1, European. 2, Negro.]

FACIAL NERVE, a motor nerve which supplies the muscles of expression on

either side of the face. Injury to this nerve produces _facial paralysis_,

the result of which is that the affected side is smooth, unwrinkled, and

motionless, the eyelids are wide open and cannot be closed, and the muscles

of the sound side having it all their own way drag the mouth to that side.

FACTOR, in arithmetic, is any number which divides a given number without a

remainder, thus 3, 5, 7 are all factors of 105. In algebra, any expressions

multiplied together to form a product are said to be factors of the

product; for example, x + 1, x + 2, x + 3 are factors of x^3 + 6x^2 + 11x +

6.

FACTOR, in commerce, an agent employed to do business for another in buying

or selling, or in the charge of property. A factor differs from a broker in

holding a wider and more discretionary commission from his employer, in

being able to buy and sell in his own name, and in having a lien on goods

for his outlay. The difference, however, depends so much upon the usage of

the particular trade, or upon the special instructions constituting the

agency, that no exact line of demarcation can really be drawn between them.

The term factor has in common usage generally given place to the terms

agent and broker, the former applied in the more general, the latter in the

more restricted sense. It is still retained in some special cases, as in

that of house-factors and factors on landed property in Scotland, who have

charge of the letting and general management of house property, farms, &c.;

called in England estate agents.

FAC'TORY (from _factor_), a name which appears originally to have been

given to establishments of merchants and factors resident in foreign

countries; it now more commonly signifies a place in which the various

processes of a particular manufacture are carried on simultaneously. The

rapid growth of factories in this sense is a comparatively recent

development of industry, resulting from the free use of machinery and the

consequent subdivision of labour. Amongst the advantages of the factory

system are generally counted: first, increased productiveness arising from

the minute division of labour; second, the mechanical accuracy and the

cheapness of the product turned out by machinery; third, the facilities for

union and co-operation for common improvement afforded by bringing large

masses of workmen together. But this last consideration is probably more

than counter-balanced by the smaller amount of independent intelligence

called forth in the individual worker, through the monotony of the minutely

subdivided operations. Decided disadvantages of the factory system are the

unhealthiness of the crowded rooms, where the air is full of deleterious

elements; and the increasing demand on the labour of women and children,

interfering as it does with the economy of domestic life.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:

R. W. Cooke-Taylor, _Factory System and Factory Acts_; B. L. Hutchins, _A

History of Factory Legislation_.

FACTORY ACTS, Acts passed for the regulation of factories and similar

establishments. Considering that women and children were not qualified

fully to protect themselves against the strain of competition, the British

legislature has passed a series of Acts to regulate the conditions of their

employment in factories. The immediate occasion of the first Act passed to

regulate factory employment in England was the outbreak of an epidemic

disease which committed great havoc among the younger persons employed in

factories in the district round Manchester at the beginning of the

nineteenth century. An Act was passed (1802) in which provision was made

for the regular cleansing and ventilation of mills and factories, and also

for limiting the hours of labour to twelve daily. In 1819 an Act followed

which prescribed an hour and a half for meals in the course of a working

day, and prohibited children under nine years of age being employed in

factory work at all. Various Acts were passed up to 1878, when a general

Factory and Workshop Act was passed, consolidating the previous series of

statutes. Its scope was extended by a further series of enactments, until

in the year 1901 the last general Act was passed, which consolidates and

amends all previous legislation. The Act contains general provisions

regarding drainage, sanitary conveniences, overcrowding, ventilation,

fencing of dangerous machinery, &c. Factories are distinguished from

workshops as making use of steam or other mechanical power. In textile

factories the hours of labour for women and young persons (the latter

between 14 and 18 years of age) are restricted to 10, but only 6-1/2 on

Saturday and 56 in the week. In non-textile factories and workshops the

hours may be 10-1/2 per day and 60 per week at most. Children (of 12 to 14

years) were not allowed to be employed more than 6-1/2 hours on any one

day. (The Education Acts now prohibit almost entirely the employment of

'school children' in factories and workshops.) Provision is made for a

certain number of annual holidays. Special provisions for particular kinds

of factories are made, and under these the employment of females and young

persons is regulated in bleaching- and dyeing-works, lace-factories,

manufactories of earthenware, lucifer matches, percussion caps, cartridges,

blast-furnaces, copper-mills, forges, foundries, manufactories of

machinery, metal, india-rubber, gutta-percha, paper, glass, tobacco,

letterpress printing, bookbinding, &c. The Act of 1901 included laundries

carried on by way of trade or for the purposes of gain. An Act of 1907

extended the Act of 1901 to laundries carried on as ancillary to another

business or incidentally to the purposes of any public institution. A short

Act passed in 1911 gave power to make regulations applicable to

cotton-cloth factories. Certain exceptions in regard to working over-time

are provided for; thus women may sometimes work 14 hours a day. So far

there has been no direct interference in any of the Factory Acts with the

labour of adult male persons; but it is obvious that indirectly the

position of the male labourer also is affected by legislation of this sort.

FAC'ULAE (Lat. _facula_, a torch), bright markings on the sun's disc, i.e.

portions more brilliant than the general surface. They are supposed to be

parts of the luminous surface, or photosphere, which are elevated to a

greater height, and therefore suffer less absorption of their light in its

passage through the overlying gases and vapours. Like the spots, they are

in a state of constant change, and exhibit a similar periodicity in numbers

and extent.

FACULTIES, COURT OF, in English law, a jurisdiction or tribunal belonging

to the archbishop. It does not hold pleas in any suits, but has power to

grant licences or dispensations, such as, to marry without banns, or to

remove bodies previously buried.

FACULTY, the members, taken collectively, of the medical or legal

professions; thus we speak of the medical faculty, and (in Scotland) of the

faculty of advocates. The term is also used for the professors and teachers

collectively of the several departments in a university; as, the faculty of

arts, of theology, of medicine, or of law.

FACULTY, in law, is a power to do something, the right to do which the law

admits, or a special privilege granted by law to do something which would

otherwise be forbidden.

FAECES, the excrementitious part evacuated by animals. It varies, of

course, with different species of animals, according to their diet. The

main constituents are unassimilable parts of the food, on which the

digestive process has no effect, and other portions, quite nutritious, but

which have escaped digestion, also certain waste matters, &c. In disease

the composition varies extremely.

FAED (f[=a]d), John, R.S.A., artist, born in Kirkcudbrightshire in 1820,

died in 1902. He showed artistic talent at an early age, and in 1841 went

to Edinburgh to study. Some years later he acquired a considerable

reputation, and was elected to the Royal Scottish Academy in 1851. Among

his principal works are: _Shakespeare and his Contemporaries_; _An Incident

of Scottish Justice_; _The Morning after Flodden_; _A Wappenshaw_; two

series of drawings illustrating _The Cotter's Saturday Night_ and _The

Soldier's Return_; _John Anderson, My Jo_; _Auld Mare Maggie_; _The

Gamekeeper's Daughter_; _The Hiring Fair_.

