus proridens_, Little-head Porgy 345
_Diplodus holbrooki_ 346
_Archosargus unimaculatus_, Salema, Striped Sheepshead 347
_Xystæma cinereum_, Mojarra 348
_Gerres olisthostomus_, Irish Pampano 349
_Kyphosus sectatrix_, Chopa or Rudder-fish 349
_Apomotis cyanellus_, Blue-green Sunfish 350
_Pseudupeneus maculatus_, Red Goatfish or Salmonete 351
_Mullus auratus_, Golden Surmullet 352
_Cynoscion nebulosus_, Spotted Weakfish 353
_Bairdiella chrysura_, Mademoiselle 355
_Sciænops ocellata_, Red Drum 356
_Umbrina sinaloæ_, Yellow-fin Roncador 357
_Menticirrhus americanus_, Kingfish 357
_Pogonias chromis_, Drum 358
_Gnathypops evermanni_ 359
_Opisthognathus macrognathus_, Jawfish 359
_Opisthognathus nigromarginatus_ 360
_Chiasmodon niger_, Black Swallower 360
_Cirrhitus rivulatus_ 364
_Trichodon trichodon_, Sandfish 364
_Anabas scandens_, Climbing Perch 366
_Channa formosana_ 371
_Ophicephalus barca_, Snake-headed China-fish 371
_Cymatogaster aggregatus_, White Surf-fish 372
_Hysterocarpus traski_, Fresh-water Viviparous Perch 373
_Hypsurus caryi_ 373
_Damalichthys argyrosomus_, White Surf-fish 374
_Rhacochilus toxotes_, Thick-lipped Surf-fish 374
_Hypocritichthys analis_, Silver Surf-fish, Viviparous 375
_Hysterocarpus traski_, Viviparous Perch (male) 379
_Hypsypops rubicunda_, Garibaldi 382
_Pomacentrus leucostictus_, Damsel-fish 382
_Glyphisodon marginatus_, Cockeye Pilot 383
_Microspathodon dorsalis_, Indigo Damsel-fish 384
_Tautoga onitis_, Tautog 384
_Tautoga onitis_, Tautog 386
_Lachnolaimus falcatus_, Capitaine or Hogfish 387
_Xyrichthys psittacus_, Razor-fish 388
_Pimelometopon pulcher_, Redfish (male) 389
_Lepidaplois perditio_ 389
Pharyngeals of Italian Parrot-fish, _Sparisoma cretense_. _a_, 391
Upper; _b_, Lower
Jaws of Parrot-fish, _Calotomus xenodon_ 391
_Cryptotomus beryllinus_ 391
_Sparisoma hoplomystax_ 392
_Sparisoma abildgaardi_, Red Parrot-fish 392
Jaws of Blue Parrot-fish, _Scarus cæruleus_ 393
Upper pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, _Scarus strongylocephalus_ 393
Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, _Scarus strongylocephalus_ 393
_Scarus emblematicus_ 394
_Scarus cæruleus_, Blue Parrot-fish 394
_Scarus vetula_, Parrot-fish 395
_Halichæres bivittatus_, Slippery Dick or Doncella, a fish of the 399
coral-reefs
_Monodactylus argenteus_ 397
_Psettus sebæ_ 399
_Chætodipterus faber_, Spadefish 401
_Chætodon capistratus_, Butterfly-fish 402
_Pomacanthus arcuatus_, Black Angel-fish 403
_Holacanthus ciliaris_, Angel-fish or Isabelita 404
_Holacanthus tricolor_, Rock Beauty 405
_Zanclus canescens_, Moorish Idol 406
_Teuthis cæruleus_, Blue Tang 407
_Teuthis bahianus_, Brown Tang 408
_Balistes carolinensis_, Trigger-fish 412
_Osbeckia lævis_, File-fish 414
_Amanses scopas_, Needle-bearing File-fish 414
_Stephanolepis hispidus_, Common File-fish 415
_Lactophrys tricornis_, Horned Trunkfish, Cowfish, or Cuckold 416
_Ostracion cornutum_, Horned Trunkfish 416
_Lactophrys bicaudalis_, Spotted Trunkfish 416
_Lactophrys bicaudalis_, Spotted Trunkfish (face view) 417
_Lactophrys triqueter_, Spineless Trunkfish 417
_Lactophrys trigonus_, Hornless Trunkfish 418
Skeleton of the Cowfish, _Lactophrys tricornis_ 418
_Lagocephalus lævigatus_, Silvery Puffer 419
_Spheroides spengleri_, Puffer, Inflated 420
_Spheroides maculatus_, Puffer 420
_Tetraodon meleagris_ 421