FAED, Thomas, R.A., younger brother of the preceding, born at the same

place in 1826, died in 1900. He studied in Edinburgh, where at an early age

he became known as a clever painter of rustic subjects. In 1852 he settled

in London, where he won a high reputation. The subjects he painted are for

the most part domestic or pathetic, and in these he invented and told his

own story, and that with a success that emulates Wilkie. Among his

principal works are: _Sir Walter Scott and his Friends_ (1849), _The

Mitherless Bairn_ (1855), _The First Break in the Family_ (1857), _Sunday

in the Backwoods_ (1859), _His Only Pair_ (1860), _From Dawn to Sunset_

(1861), _The Last o' the Clan_ (1865). A number of Faed's works have been

engraved in large size, and have been very popular.

FAENZA (f[.a]-en'za), an episcopal city of N. Italy, in the province of and

19 miles south-west of Ravenna. It is supposed to have been the first

Italian city in which the earthenware called _faience_ (q.v.) was

introduced. The manufacture still flourishes here, and there is also a

considerable trade in spinning and weaving silk. Pop. (commune), 40,164.

FAGACEAE, a nat. ord. of apetalous Dicotyledons, all trees and shrubs,

mostly natives of temperate regions. It includes the beeches and oaks, and

the sweet chestnut (Castanea).

FAGGING, a custom which formerly prevailed generally at most of the English

schools, and is still practised at Eton, Winchester, Harrow, Rugby, and one

or two other places. It consists in making the junior boys act as servants

or 'fags' in the performance of multifarious menial offices for elder boys,

such as carrying messages or preparing breakfast for their master, in

return for which the elder boy accepts a certain responsibility for keeping

order, and becomes the recognized adviser and protector of his 'fags'.

FAGGOT-VOTE, a term formerly applied in Britain to a vote procured by the

purchase of property so as to constitute a nominal qualification without a

substantial basis. Faggot-votes were chiefly used in county elections for

members of Parliament. The way in which they were usually manufactured was

by the purchase of a property which was divided into as many lots as would

constitute separate votes, and given to different persons, who need not be

resident members of the constituency. The practice disappeared after the

Reform Act of 1884.

FAGUET, Emile, French literary historian, critic, and journalist, born at

La Roche-sur-Yon in 1847, died in 1916. He became professor of poetry at

the Sorbonne in 1897. Endowed with a keen power of analysis and a wealth of

original ideas, he was one of the most brilliant French critics of the

nineteenth century. Whilst praising the literature of the seventeenth

century, Faguet somewhat depreciated the writers of the eighteenth century.

Among his numerous works are: _Le theatre contemporain_ (1880-91),

_Dix-huitieme siecle_ (1890), _Seizieme siecle_ (1893), _Drame ancien et

drame moderne_ (1898), _Histoire de la litterature francaise_ (1900),

_Propos litteraires_ (1902), _Initiation into Literature_, and _Initiation

into Philosophy_.

FAGUS. See _Beech_.

FAHLERZ (fael'erts), or grey copper ore, is of a steel-grey or iron-black

colour. It occurs crystallized in the form of the tetrahedron, also massive

and disseminated. Its fracture is uneven or imperfectly conchoidal.

Specific gravity, 4.5-5.1. _Tetrahedrite_, the typical species, is composed

of copper, sulphur, and antimony. Part of the copper is often replaced by

iron, zinc, silver, or mercury, and part of the antimony by arsenic.

FAHLUNITE, a mineral of a greenish colour occurring in six-sided prisms. It

is a pseudomorph after iolite, and consists mainly of hydrous aluminium

silicate. It takes its name from Fahlun in Sweden.

FAHRENHEIT (fae'r[.e]n-h[=i]t), Gabriel Daniel, German physicist, known for

his arrangement of the thermometer, was born at Danzig in 1686, died in

1736. Abandoning the commercial profession for which he had been designed,

he settled in Holland to study natural philosophy. In 1720 he effected a

great improvement by the use of quicksilver instead of spirits of wine in

thermometers. He invented the Fahrenheit scale (see _Thermometer_), and

made several valuable discoveries in physics. He was elected a fellow of

the Royal Society of London in 1724.

FAIDHERBE (f[=a]-derb), Louis Leon Cesar, a French general, born in 1818,

died in 1889. He entered the army in 1840, served in Africa and the West

Indies, was appointed Governor of Senegal in 1854, and afterwards of a

district in Algiers from 1867 to 1870. After the fall of Napoleon III, he

was summoned by the Government of the National Defence to France and

appointed commander of the army of the north. He fought some bloody but

indecisive battles with the Germans under Manteuffel and Goeben. After the

war he was elected to the Assembly by Lille, his native place, but on the

triumph of Thiers retired from politics to private life. He wrote

_Epigraphie Phenicienne_, and valuable monographs on Senegal, the Sudan,

and other parts of Africa.

FAIENCE (f[.a]-yens'), imitation porcelain, a kind of fine pottery,

superior to the common pottery in its glazing, beauty of form, and richness

of painting. Several kinds of faience are distinguished by critics. It

derived its name from the town of Faenza, in Italy, where a fine sort of

pottery called _majolica_ was manufactured as early as the fourteenth

century. The majolica reached its greatest perfection between 1530 and

1560. In the Louvre, the Musee de Cluny, the British and Victoria and

Albert Museums, at Berlin, and at Dresden are rich collections of it. The

modern faience appears to have been invented about the middle of the

sixteenth century, at Faenza, as an imitation of majolica, and obtained its

name in France, where a man from Faenza, having discovered a similar kind

of clay at Nevers, had introduced the manufacture of it. True faience is

made of a yellowish or ruddy earth, covered with an enamel which is usually

white, but may be coloured. This enamel is a glass rendered opaque by oxide

of tin or other suitable material, and is intended not only to glaze the

body, but to conceal it entirely. See _Pottery_.--Cf. M. L. Solon, _The Old

French Faience_.

FAILLY (f[.a]-y[=e]), Pierre Louis Charles Achille de, French general, born

in 1810, died in 1892. He distinguished himself in the Crimean War, and

commanded a division against the Austrians in 1859. He was the means of

introducing the Chassepot rifle into the French army, and commanded the

troops which dispersed Garibaldi's irregulars at Mentana. At the outbreak

of the Franco-German War Failly received the command of the 5th Corps, but

was very unfortunate or unskilful in his organization of operations. His

masterly inactivity in the early weeks of the war caused great popular

indignation in France. Sedan ended his career as a soldier.

FAILSWORTH, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles north-east of

Manchester, with cotton-mills. Silk-weaving and hat-making are also carried

on. Pop. 16,972.

FAINEANTS (f[=a]-n[=a]-[.a][n.]; Fr., 'do-nothings'), a sarcastic epithet

applied to the later Merovingian kings of France, who were puppets in the

hands of the mayors of the palace. Louis V, the last of the Carlovingian

dynasty, received the same designation.