_Tetraodon setosus_, Bristly Globefish 422
_Diodon hystrix_, Porcupine-fish 422
_Chilomycterus schœpfi_, Rabbit-fish 423
_Mola mola_, Headfish (adult) 424
_Ranzania makua_, King of the Mackerel, from Honolulu 425
_Sebastes marinus_, Rosefish 427
Skull of _Scorpænichthys marmoratus_ 427
_Sebastolobus altivelis_ 428
_Sebastodes mystinus_, Priest-fish 430
_Sebastichthys serriceps_ 431
_Sebastichthys nigrocinctus_, Banded Rockfish 432
_Scorpæna grandicornis_, Lion-fish 433
_Scorpæna mystes_, Sea-scorpion 434
_Pterois volitans_, Lion-fish or Sausolele 435
_Emmydrichthys vulcanus_, Black Nohu or Poison-fish 436
_Snyderina yamanokami_ 437
_Trachicephalus uranoscopus_ 438
_Anoplopoma fimbria_, Skilfish 438
_Pleurogrammus monopterygius_, Atka-fish 439
_Hexagrammos decagrammus_, Greenling 440
_Ophiodon elongatus_, Cultus Cod 440
_Jordania zonope_ 442
_Astrolytes notospilotus_ 442
_Hemilepidotus jordani_, Irish Lord 443
_Triglops pingeli_ 443
_Enophrys bison_, Buffalo Sculpin 443
_Ceratocottus diceraus_ 444
_Elanura forficata_ 444
_Cottus punctulatus_, Yellowstone Miller's Thumb 444
_Uranidea tenuis_, Miller's Thumb 445
_Cottus evermanni_ 445
_Cottus gulosus_, California Miller's Thumb 446
_Myxocephalus niger_, Pribilof Sculpin 446
_Myxocephalus octodecimspinosus_, 18-spined Sculpin 447
_Oncocottus quadricornis_ 447
_Blepsias cirrhosus_ 448
_Hemitripterus americanus_, Sea-raven 448
_Oligocottus maculosus_ 449
_Ereunias grallator_ 450
_Psychrolutes paradoxus_, Sleek Sculpin 451
_Gilbertidia sigolutes_ 451
_Rhamphocottus richardsoni_, Richardson's Sculpin 451
_Stelgis vulsus_ 451
_Draciscus sachi_ 452
_Pallasina barbata_, Agonoid-fish 453
_Aspidophoroides monopterygius_ 453
_Cyclopterus lumpus_, Lumpfish 454
_Crystallias matsushimæ_, Liparid 454
_Neoliparis mucosus_, Snailfish 455
_Prionotus evolans_, Sea-robin 456
_Cephalacanthus volitans_, Flying Gurnard 457
_Peristedion miniatum_ 457
_Philypnus dormitor_, Guavina de Rio 460
_Eleotris pisonis_, Dormeur 460
_Dormitator maculatus_, Guavina mapo 461
_Vireosa hanæ_ 461
_Gobionellus oceanicus_, Esmeralda de Mar 461
_Pterogobius daimio_ 462
_Aboma etheostoma_, Darter Goby 462
_Gillichthys mirabilis_, Long-jawed Goby 463
_Boleophthalmus chinensis_, Pond-skipper 466
_Periophthalmus barbarus_, Mud-skippy 466
_Eutæniichthys gillii_ 467
_Leptecheneis naucrates_, Sucking-fish or Pegador 468
_Rhombochirus osteochir_ 469
_Regalecus russelli_, Glesnæs Oarfish 476
_Trachypterus rex-salmonorum_, Dealfish or King of the Salmon 478
Young Flounder just hatched 482
_Pseudopleuronectes americanus_, Larval Flounder 483
Larval Stages of _Platophrys podas_, a Flounder 484
_Platophrys lunatus_, Peacock Flounder 485
Heterocercal Tail of Young Trout, _Salmo fario_ 486
Homocercal Tail of a Flounder, _Paralichthys californicus_ 486
_Lophopsetta maculata_, Window-pane 487
_Syacium papillosum_, Wide-eyed Flounder 488
_Etropus crossotus_ 489
_Hippoglossus hippoglossus_, Halibut 492
_Paralichthys dentatus_, Wide-mouthed Flounder 493
_Liopsetta putnami_, Eel-back Flounder 494
_Platichthys stellatus_, Starry Flounder 495
_Achirus lineatus_, Hog-choker Sole 496
_Symphurus plagiusa_ 498
_Pteropsaron evolans_ 502
_Bathymaster signatus_ 503
_Ariscopus iburius_ 504
_Astroscopus guttatus_, Star-gazer 505
_Neoclinus satiricus_, Sarcastic Blenny 507
_Gibbonsia evides_, Kelp Blenny 508
_Blennius cristatus_ 508
_Alticus atlanticus_, Rock-skipper 509