FAINTING, or SYNCOPE, a sudden suspension of the heart's action, of

sensation, and the power of motion. It may be produced by loss of blood,

pain, emotional disturbance, or organic or other diseases of the heart. It

is to be treated by placing the patient on his back in a recumbent position

or even with head slightly depressed, sprinkling cold water on his face,

applying stimulant scents to the nostrils, or anything which tends to bring

back the blood to the brain. The admission of fresh cool air and the

loosening of any tight articles of dress are important.

FAIRBAIRN, Patrick, Scottish theologian, born 1805, died 1874. He became a

minister of the Established Church, but joined the Free Church at the

disruption in 1843. In 1853 he was appointed professor of divinity in the

Free Church College, Aberdeen, and in 1856 principal of the Free Church

College, Glasgow. Among his works are: _Typology of Scripture_; _Jonah: his

Life, Character, and Mission_; _Ezekiel_; _Prophecy_; _Hermeneutical

Manual_; _Pastoral Epistles of St. Paul_. He edited and wrote extensively

for the _Imperial Bible Dictionary_.

FAIRBAIRN, Sir William, British civil engineer, born at Kelso,

Roxburghshire, in 1789, died 18th Aug., 1874. He was apprenticed as an

engine-wright at a colliery in North Shields, and commenced business on his

own account in Manchester with James Lillie in 1817, where he made many

improvements in machinery, such as the use of iron instead of wood in the

shafting of cotton-mills. About 1831, his attention having been attracted

to the use of iron as a material for shipbuilding, he built the first iron

ship. His firm became extensively employed in iron shipbuilding at

Manchester and at Millwall, London, and had a great share in the

development of the trade. He shares with Stephenson the merit of

constructing the great tubular bridge across the Menai Strait. Fairbairn

was one of the earliest members of the British Association for the

Advancement of Science, of which he was president in 1861 and 1862. He was

created a baronet in 1869. Sir William wrote many valuable professional

books and papers, amongst which are: _On Canal Steam Navigation_ (1831);

_Iron: its History, Properties, and Manufacture_ (1841); _Application of

Iron to Building Purposes_ (1854); _Iron Ship-building_ (1865). His brother

Sir Peter, born 1799, died 1861, had also great mechanical ability, and

founded large machine-works at Leeds.

FAIRFAX, Edward, the translator into English verse of Tasso's _Jerusalem

Delivered_, was the natural son of Sir Thomas Fairfax of Denton, and born

in the last quarter of the sixteenth century. He settled at Newhall, in the

parish of Fewston, Yorkshire, to a life of studious leisure. The first

edition of his translation bears the date of 1600. One or two eclogues by

him also remain. He died in 1635.

FAIRFAX, Thomas, Lord, parliamentary general during the English Civil War,

born in 1611 at Denton, in Yorkshire, died at Nun Appleton, Yorkshire, 12th

Nov., 1671. He was the son and heir of Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax, to whose

title and estates he succeeded in 1648. After serving in the Netherlands

with some reputation, he returned to England, and on the rupture between

Charles I and the Parliament joined the forces of the latter. In 1642 he

was appointed General of the Horse, and two years later held a chief

command in the army sent to co-operate with the Scots. In 1645, on the

resignation of the Earl of Essex, Fairfax became general-in-chief of the

Parliamentary army. After the victory at Naseby he marched into the western

counties, quelling all opposition, put down the insurgents in Kent and

Essex in 1647, and captured Colchester. In April, 1649, he was occupied

along with Cromwell in suppressing revolt in the army; but positively

declined to march against the Scottish Presbyterians. He was a member of

Cromwell's first Parliament. He co-operated in the restoration of Charles

II, being one of the committee charged to secure his return.

FAIRFORD, a town in Gloucestershire, England, 8 miles east by south of

Cirencester, with a church the twenty-eight windows of which are filled

with beautiful stained glass, formerly ascribed to Albert Duerer, but now

known to have been designed and executed in England. Fairford was the

birth-place of John Keble. Pop. 1410.

FAIR HEAD, a basaltic promontory on the north coast of Ireland, County

Antrim, rising to the height of 636 feet.

FAIRIES AND ELVES. The fairies of folk-belief must be distinguished from

the fairies of imaginative literature. Shakespeare, for instance, drew upon

the fairy-lore of living tradition to create a new fairy mythology (as in

_A Midsummer Night's Dream_) which became a literary convention. In the

fairy stories of Hans Andersen the folk-material was similarly used in a

free and individual manner. A distinction must likewise be drawn between

the Celtic fairies and the Teutonic elves. The former are mainly females,

like the nymphs of Homer, ruled over by a fairy queen, while the latter are

mainly males, ruled over by an elf-king. Mab, the fairy queen, had no

consort in British fairy literature until Oberon, King of the Fairies, was

imported from mediaeval romance. His name 'Auberon', anciently 'Alberon',

is identical with that of the German elfin king 'Alberich'. Indeed, the

very names 'fairy' and 'fay' were introduced into these islands from

abroad. More than one class of supernatural beings referred to in Gaelic as

the _side_ (Irish) or _sith_ (Scottish), and pronounced _shee_, are now

called 'fairies'. These include the Danann deities of Irish mythology and

'the mothers' (Y Mamau) of Welsh folk-lore. The word _side_ or _sith_ has

the secondary meaning of 'peace', and refers to the silence of death and

the silence of fairy movements. It may also be translated as

'supernatural', 'Otherworld', or 'unearthly'. Mysterious diseases that come

in epidemics and afterwards disappear are referred to as diseases of the

side or sith. Cat demons are _cait shith_, the cuckoo is _eun sith_, the

mythical 'water horse' is _each sith_, a monstrous dog that passes over

land and sea by night is _cu sith_, while the 'will-o'-the-wisp' is _teine

sith_ ('supernatural fire'). In Iceland _side_ refers to the dwellings

(earth mounds, &c.) of the Dananns, &c., as well as to the supernatural

inhabitants. The fairies of folk-belief always come from the west on eddies

of wind, and cannot be seen except by those who have 'second sight', or

those whose eyes have been anointed with a green balsam possessed by

fairies. Sometimes the fairies render themselves visible to all, but one

who grasps the garment of a fairy finds his hand closing on nothing. The

usual height of fairies is about 3 feet, but they have power to shrink and

pass through a crack in a door. They may also assume great stature. The

Danann _side_ of Ireland are of human or above human height. In Scotland

'green ladies' are of ordinary human size. The chief fairy colours are blue

(the eyes), golden (the hair), and green, red, and grey (for clothing).