_Alticus saliens_, Lizard-skipper 509
_Emblemaria atlantica_ 510
_Scartichthys enosimæ_, Fish of the rock-pools of the sacred 510
island of Enoshima, Japan
_Zacalles bryope_ 511
_Bryostemma tarsodes_ 511
_Exerpes asper_ 511
_Pholis gunnellus_, Gunnel 512
_Xiphistes chirus_ 512
_Ozorthe dictyogramma_ 513
_Stichæus punctatus_ 513
_Bryostemma otohime_ 514
_Ptilichthys goodei_, Quillfish 514
_Blochius longirostris_ 514
_Xiphasia setifera_ 515
_Cryptacanthodes maculatus_, Wrymouth 516
_Anarhichas lupus_, Wolf-fish 517
Skull of _Anarrhichthys ocellatus_ 517
_Zoarces anguillaris_, Eel-pout 518
_Lycodes reticulatus_, Eel-pout 519
_Lycenchelys verrilli_ 519
_Scytalina cerdale_ 519
_Rissola marginata_, Cusk-eel 520
_Lycodapus dermatinus_ 520
_Ammodytes americanus_, Sand-lance 521
_Embolichthys mitsukurii_ 521
_Fierasfer dubius_, Pearlfish, Embedded in Pearl 522
_Fierasfer acus_, Pearlfish 523
_Brotula barbata_ 524
_Lucifuga subterranea_, Blind Brotula 524
_Opsanus pardus_, Leopard Toadfish 525
_Porichthys porosissimus_, Singing Fish (with Many Lateral Lines) 526
_Aspasma ciconiæ_ 530
_Caularchus mæandricus_, Clingfish 531
_Mastacembelus ellipsifer_ 532
_Gadus callarias_, Codfish 533
Skull of Haddock, _Melanogrammus æglifinus_ 536
_Melanogrammus æglifinus_, Haddock 536
_Theragra chalcogramma_, Pollock 537
_Microgadus tomcod_, Tomcod 538
_Lota maculosa_, Burbot 539
_Enchelyopus cimbrius_, Four-bearded Rockling 539
_Merluccius productus_, California Hake 540
_Coryphænoides carapinus_, showing leptocercal tail 540
_Cælorhynchus carminatus_, Grenadier 541
_Steindachnerella argentea_ 541
_Lophius litulon_, Anko or Fishing-frog 545
_Cryptopsaras couesi_ 547
_Ceratias holbolli_, Deep-sea Angler 548
_Caulophryne jordani_ 548
_Pterophryne tumida_, Sargassum-fish, one of the Anglers 549
_Antennarius nox_, Fishing-frog 550
Shoulder-girdle of a Batfish, _Ogcocephalus radiatus_ 551
_Antennarius scaber_, Frogfish 551
_Ogcocephalus vespertilio_ 552
_Ogcocephalus vespertilio_, Batfish 553
_Ogcocephalus vespertilio_, Batfish 553
ERRATA[1]
VOL. II
Page xviii, line 7, for _Ophicæphalus_ read _Ophicephalus_
xviii, " 37, for _Mononactylus_ read _Monodactylus_
xix, " 33, for _Trachicephales_ read _Trachicephalus_
xx, " 37, for _Regaleaus glesneacsanius_ read _Regalecus
russelli_
xxi, " 2, for _Etopus_ read _Etropus_
xxi, " 35, for _Zoacres_ read _Zoarces_
1, " 7, _for_ jaws _read_ jaw
14, " 9, _for_ hetercoercal _read_ heterocercal
136, " 3, for _Evermannellus_ read _Evermannella_
170, " 11, _for_ the fin _read_ the dorsal fin
171, " 10, _for_ have _read_ has
303, legend, _for_ Lacepède _read_ Lacépède
307, line 14, _for_ vertebrate _read_ vertebral
311, " 12, not clearly stated. The air-bladder is least
developed in those species which cling
closest to the bottom of the stream
350, legend, for _Apomotes_ read _Apomotis_
355, line 18, _for_ ours _read_ our
357, " 14, _for_ chætodon _read_ Chætodon
358, " 17, for _Scriænidæ_ read _Sciænidæ_
360, " 14, for _Percesoces_ read _Percesoces_
409, " 16, for _naseus_ read _Naseus_
419, " 23, _for_ of the generic of this group _read_
separating the group into genera
440, " 17, _for_ Chinnook _read_ Chinook
459, " 24, _for_ but the most _read_ but most
459, " 25, _for_ thme _read_ them
467, " 14, for _Typhogobius_ read _Typhlogobius_
472, lines 34, _omit_ "but never in the United States".
35, Specimens of _Regalecus_ have been taken at
Anclote Key, Florida, and at the Tortugas.
580, col. 3, line 17, _for_ 165 _read_ 105
The adoption of the Code of the International Congress of Zoology
necessitates a few changes in generic names used in this book.
Thus _Amia_ (ganoid) becomes _Amiatus_
_Apogon_ becomes _Amia_
_Scarus_ becomes _Callyodon_
_Teuthis_ becomes _Hepatus_
_Acanthurus_ becomes _Monoceros_
_Paramia_ becomes _Cheilodipterus_
_Centropomus_ (_Oxylabrax_) remains _Centropomus_
_Lucioperca_ (_Centropomus_) becomes _Sander_
_Pomatomus_ (_Cheilodipterus_) remains _Pomatomus_
_Nomeus_ (_Gobiomorus_) remains _Nomeus_
_Galeus_ (_Galeorhinus_) remains _Galeus_
_Carcharias_ (_Carcharhinus_) remains _Carcharias_
Footnote 1:
For most of this list of errata I am indebted to the kindly interest
of Dr. B. W. Evermann.
CHAPTER I
THE GANOIDS
=SUBCLASS Actinopteri.=—In our glance over the taxonomy of the earlier
Chordates, or fish-like vertebrates, we have detached from the main stem
one after another a long series of archaic or primitive types. We have
first set off those with rudimentary notochord, then those with
retrogressive development who lose the notochord, then those without
skull or brain, then those without limbs or lower jaw. The residue
assume the fish-like form of body, but still show great differences
among themselves. We have then detached those without membrane-bones, or
trace of lung or air-bladder. We next part company with those having the
air-bladder a veritable lung, and those with an ancient type of paired
fins, a jointed axis fringed with rays, and those having the palate
still forming the upper jaw. We have finally left only those having
fish-jaws, fish-fins, and in general the structure of the modern fish.
For all these in all their variety, as a class or subclass, the name
_Actinopteri_, or _Actinopterygii_, suggested by Professor Cope, is now
generally adopted. The shorter form, _Actinopteri_, being equally
correct is certainly preferable. This term (ακτίς, ray; πτερόν or
πτερύξ, fin) refers to the structure of the paired fins. In all these
fishes the bones supporting the fin-rays are highly specialized and at
the same time concealed by the general integument of the body. In
general two bones connect the pectoral fin with the shoulder-girdle. The
hypercoracoid is a flat square bone, usually perforated by a foramen.
Lying below it and parallel with it is the irregularly formed
hypocoracoid. Attached to them is a row of bones, the actinosts, or
pterygials, short, often hour-glass-shaped, which actually support the
fin-rays. In the more specialized forms, or Teleosts, the actinosts are
few (four to six) in number, but in the more primitive types, or
Ganoids, they may remain numerous, a reminiscence of the condition seen
in the Crossopterygians, and especially in _Polypterus_. Other
variations may occur; the two coracoids sometimes are imperfect or
specially modified, the upper sometimes without a foramen, and the
actinosts may be distorted in form or position.
[Illustration:
FIG. 1.—Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder, _Paralichthys californicus_
(Ayres).
]
=The Series Ganoidei.=—Among the lower _Actinopteri_ many archaic traits
still persist, and in its earlier representatives the group approaches
closely to the _Crossopterygii_, although no forms actually intermediate
are known either living or fossil. The great group of _Actinopteri_ may
be divided into two series or subclasses, the _Ganoidei_, or
_Chrondrostei_, containing those forms, mostly extinct, which retain
archaic traits of one sort or another, and the _Teleostei_, or bony
fishes, in which most of the primitive characters have disappeared.
Doubtless all of the _Teleostei_ are descended from a ganoid ancestry.