Occasionally fairy beings are white and black. A black fairy with a red

spot above the heart is referred to in Scottish stories, but is rare. He

can be slain by piercing the red spot. The _side_ or _sith_ may be attired

entirely in green with red caps, or have red cloaks and green skirts. A

beautiful fairy queen may suddenly transform herself into an ugly old hag

with black and white face and garments, as did the fairy who carried off

Thomas the Rhymer to the Underworld. The dead were supposed to go to

Fairyland, the Pagan Paradise. Those who died before their time were doomed

to visit their former haunts as 'green ladies', i.e. green ghosts, until

their measure of life was completed. Stories that tell of visions of the

dead in the Underworld refer to them feasting and dancing, or reaping corn

and plucking fruit in well-watered valleys. The resemblance of the Celtic

Agricultural Paradise to the Otherworld of the Egyptian Osiris, which was

originally situated under the ground, is of special interest. Both in the

Underworld Paradise and on the 'Isles of the Blest' (the Celtic _Avalon_ or

'apple land' and 'Land of the Ever-Young') is a tree of life, which may be

an apple tree, a hazel tree, or a rowan tree. The apples, nuts, or berries

confer longevity on the gods and the souls of human beings that partake of

them. On those human beings who have won their favour, the fairies bestow

weapons, implements, musical instruments, songs, tunes, and medicines, and

the power to work charms and foretell future events. In the Underworld,

fairies engage in metal working and other industries. Sometimes they visit

houses, and spin and weave with supernatural skill and speed in a single

night big bales of clothing material, or make beautiful garments. Fairies

possess gems, gold, silver, and copper in their underground dwellings.

Cornish miners hear them working in their mines. The 'banshee' (Ir.

_ben-side_) is a Fate who is seen washing the blood-stained clothing, or

the 'death clothes', of those who are doomed to die a sudden death. She

either howls, or sings a weird song, or can be heard 'knocking' as she

strikes the clothing with a beetle during the washing, when a tragedy is at

hand. Fairy women of great beauty have human lovers, but vanish for ever

after a few meetings, with the result that their lovers become demented.

Fairy men (_fer-side_) likewise upset the minds of girls. The fairies

abduct human children, leaving 'changelings' in cradles, or carry off wives

to act as 'wet nurses' or midwives. Men who die suddenly are supposed to be

transported to Fairyland. King Arthur, the Rev. Mr. Kirk of Aberfoyle,

Thomas the Rhymer, and others were removed to the Fairy Paradise. Among the

Celtic _side_ are _pixies_, _geniti-glinni_ (valley genii), _Bocanachs_

(male goblins), _Bananachs_ (female goblins), _Demna aeir_ (spirits of the

air), &c. Fairies may appear in animal forms, chiefly as beautiful birds.

Elves are workers in metals, like Wayland Smith, and guardians of treasure

who assume the forms of fish, otters, serpents, &c. Black elves dwell under

the ground, and white elves haunt the air and the sea. Sea-elves are

'nikkers'. The Greek 'Fates', like the Celtic fairies, spin, weave, and

embroider wedding and other garments in a single night for those they

favour, and sometimes appear in groups of three, as old hags, to foretell

tragic events or work spells. Celtic 'women of the _side_' sometimes appear

in groups of three. The nereids are, like the fairy ladies, beautiful and

capricious, and are likewise invariably blue eyed and golden haired.

'Nereid born' refers to the changeling idea. Nereids travel on whirlwinds,

and, like the Celtic fairies, cause spinning spirals of dust on highways.

They confer gifts on mortals, and accept offerings of food. Lacon the poet

sings, "I will set a great bowl of white milk for the nymphs". In the

Scottish Highlands the milk offering was poured on the ground for those

'under the earth', or into a hollowed stone (_clach-na-gruagaich_). The

Indian 'nagas' have power to change from serpent to human form, or to

appear as half-human, half-reptile beings. Like the Celtic fairies, they

have been referred to by some writers as aborigines who hid from invaders

in earth-houses, in forests, and among the hills. In this connection P. C.

Roy, the translator of the _Mahabharata_, writes: "Nagas are semi-divine

and can move through air and water and ascend to high heaven itself when

they like, and have their home at Patala (the Underworld). To take them for

some non-Aryan race, as has become the fashion with some ... is the very

height of absurdity.... None of these writers, however, is acquainted with

Sanskrit, and that is their best excuse." The fairies and elves of China

and Japan resemble those of Europe. In Polynesia there are fairy-like

beings. They are called _Patupaiarehe_, and dwell in lonely places,

appearing only at night. Human beings receive gifts from them, or knowledge

of how to make nets, weapons, &c. The changeling idea is as prevalent as in

Europe. It is of special interest to find that the Polynesian fairies have,

like the Celtic, fair hair and white skins. Other peoples believe in the

existence of fairy-like beings. See _Folklore_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: T.

Keightley, _Fairy Mythology_; E. S. Hartland, _Science of Fairy Tales_;

Delattre, _English Fairy Poetry from the Origins to the Seventeenth

Century_; H. A. Giles, _China and the Chinese_; J. G. Lawson, _Modern Greek

Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion_; Sir George Grey, _Polynesian

Mythology_; P. W. Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_.

FAIR ISLE, an island lying nearly midway between the Orkney and Shetland

Islands, 3 miles long by 2 broad. It is inaccessible except at one point,

and rises to the height of 711 feet. Some grain is grown, but the surface

is mostly in pasture. The men engage in fishing; the women knit a

well-known variety of hosiery, introduced, it is said, by Spaniards who

escaped from the wreck of one of the vessels belonging to the Spanish

Armada. There are two lighthouses. Pop. 147.

FAIR OAKS, BATTLE OF, fought at Fair Oaks, in Virginia, 7 miles east of

Richmond, between the Confederates under General Johnston and the Union

troops under General McClellan, 31st May, 1862. The loss on each side was

nearly 6000 men; the result was indecisive.

FAIRS (Lat. _feria_, holiday, connected with _festus_, feast), periodical

meetings of persons having goods or wares for sale in an open market held

at a particular place, and generally for the transaction of a particular

class of business. The origin of fairs is obviously to be traced to the

convenience of bringing together at stated times the buyers and sellers of

the stock-produce of a district. In Europe the numerous festivals of the

Church afforded the most favourable opportunity for the establishment of

these markets. This association is indicated in the German name of a fair,

which is identical with that used for the ceremony of the mass. In the

Middle Ages fairs were of great importance, and were specially privileged

and chartered by princes and magistrates, public proclamation being made of

their commencement and duration. But modern facilities of communication

have much diminished the necessity for periodical markets, and it is now

chiefly amongst agriculturists that they are of much importance, large

agricultural meetings being held in various districts for the sale of

cattle and horses, and for the exhibition of agricultural implements. There

are also, especially in Scotland, a considerable number of hiring fairs for

farm servants. In the less developed commerce of the East, however, they

still retain much of their ancient importance and magnitude. In Europe the

most important fairs of the present day are those at Leipzig and

Frankfort-on-the-Main in Germany, at Lyons in France, and Nijni-Novgorod in

Russia. The last is, indeed, the largest fair in the world. The fairs of

Great Britain now mostly consist of the weekly market-days of country towns

and the agricultural meetings already mentioned. In many places the old

fair-days are still kept, but are now merely an assemblage of

penny-theatres, peep-shows, and such amusements. Amongst the fairs which

were once celebrated saturnalia, or rather bacchanalia, may be mentioned

Donnybrook Fair in the county of Dublin; Bartholomew and Greenwich Fairs,

London; and Glasgow Fair. The first three are now extinct. Fairs in the

sense of markets are unknown in the United States, but the term is usually

given to ladies' fancy bazaars, collections of fine art or the higher

industries for public exhibition.--Cf. C. Walford, _Fairs, Past and

Present_.