Even among the _Ganoidei_, as the term is here restricted, there remains
a very great variety of form and structure. The fossil and existing
forms do not form continuous series, but represent the tips and remains
of many diverging branches perhaps from some Crossopterygian central
stock. The group constitutes at least three distinct orders and, as a
whole, does not admit of perfect definition. In most but not all of the
species the tail is distinctly and obviously heterocercal, the lack of
symmetry of the tail in some Teleosts being confined to the bones and
not evident without dissection. Most of the Ganoids have the skeleton
still cartilaginous, and in some it remains in a very primitive
condition. Usually the Ganoids have an armature of bony plates,
diamond-shaped, with an enamel like that developed on the teeth. In all
of them the pectoral fin has numerous basal bones or actinosts. All of
them have the air-bladder highly developed, usually cellular and
functional as a lung, but connecting with the dorsal side of the gullet,
not with the ventral side as in the Dipnoans. In all living forms there
is a more or less perfect optic chiasma. These ancient forms retain also
the many valves of the arterial bulb and the spiral valve of the
intestines found in the more archaic types of fishes. But traces of some
or all of these structures are found in some bony fishes, and their
presence in the Ganoids by no means justifies the union of the Ganoids
with the sharks, Dipnoans, and Crossopterygians to form a great primary
class, _Palæichthyes_, as proposed by Dr. Günther. Almost every form of
body may be found among the Ganoids. In the Mesozoic seas these fishes
were scarcely less varied and perhaps scarcely less abundant than the
Teleosts in the seas of to-day. They far exceed the Crossopterygians in
number and variety of forms. Transitional forms connecting the two
groups are thus far not recognized. So far as fossils show, the
characteristic actinopterous fin with its reduced and altered basal
bones appeared at once without intervening gradations.
The name _Ganoidei_ (γάνος, brightness; εἶδος, resemblance), alluding to
the enameled plates, was first given by Agassiz to those forms, mostly
extinct, which were covered with bony scales or hard plates of one sort
or another. As the term was originally defined, mailed catfishes,
sea-horses, _Agonidæ_, _Arthrodires_, _Ostracophores_, and other wholly
unrelated types were included with the garpikes and sturgeons as
Ganoids. Most of these intruding forms among living fishes were
eliminated by Johannes Müller, who recognized the various archaic
characters common to the existing forms after the removal of the mailed
Teleosts. Still later Huxley separated the Crossopterygians as a
distinct group, while others have shown that the _Ostracophori_ and
_Arthrodira_ should be placed far from the garpike in systematic
classification. Cope, Woodward, Hay, and others have dropped the name
Ganoid altogether as productive of confusion through the many meanings
attached to it. Others have kept it as a convenient group name for the
orders of archaic _Actinopteri_. For these varied and more or less
divergent forms it seems convenient to retain it. As an adjective
"ganoid" is sometimes used as descriptive of bony plates or enameled
scales, some-in the sense of archaic, as applied to fishes.
=Are the Ganoids a Natural Group?=—Several writers have urged that the
_Ganoidei_, even as thus restricted, should not be considered as a
natural group, whether subclass, order, or group of orders. The reasons
for this view in brief are the following:
1. The group is heterogeneous. The _Amiidæ_ differ more from the other
Ganoids than they do from the herring-like Teleosts. The garpikes,
sturgeons, paddle-fishes likewise diverge widely from each other and
from the _Palæoniscidæ_ and the _Platysomidæ_. Each of the living
families represents the residue or culmination of a long series, in some
cases advancing, as in the case of the bowfin, sometimes perhaps
degenerating, as in the case of the sturgeons.
2. Of the traits possessed in common by these forms, several (the
cellular air-bladder, the many valves in the heart, the spiral valve in
the intestine, the heterocercal tail) are all possessed in greater or
less degree by certain _Isospondyli_ or allies of the herring. All these
characters are still better developed in _Crossoptergyii_ and
_Dipneusti_, and each one disappears by degrees. Of the characters drawn
from the soft parts we can know nothing so far as the extinct Ganoids
are concerned.
3. The optic chiasma, thus far characteristic of Ganoids as distinct
from Teleosts, may have no great value. It is urged that in closely
related species of lizards some have the optic chiasma and others do
not. This, however, proves nothing as to the value of the same character
among fishes.
4. The transition from Ganoids to Teleosts is of much the same character
as the transition from spiny-rayed to soft-rayed fishes, or that from
fishes with a duct to the air-bladder to those without such duct.
Admitting all this, it is nevertheless natural and convenient to retain
the Ganoidei (or _Chrondrostei_ if the older name be discarded on
account of the many meanings attached to it) as a group equivalent to
that of _Teleostei_ within the class or subclass of _Actinopteri_. It
comprises the transitional forms between the _Crossopterygii_ and the
bony fishes, and its members are especially characteristic of the
Mesozoic age, ranging from the Devonian to the present era.
Of the extensive discussion relating to this important question we may
quote two arguments for the retention of the subclass of Ganoids, the
first by Francis M. Balfour and William Kitchen Parker, the second from
the pen of Theodore Gill.
Balfour and Parker ("Structure and Development of Lepidosteus," pp.
430-433) thus discuss the
=Systematic Position of Lepidosteus.=—"Alexander Agassiz concludes his
memoir on the development of _Lepidosteus_ by pointing out that in spite
of certain affinities in other directions this form is 'not so far
removed from the bony fishes as has been supposed.' Our own observations
go far to confirm Agassiz's opinion.
"Apart from the complete segmentation, the general development of
_Lepidosteus_ is strikingly Teleostean. In addition to the general
Teleostean features of the embryo and larva, which can only be
appreciated by those who have had an opportunity of practically working
at the subject, we may point to the following developmental features[2]
as indicative of Teleostean affinities:
"(1) The formation of the nervous system as a solid keel of the
epiblast.
"(2) The division of the epiblast into a nervous and epidermic stratum.
"(3) The mode of development of the gut.
"(4) The mode of development of the pronephros; though the pronephros of
_Lepidosteus_ has primitive characters not retained by Teleostei.
"(5) The early stages in the development of the vertebral column.
Footnote 2:
The features enumerated above are not in all cases confined to
_Lepidosteus_ and Teleostei, but are always eminently characteristic
of the latter.
"In addition to these, so to speak, purely embryonic characters there
are not a few important adult characters:
"(1) The continuity of the oviducts with the genital glands.
"(2) The small size of the pancreas, and the presence of numerous
so-called pancreatic cæca.
"(3) The somewhat coiled small intestine.
"(4) Certain characters of the brain, e.g., the large size of the
cerebellum; the presence of the so-called lobi inferiores on the
infundibulum, and of tori semi-circulares in the mid-brain.
"In spite of the undoubtedly important list of features to which we have
just called attention, a list containing not less important characters,
both embryological and adult, separating _Lepidosteus_ from the
Teleostei, can be drawn up:
"(1) The character of the truncus arteriosus.
"(2) The fact of the genital ducts joining the ureters.
"(3) The presence of vasa efferentia in the male carrying the semen from
the testes to the kidney, and through the tubules of the latter into the
kidney-duct.
"(4) The presence of a well-developed opercular gill.
"(5) The presence of a spiral valve; though this character may possibly
break down with the extension of our knowledge.
"(6) The typical Ganoid characters of the thalamencephalon and the
cerebral hemispheres.
"(7) The chiasma of the optic nerves.
"(8) The absence of a pecten, and presence of a vascular membrane
between the vitreous humor and the retina.
"(9) The opisthocœlous form of the vertebræ.
"(10) The articulation of the ventral parts of the hæmal arches of the
tail with the processes of the vertebral column.
"(11) The absence of a division of the muscles into dorso-lateral and
ventro-lateral divisions.
"(12) The complete segmentation of the ovum.
"The list just given appears to us sufficient to demonstrate that
Lepidosteus cannot be classed with the Teleostei; and we hold that
Müller's view is correct, according to which _Lepidosteus_ is a true
Ganoid.
"The existence of the Ganoids as a distinct group has, however, recently
been challenged by so distinguished an ichthyologist as Günther, and it
may therefore be well to consider how far the group as defined by Müller
is a natural one for living forms, and how far recent researches enable
us to improve upon Müller's definitions. In his classical memoir the
characters of the Ganoids are thus shortly stated:
"'These fishes are either provided with plate-like angular or rounded
cement-covered scales, or they bear osseous plates, or are quite naked.
The fins are often, but not always, beset with a double or single row of
spinous plates or splints. The caudal fin embraces occasionally in its
upper lobe the end of the vertebral column, which may be prolonged to
the end of the upper lobe. Their double nasal openings resemble those of
Teleostei. The gills are free, and lie in a branchial cavity under an
operculum, like those of Teleostei. Many of them have an accessory organ
of respiration, in the form of an opercular gill, which is distinct from
the pseudobranch, and can be present together with the latter; many also
have spiracles like Elasmobranchii. They have many valves in the stem of
the aorta like the latter, also a muscular coat in the stem of the
aorta. Their ova are transported from the abdominal cavity by oviducts.
Their optic nerves do not cross each other. The intestine is often
provided with a spiral valve, like Elasmobranchii. They have a
swimming-bladder with a duct, like many Teleostei. Their pelvic fins are
abdominal.
"'If we include in a definition only those characters which are
invariable, the Ganoids may be shortly defined as being those fish with
numerous valves to the stem of the aorta, which is also provided with a
muscular coat, with free gills, and an operculum, and with abdominal
pelvic fins.'
"To these distinctive characters he adds, in an appendix to his paper,
the presence of the spiral valve, and the absence of a processus
falciformis and a choroid gland.
"To the distinctive set of characters given by Müller we may probably
add the following:
"(1) Oviducts and urinary ducts always unite, and open by a common
urogenital aperture behind the anus.