FAIR TRADE, an economical policy advocated by many in Britain, which, while

not opposed to free trade in principle, would meet the prohibitory tariffs

that foreign countries may put on British goods by placing equally heavy

duties on goods sent from these countries to Britain. See _Free Trade_.

FAIRWEATHER, MOUNT, on the west coast of North America, in Alaska

territory. It rises to the height of 14,900 feet, and is covered with

perpetual snow.

FAIRY RING, a circle, or part of a circle of grass, of a darker colour and

more luxuriant growth than the surrounding herbage, superstitiously

associated with fairy revels. Actually it is due to the growth of a

subterranean fungus-mycelium, which gradually spreads outwards from a

central point of origin, the older parts dying and serving as manure for

the grass, which appears even more vigorous than it really is by contrast

with that on the outermost edge of the ring, where the living mycelium has

a bad effect upon the grass-roots. The commonest fairy-ring fungus is

_Marasmius oreades_, the fairy-ring champignon.

FAITH, the assent of the mind to the truth of what is declared by another,

resting on his authority and veracity, either without other evidence or on

probable evidence of any kind. In a special sense the term faith is used

for the assent of the mind to what is given forth as a revelation of man's

relation to God and the infinite, i.e. a religious faith. In Christian

theology we have: first, _historical_ or _speculative faith_, or belief in

the historic truthfulness of the Scripture narrative and the claims of

Scripture to an inspired and supernatural origin; second, _evangelical_ or

_saving faith_, that emotion of the mind (as Dwight defines it) which is

called trust, or confidence exercised towards the moral character of God,

and particularly of the Saviour.--Cf. W. R. Inge, _Faith and its

Psychology_.

FAITH-HEALING. The tenets of the Peculiar People and of other believers in

healing by faith differ from the views of Christian Scientists in this

respect: that, while the latter hold pain and disease to be illusions of

the imagination, the faith-healer admits their existence, but affirms the

possibility of their removal by non-scientific means. Some make use of

anointing with oil, while others hold prayer and the laying-on of hands to

be the only requisites. Faith-healing traces its source to the raising of

the apparently dead, the curing of the sick, the restoration of sight to

the blind, and other recorded miracles of Christ; thence through the

miracles of the disciples and their successors, down to the performances of

Dorothy Trudel in Switzerland, and the displays of Dowie in London (1904).

Faith-healers flourish extensively in Sweden and America, while even in

England 'Bethshans' (houses of cure) have been established. Faith, or some

may say credulity, attributes the alleged cures to supernatural agency;

science sees in them the action of 'suggestion', with an exalted and

emotional state of mind in the patient, more especially when surrounded and

encouraged by a crowd of expectant and credulous lookers-on. Excessive

reliance on his or her own powers has not seldom brought a faith-healer

within the menace of the law, owing to neglect to employ a qualified

medical man, and the consequent death of the sufferer. In a broad sense of

the term the belief in healing by faith has been at the root of 'touching'

for the King's Evil, a practice followed by several English and French

sovereigns (see _Macbeth_, iv, 3, 141); of the value placed on relics; of

alleged cures effected at such 'holy places' as St. Winifred's Well in

Wales, and the miraculous grotto at Lourdes; and of the firm belief, not

yet entirely extinct, in many rustic remedies, such as the removal of

children's ailments by immuring a live shrew in a cleft ash

tree.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Podmore, _Mesmerism and Christian Science_; G. B.

Cutten, _Three Thousand Years of Mental Healing_.

FAKIRS (f[.a]-k[=e]rz'; literally 'poor men'), a kind of fanatic met with

chiefly in India and the neighbouring countries, who retire from the world

and give themselves up to contemplation. They are properly of the

Mohammedan religion, but the term is often used for a mendicant of any

faith. They are found both living in communities and solitary. The

wandering fakirs gain the veneration of the lower classes by absurd

penances and self-mutilations.

FALAISE (f[.a]-l[=a]z), a town, France, department of Calvados,

picturesquely situated on a rocky precipice (Fr. _falaise_) 23 miles S.S.E.

of Caen. It contains several objects of interest, among others the ruined

castle of the Dukes of Normandy, where William the Conqueror was born. Pop.

6850.

FALASHAS, inhabitants of Amhara, in Abyssinia, who claim descent from

Jewish emigrants during the reign of Jereboam. See _Abyssinia_.

FALCKENSTEIN, Edward Vogel von, a Prussian general, born in 1797, died in

1885. In 1813 he entered the Prussian army, distinguishing himself at the

battles of Katzbach and Montmirail. In 1848 he served in the Holstein

campaign, and he acted as colonel and chief of staff in the war with

Denmark in 1864. In the war of 1866 he commanded the Seventh Army Corps. On

the outbreak of the Franco-German War in 1870 he was appointed military

governor of the maritime provinces.

[Illustration: Greenland Falcon (_Falco candicans_)]

FALCON (f[a:]'kn), a name of various birds of prey, members of the family

Falconidae. The falcons proper (genus Falco), for strength, symmetry, and

powers of flight are the most perfectly developed of the feathered race.

They are distinguished by having the beak curved from the base, hooked at

the point, the upper mandible with a notch or tooth on its cutting edge on

either side, wings long and powerful, the second feather rather the

longest, legs short and strong. The largest European falcons are the

jerfalcon or gyrfalcon proper (_Falco gyrfalco_), a native of the

Scandinavian Peninsula, and the Iceland falcon (_F. islandus_); to which

may be also added the Greenland falcon (_F. candicans_). Between these

three species much confusion at one time prevailed, but they are now

distinctly defined and described. These three Arctic falcons are often

referred to the special genus Hierofalco. In the Greenland falcon the

prevailing colour at all ages is white, in the Iceland falcon dark. The

latter more nearly resembles the true gyrfalcon of Norway, which, however,

is generally darker, rather smaller, but with a longer tail. The average

length of any of these falcons is about 2 feet. The Greenland species used

to be the most highly prized by falconers. Its food consists chiefly of

ptarmigans, hares, and water-fowl. It is found over a wide range of

northern territory. The peregrine falcon (_F. peregr[=i]nus_) is not so

large as the jerfalcon, but more graceful in shape. It chiefly inhabits

wild districts, and nestles among rocks. It preys on grouse, partridges,

ptarmigans, pigeons, rabbits, &c. Its flight is exceedingly swift, said to

be as much as 150 miles an hour. The peregrine falcon was one of those most

frequently used in falconry. Other British falcons are the hobby

(_Hypotriorchis subbuteo_), formerly a great favourite for the chase of

small game when falconry was in fashion; the merlin or stone-falcon

(_Aesalon regulus_), small but swift and spirited; the kestrel or

wind-hover (_Tinnunculus alaudarius_), one of the most common British

falcons. The term falcon is by sportsmen restricted to the female, the

male, which is smaller and less courageous, being called _tiercel_,

_tersel_, _tercelet_, or _falconet_. See _Falconry_.