"(2) Skull hyostylic.
"(3) Segmentation complete in the types so far investigated, though
perhaps _Amia_ may be found to resemble the Teleostei in this
particular.
"(4) A pronephros of the Teleostean type present in the larva.
"(5) Thalamencephalon very large and well developed.
"(6) The ventricle in the posterior part of the cerebrum is not divided
behind into lateral halves, the roof of the undivided part being
extremely thin.
"(7) Abdominal pores always present.
"The great number of characters just given are amply sufficient to
differentiate the Ganoids as a group; but, curiously enough, the only
characters, amongst the whole series which have been given, which can be
regarded as peculiar to the Ganoids are (1) the characters of the brain,
and (2) the fact of the oviducts and kidney-ducts uniting together and
opening by a common pore to the exterior.
"This absence of characters peculiar to the Ganoids is an indication of
how widely separated in organization are the different members of this
great group.
"At the same time, the only group with which existing Ganoids have close
affinities is the Teleostei. The points they have in common with the
Elasmobranchii are merely such as are due to the fact that both retain
numerous primitive vertebrate characters,[3] and the gulf which really
separates them is very wide.
Footnote 3:
As instances of this we may cite (1) the spiral valve; (2) the
frequent presence of a spiracle; (3) the frequent presence of a
communication between the pericardium and the body-cavity; (4) the
heterocercal tail.
"There is again no indication of any close affinity between the Dipnoans
and, at any rate, existing Ganoids.
"Like the Ganoids, the Dipnoans are no doubt remnants of a very
primitive stock; but in the conversion of the air-bladder into a true
lung, the highly specialized character of their limbs,[4] their peculiar
autostylic skulls, the fact of their ventral nasal openings leading
directly into the mouth, their multi-segmented bars (interspinous bars)
directly prolonged from the neural and hæmal and supporting the fin-rays
of the unpaired dorsal and ventral fins, and their well-developed
cerebral hemispheres, very unlike those of Ganoids and approaching the
Amphibian type, they form a very well-defined group and one very
distinctly separated from the Ganoids.
Footnote 4:
Vide F. M. Balfour, "On the Development of the Skeleton of the Paired
Fins of Elasmobranchs," Proc. Zool. Soc., 1881.
"No doubt the Chondrostean Ganoids are nearly as far removed from the
Teleostei as from the Dipnoans, but the links uniting these Ganoids with
the Teleostei have been so fully preserved in the existing fauna of the
globe that the two groups almost run into each other. If, in fact, we
were anxious to make any radical change in the ordinary classification
of fishes, it would be by uniting the Teleostei and Ganoids, or rather
constituting the Teleostei into one of the subgroups of the Ganoids,
equivalent to the Chondrostei. We do not recommend such an arrangement,
which in view of the great preponderance of the Teleostei amongst living
fishes would be highly inconvenient, but the step from _Amia_ to the
Teleostei is certainly not so great as that from the Chondrostei to
Amia, and is undoubtedly less than that from the Selachii to the
Holocephali."
=Gill on the Ganoids as a Natural Group.=—Dr. Gill observes ("Families
of Fishes," 1872): "The name Ganoides (or Ganiolepedoti) was originally
framed by Prof. Agassiz as an ordinal term for fishes having the scales
(when present) angular and covered with enamel; and in the group so
characterized were combined the Ganoids of subsequent authors as well as
the Teleostean orders Plectognathi, Lophobranchii, and Nematognathi, and
(subsequently) the genus _Sudis_ (_Arapaima_), the last being regarded
as a Cœlacanth. The group has not been accepted with these limits or
characters.
"But the researches of Prof. Johannes Müller on the anatomy and
classification of the fishes culminated at length in his celebrated
memoirs on those fishes for which he retained the ordinal name Ganoidei;
those memoirs have left an impression on ichthyology perhaps more
decided than made by any other contributions to science, and that
published _in extenso_ will ever be classical; numerous as have been the
modifications since introduced into the system, no forms except those
recognized by Müller (unless it be Dipnoi) have been interjected since
among the Ganoids.
"It has been objected that the Ganoids do not constitute a natural
group, and that the characters (i.e., chiasma of optic nerves and
multivalvular bulbus arteriosus) alleged by Müller to be peculiar to the
teleostomous forms combined therein are problematical, and only
_inferentially_ supposed to be common to the extinct Ganoids so called,
and, finally, such objections couched in too strong language have
culminated in the assertion that the characters in question are actually
_shared_ by other physostome fishes.