FALCO'NE, Aniello, Italian painter, born in 1600, studied along with

Salvator Rosa under Spagnoletto. His paintings, consisting chiefly of

battle-pieces, are masterpieces, but very rare. He died in 1665.

FALCONER (f[a:]k'n[.e]r), Hugh, Scottish naturalist, born in 1808, died,

1865. After having graduated in arts at Aberdeen and medicine at Edinburgh,

he went to India as a surgeon in 1830. Here he made valuable geological

researches, and turned his attention to the introduction of tea

cultivation. In 1837 he accompanied Barnes's second mission to Cabul. He

visited England in 1843 and published an illustrated descriptive work

entitled _Fauna Antigua Sivalensis_ (Ancient Fauna of the Sivalik Hills).

He returned to India in 1848, where he had been appointed superintendent of

the botanic gardens at Calcutta. In 1855 he returned to England, where he

died.

FALCONER, William, poet and writer on naval affairs, born at Edinburgh in

1732. He went to sea in the merchant service, was wrecked, and wrote a poem

(_The Shipwreck_) descriptive of the incidents, published in 1762. He then

entered the navy, and was rated as midshipman on board the _Royal George_.

In 1769 he published a _Universal Marine Dictionary_. The same year he

sailed for Bengal as purser of the _Aurora_ frigate, which is believed to

have foundered at sea.

FALCON'IDAE, a family of diurnal birds of prey, in which the destructive

powers are most perfectly developed. The family includes the different

species of eagles as well as the hawks and falcons properly so called, and

comprises the sub-families Gypaetinae (lammergeiers), Polyborinae (carrion

hawks), Accipitrinae (hawks and harriers), Aquilinae (eagles), Buteoninae

(kites and buzzards), and Falconinae (falcons).

[Illustration: Falcon with Hood]

FALCONRY (f[a:]'kn-ri), also called _hawking_, the pursuit of game by means

of trained hawks or falcons. Falconry is a sport of great antiquity in

Asia, having been followed in China as early as 2000 B.C. In Europe it was,

during the Middle Ages, the favourite amusement of princes and nobles, and,

as ladies could take part in it, became very general. Charlemagne passed

laws in regard to falconry, while in Germany Henry the Fowler and the

Emperor Frederick the Second were greatly addicted to it, and the latter

wrote a work on the subject. In France it reached its greatest popularity

under Francis I, whose grand falconer controlled an establishment of

fifteen nobles and fifty falconers, at an annual cost of about 40,000

livres. In Britain the sport was practised before the Norman Conquest, but

became still more popular after it, and till about 1650 enjoyed the

prominence now held by fox-hunting. One of the most interesting of English

works on the subject is that which forms the first part of the _Boke of St.

Albans_, first printed in 1481. George Turberville's _Booke of Faulconrie

or Hawking_ (1575), and Simon Latham's _The Faulcon's Lure and Cure_

(1633), may also be mentioned. Though the invention of fire-arms gradually

superseded this amusement, it is not yet entirely extinct. The Duke of St.

Albans is still hereditary grand falconer, and presents the king with a

_cast_ (or pair) of falcons on the day of his coronation. In Persia and

other Eastern countries hawking is still in favour. The game hunted

includes hares and rabbits, and, in the East, gazelles; with herons, wild

geese, and many smaller birds. The training of a hawk is a work requiring

great patience and skill, the natural wildness and intractable nature of

the birds being very difficult to overcome. When a hawk suffers itself to

be hooded and unhooded quietly, and will come to the trainer's hand to

receive food, its education is considered far advanced, and the work of

accustoming it to the _lure_ may be proceeded with. The _lure_ may be a

piece of leather or wood, covered with the wings and feathers of a bird,

and with a cord attached. The falcon is fed from it, and is recalled from

flight by the falconer swinging the lure round his head with a peculiar

cry. When the bird has been taught to obey the lure, it is next practised

in the art of seizing its game, being initiated with prey fastened to a

peg, and flown later at free game. When fully trained and being used for

sport, the falcon is kept hooded until actually required to fly. Among the

many technical terms connected with falconry may be mentioned that of _mew_

(= moult), from which is derived the familiar name _mews_, originally

places where hawks were kept while moulting.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. E. Harting,

_Bibliotheca accipitraria_; Salvin and Broderick, _Falconry in the British

Isles_; E. B. Michell, _The Art and Practice of Hawking_; H. Cox, C.

Richardson, and G. Lascelles, _Coursing and Falconry_ (The Badminton

Library).

FALD'STOOL (O.H.Ger. _falden_, to fold, and _stol_, chair), a folding stool

provided with a cushion for a person to kneel on during the performance of

certain acts of devotion, especially a kind of stool placed at the south

side of the altar, on which the Kings of England kneel at their coronation.

The term is also given to a small desk at which the litany is enjoined to

be sung or said.

FALER'NIAN WINE, an ancient wine of great repute amongst the Romans. It was

made from the grapes grown on Mount Falernus in Campania. It was strong and

generous, probably much resembling modern sherry.

FALIE'RO, Marino, Doge of Venice, born in 1274, commanded the troops of the

republic at the siege of Zara in Dalmatia, where he gained a brilliant

victory over the King of Hungary. He succeeded Andrea Dandolo, 11th Oct.,

1354, was accused of the design of overthrowing the republic and making

himself sovereign of the state, and beheaded 17th April, 1355. The last

scenes of his life are depicted in Byron's tragedy of _Marino Faliero_.

FAL'KIRK, a parliamentary burgh of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, 21-1/2 miles

west by north of Edinburgh. The older portion of it is old-fashioned and

irregularly built. There are several modern suburbs. In the town or its

vicinity are the Carron Ironworks, the Falkirk Foundry, and others works,

collieries, chemical-works, and distilleries. Falkirk is connected with the

port of Grangemouth by a railway 3 miles long. The Trysts of Falkirk, held

on Stenhousemuir, 3 miles to the N.N.W., are the largest cattle-fairs in

Scotland. Falkirk is an old town, with many historical associations. In the

neighbourhood was fought the battle of Falkirk in 1298 between Sir William

Wallace and Edward I, the Scots, who were much inferior in numbers, being

defeated. About 1 mile south-west from the town the Highlanders under

Prince Charles defeated the Royal forces under General Hawley, 17th Jan.,

1746. _Stirling and Falkirk Burghs_ return one member to the House of

Commons. Pop. of Falkirk, 33,312.

FALKLAND (f[a:]k'land), Lucius Gary, Viscount, an English man of letters,

born about 1610. His father being then Lord-Deputy of Ireland, he was

educated at Trinity College, Dublin. After passing a short time abroad, he

devoted himself to a life of retirement and literary studies, chiefly

residing at his seat at Burford, near Oxford, which he made a kind of

academy for the learned men of the neighbouring universities. In 1639 he

joined the expedition against Scotland; and in 1640, his peerage being

Scottish, he was chosen member of the House of Commons for Newport, in the

Isle of Wight. In the first instance he warmly supported the Parliament,

but doubts of the ultimate objects of the parliamentary leaders caused him

to modify his attitude; and in 1642 he accepted from Charles I the office

of Secretary of State. When hostilities began, he embraced decidedly the

cause of the king, though he desired peace rather than victory. He was

slain at the battle of Newbury, 20th Sept., 1643. He left behind him a work

entitled _A Discourse on the Infallibility of the Church of Rome_, several

pamphlets and published speeches, and a few poems, but nothing that

explains the universal praises bestowed on him by contemporaries.

FALKLAND (f[a:]k'land), an ancient royal burgh of Scotland, county of Fife,

21 miles north of Edinburgh. It was once the residence of the Scottish

kings, and possesses remains of an ancient palace and some curious old

houses. There was formerly a castle here, in which David, eldest son of

Robert III, was starved to death by order of his uncle the Duke of Albany,

but no trace of it now remains. Falkland Palace was garrisoned by Rob Roy

in 1715. Pop. 781.

FALKLAND ISLANDS, an island group belonging to Great Britain, in the South

Atlantic Ocean, about 300 miles east of the Straits of Magellan. They

consist of two larger islands, East Falkland and West Falkland, containing

respectively about 3000 and 2300 sq. miles, with a great number of smaller

ones surrounding them; total area, 6500 sq. miles. They are hilly and

boggy, entirely destitute of trees, but covered with a variety of grasses

very nutritive for the sheep and cattle the rearing of which is the

principal industry. Fish and sea-fowl abound. Wool, frozen meat, hides, and

tallow are the chief exports; value in some years L600,000. The climate is

equable and very healthy. The Falkland Islands were discovered by Davis on

the 14th Aug., 1592. In 1710 a French vessel from St. Malo touched at them,

and named them Iles Malouines. Settlements were afterwards formed on them

by the French, Spaniards, and British alternately, but the British have

ultimately retained possession of them. They now form a Crown colony which

has a Governor and other officers appointed by the Government. Port

Stanley, in East Falkland, is a thriving settlement, and has now a wireless

station. During the European War the Germans suffered a naval defeat off

the Falkland Islands in Dec., 1914. Pop. of the group, 3275.

FAL'LACY (Lat. _fallax_, apt to mislead), in logic, is when an argument is

used as decisive of a particular issue, which in reality it does not

decide. Properly a fallacy is a fault in the form of reasoning (see

_Logic_), but the term is applied also to faults in the substance of the

argument such as the _petitio principii_, or proving one proposition by

assuming another which is identical with it; _ignoratio elenchi_, or

mistaking the point at issue; _post hoc ergo propter hoc_, or arguing as if

sequence were the same thing as cause and effect.

FALLIERES, Clement Armand, eighth President of the French Republic, born at

Mezin, department of Lot-et-Garonne. The son of peasants, he studied law,

was mayor of Nerac for some years, and in 1876 was elected to the Chamber

of Deputies. Under-Secretary of State in the Ministry of the Interior in

1880, he became Minister of the Interior in 1882, Minister of Public

Instruction from 1883 to 1885, and subsequently Minister of Justice and

Public Instruction. He entered the Senate in 1890. In 1899 he became

President of the Senate, and on 16th Jan., 1906, was elected President of

the Republic. During his tenure of office Fallieres displayed decided

democratic principles and a tendency towards the Left. It was due to his

initiative that a Ministry of Labour was formed in 1909. His term of office

ended in Jan., 1913. Fallieres was one of France's most democratic

Presidents.

FALL OF BODIES. All bodies on the earth, by virtue of the attraction of

gravitation, tend to the centre of the earth. A ball held in the hand

presses downward; if dropped, it descends vertically; if placed on an

inclined plane, it rolls down, in doing which it presses the plane with a

part of its weight. In the air bodies fall with unequal velocities, a piece

of paper, for instance, more slowly than a ball of lead; and it was

formerly thought that the velocity of the fall of bodies was in proportion

to their weight. This error was attacked by Galileo, who, experimenting

with balls of different substances which he dropped from the tower of Pisa,

was led to the conclusion that the resistance of the air acting on

different extents of surface was the cause of the unequal velocities, and

that in a vacuum all bodies would fall with the same velocity. The truth of

this last proposition was first demonstrated by Newton in his celebrated

'guinea-and-feather' experiment, where a guinea and feather are shown to

fall side by side in the vacuum of the air-pump. This experiment proves

that the force of gravitation in bodies is proportional to their inertia,

that is, to their mass. The laws of falling bodies, that is of bodies

falling freely in a straight line and through a distance short in

comparison with that of the earth's centre, are the following:

1. When a body falls from rest it acquires velocity at the rate of about

32.2 feet per second every second. This number, which represents the

acceleration due to the force of gravity, varies slightly with the

locality, increasing from the equator to the poles, and diminishing as we

recede from the surface of the earth. (See _Gravity_.) At the end of five

seconds, therefore, the body would be found to be moving at the rate of 5 x

32.2, that is, 161 feet per second.

2. The space fallen through in the first second is half of 32.2, that is,

16.1 feet; and the space fallen through in any given time is found by

multiplying the square of the number of seconds by 16.1. Thus in three

seconds a body falls 9 x 16.1 feet, or 144.9 feet.

3. The square of the velocity acquired by falling through any number of

feet is found by multiplying twice that number by 32.2. Thus if a body

falls 9 feet, the square of the velocity acquired is 2 x 32 x 9, or 576 if

we take 32 instead of 32.2; and taking the square root of 576, we find that

a velocity of 24 feet is acquired in a fall of 9 feet.

4. When a body is projected vertically upward with a given velocity, it

continues to rise during a number of seconds found by dividing the number

that expresses the velocity of projection by 32.2; and it rises to a height

found by dividing the square of that number by 2 x 32.2, or 64.4. For a

machine used in verifying the laws of falling bodies, see _Attwood_.

FALL OF MAN, a commonly received doctrine of Christianity, founded upon the

historical narrative contained in the third chapter of the book of

_Genesis_, together with the allusions to the same matter in other parts of

Scripture. Adam, having eaten of the forbidden fruit, is said to have

fallen; and the relation of mankind in general to this fall is stated by

St. Paul in the words: "By one man's disobedience many were made sinners"

(_Rom._ v. 19). Thus, in the fall of Adam, all men are held to have fallen

and to have contracted 'original sin', alienating them from God and

rendering them morally inadequate. The doctrine of the fall does not stand

alone in Scripture. It is argued by some interpreters that in the original

sentence pronounced on the transgressors there is contained the promise of

a redemption, and that the whole scope of Scripture is directed to the

development of this promise, and of the divine scheme of providence

associated with it.