"No _demonstration_, however, has been presented as yet that any
physostome fishes do really have the optic chiasma and multivalvular
_bulbus arteriosus_, and the statement to the contrary seems to have
been the result of a venial misapprehension of Prof. Kner's statements,
or the offspring of impressions left on the memory by his assertions, in
forgetfulness of his exact words.
"But Prof. Kner, in respect to the anatomical characters referred to,
merely objects: (1) that they are _problematical_, are not confirmable
for the extinct types, and were _probably_ not existent in certain forms
that have been referred to the Ganoids; (2) the difference in number of
the valves of the _bulbus arteriosus_ among recent Ganoids is so great
as to show the unreliability of the character; (3) a spiral valve is
developed in the intestine of several osseous fishes ('genera of the
so-called intermediate clupeoid groups'), as well as in Ganoids; and (4)
the chiasma of the optic nerves in no wise furnishes a positive
character for the Ganoids.
"It will be noticed that all these objections (save in the case of the
intestinal spiral valve) are hypothetical and vague. The failure of the
intestinal spiral valve, as a diagnostic character, has long been
conceded, and in this case only have the forms that _prove_ the failure
been referred to; in the other cases, where it would be especially
desirable to have indicated the actual types falsifying the universality
or exclusiveness of the characters, they have not been referred to, and
the objections must be met as if they were not known to exist.
"(1) The characters in question are, in the sense used, problematical,
inasmuch as no examination can be made of the soft parts of extinct
forms, but with equal force may it be urged that any characters that
have not been or cannot be _directly_ confirmed are problematical in the
case of all other groups (e.g., mammals), and it can only be replied
that the coordination of parts has been so invariably verified that all
probabilities are in favor of similar coordination in any given case.
"(2) There is doubtless considerable difference in the number of valves
of the _bulbus arteriosus_ among the various Ganoids, and even among the
species of a single family (e.g., _Lepidosteidæ_), but the character of
Ganoids lies not in the number, more or less, but in the greater number
and relations (in contradistinction to the opposite pair of the
Teleosts) in conjunction with the development of a _bulbus arteriosus_.
In no other forms of Teleostomes have similar relations and structures
been yet demonstrated.
"(3) The failure of the spiral intestinal valve has already been
conceded, and no great stress has ever been laid on the character.
"(4) The chiasma of the optic nerves is so common to all the known
Ganoids, and has not been found in those forms (e.g., _Arapaima_,
_Osteoglossum_, and _Clupeiform_ types) agreeing with typical physostome
Teleosts in the skeleton, heart, etc., but which at the same time
simulate most certain Ganoids (e.g., _Amia_) in form.
"Therefore, in view of the evidence hitherto obtained, the arguments
against the validity of title, to natural association, of the Ganoids,
have to meet the positive evidence of the coordinations noted; the value
of such characteristics and coordinations can only be affected or
destroyed by the demonstration that in all other respects there is (1)
very close agreement of certain of the constituents of the subclass with
other forms, and (2) inversely proportionate dissimilarity of those
forms from _any_ (not all) other of the Ganoids, and consequently
evidence _ubi plurima nitent_ against the taxonomic value of the
characters employed for distinction.
"And it is true that there is a greater superficial resemblance between
the Hyoganoids (_Lepisosteus_, _Amia_, etc.) and ordinary physostome
Teleosts than between the former and the other orders of Ganoids, but it
is equally true that they agree in other respects than in the brain and
heart with the more generalized Ganoids. They all have, for example, (1)
the paraglenal elements undivided (not disintegrated into hypercoracoid,
hypocoracoid, and mesocoracoid); (2) a humerus (simple or divided, that
is, differentiated into metapterygium and mesopterygium); and (3) those
with ossified skeletons agree in the greater number of elements in the
lower jaw. Therefore, until these coordinates fail, it seems advisable
to recognize the Ganoids as constituents of a natural series; and
especially on account of the superior taxonomic value of modifications
of the brain and heart in other classes of vertebrates, for the same
reason, and to keep prominently before the mind the characters in
question, it appears also advisable to designate the series, until
further discovery, as a subclass.
"But it is quite possible that among some of the generalized Teleosts at
least _traces_ of some of the characters now considered to be peculiar
to the Ganoids may be discovered. In anticipation of such a possibility,
the author had at first discarded the subclass, recognizing the group
only as one of the 'superorders' of the Teleostomes, but reconsideration
convinces him of the propriety of classification representing known
facts and legitimate inferences rather than too much anticipation.
"It is remembered that all characters are liable to fail with increasing
knowledge, and the distinctness of groups are but little more than the
expressions of our want of knowledge of the intermediate forms; it may
in truth be said that ability to segregate a class into well-defined
groups is in ratio to our ignorance of all the terms."