FALLOPIAN TUBES, in anatomy, are two ducts each of which opens by one

extremity into the womb, at either angle of the fundus, and terminates at

the other end in an open trumpet-shaped mouth, which receives the ovum as

it escapes from the ovary and transmits it to the womb. They are named

after Fallopius or Fallopio, an Italian anatomist of the sixteenth century,

who first recognized their functions.

[Illustration: Fallow Deer (_Cervus dama_)]

FALLOW DEER, a European and Western Asiatic deer, the _Cervus dama_. It is

smaller than the stag, of a brownish-bay colour, whitish beneath, on the

insides of the limbs, and beneath the tail. The horns, which are peculiar

to the male, are very different from those of the stag; they are not

properly branched, but are broader towards the upper part, and divided into

processes down the outside. A simple snag rises from the base of each, and

a similar one at some distance from the first. It was introduced at an

early period into Britain, possibly by the Romans, and is kept in many

English parks.

FALLOW LAND, ground that has been left uncultivated for a time, in order

that it may recover itself from an exhausted state. Strictly speaking,

fallow ground is left altogether without crops; but in agricultural usage

strict fallow is not always adopted, and the term fallow is applied to

various modes of treatment, of which at least three distinct varieties are

recognized: _bare fallow_, _bastard fallow_, and _green-crop fallow_. Bare

fallow is that in which the land remains completely bare for a whole year;

in bastard fallow it is ploughed up and worked after the removal of a

spring or summer crop, preparatory to the sowing of a root or forage crop,

to occupy the ground during autumn or winter; in green-crop fallow the land

is sown with a root-crop, such as turnips or potatoes, placed in rows far

enough apart to admit of the intermediate spaces being stirred, pulverized,

and cleaned, during its growth, by horse or hand implements.

FALL RIVER, a city and port, Bristol County, Massachusetts, United States,

on an arm of Narraganset Bay, on Taunton River, 53 miles S.S.W. of Boston.

It is at the head of deep-water navigation, and the terminus of a line of

steamers from New York. It contains several handsome streets, and has

extensive cotton, woollen, and calico-printing factories, as well as

ironworks. Pop. 129,828.

FALMOUTH, a seaport and municipal borough of England, in Cornwall, 250

miles W.S.W. of London. There is a good harbour there, with a fine

roadstead affording excellent refuge for shipping. Falmouth was at one time

an important packet station, but is now chiefly a port of call, its

principal trade being in supplies and stores for shipping. Falmouth and

Penryn together give name to a parliamentary division of the county,

returning one member to Parliament. Pop. 13,318.

FALSE IMPRISONMENT, the unlawful imprisonment or detention of any person.

Every confinement of the person is imprisonment, whether in a common prison

or a private house, or even by forcibly detaining one in the streets or

highways. The law punishes false imprisonment as a crime, besides giving

reparation to the party injured, through an action of trespass.

FALSE PERSONATION (English law). All forms of false personation, for the

purpose of obtaining the property of others, are made penal by express

statute. To personate the owner of any share, stock, or annuity, &c., is

felony, and renders the offender liable to penal servitude for life, or to

a modified term of penal servitude or imprisonment. The false personation

of voters at an election is a misdemeanour punishable with imprisonment and

hard labour, for a term not exceeding two years.

FALSET'TO (IT.) applies, in singing, to the notes above the natural compass

of the voice. It is also called the _head_ or _throat_ voice, in

contradistinction to the _chest_ voice, which is the natural one. The

falsetto voice is produced by tightening the ligaments of the glottis.

FALSE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The using of false weights and measures is an

offence at law punishable by fine. By various British statutes standards

are provided for weights and for measures of capacity or dimension, and all

contracts of sale, &c., are referred to such standards unless there is a

special agreement to the contrary. See _Weights and Measures_.

FAL'STER, an island belonging to Denmark, situated at the entrance of the

Baltic, east of Laaland, from which it is separated only by a narrow

strait; flat, well watered, and wooded; productive in grain, pulse,

potatoes, and, above all, fruit; area, 183 sq. miles. The principal town is

Nykjoebing. Pop. 37,460.

FALUN, or FAHLUN (fae'l[u:]n), a town of Sweden, on Lake Runn, 130 miles

north-west of Stockholm. It has an excellent mining-school, museums, and

mineralogical collections. Within the town boundary is the famous Falun

copper-mine, formerly the richest in Sweden, and worked for 500 years. Pop.

11,966.

FAMA CLAMO'SA ('a clamant report'), in the ecclesiastical law of Scotland,

is a public report imputing immoral conduct to a clergyman, licentiate, or

office-bearer of the Church. When the fama has become so notorious that it

cannot be overlooked, the presbytery, after due inquiry, and if no

particular party comes forward to institute a process, usually appear as

accusers themselves.

FAMAGOS'TA, or FAMAGUSTA, a seaport on the east coast of Cyprus. It is of

remote antiquity, was an important place during the Middle Ages under the

Lusignan kings of Cyprus and the Venetians, but, after being captured by

the Turks in 1571, it declined. It has improved under the British, and has

got a new harbour. Pop. 5327.

FAMATI'NA, a district and mountain range in the Argentine Republic,

province of La Rioja, rich in copper; highest summit, the Nevada de

Famatina, 19,758 feet high.

FAMILIAR SPIRITS, demons or evil spirits supposed to be continually within

call and at the service of their masters, sometimes under an assumed shape,

sometimes attached to a magical ring, or the like, sometimes compelled by

magic skill, and sometimes doing voluntary service. We find traces of this

belief in all ages and countries, under various forms.

FAMILY, in zoological classification, a group of species more comprehensive

than a genus and less so than an order, a family usually containing a

number of genera, while an order contains so many families. Family names

usually terminate in -[)i]dae (after Latin patronymics, such as

Aeac[)i]dae, sons or descendants of Aeacus). In botany it is sometimes used

as a synonym of natural order.

FAMILY COMPACT, the name given to an alliance organized by the Duc de

Choiseul, first minister of Louis XV, between the various members of the

Bourbon family, then sovereigns of France, Spain, the Two Sicilies, Parma,

and Piacenza, mutually to guarantee each other's possessions. It was signed

15th Aug., 1761, and entailed on Spain a war with England.

FAMINE, an extreme scarcity of food affecting considerable numbers of

people at the same time. Its causes are either natural, such as crop

failures due to disease or to excessive or deficient rainfall, the effect

of these being aggravated when the crop concerned is one on which the

population mainly depends; or political and economic, such as war, or

defects in the organization of production and distribution. In the Early

and Middle Ages famines were frequent; but the rapidity of modern

communication and transport made famines rare in Europe, until the

conditions caused by the Great War produced great scarcity in Central

Europe. In Ireland the years 1814, 1816, 1822, 1831, 1846 were marked by

failure of the potato crop, and in the last-mentioned year the dearth was

so great that L10,000,000 were voted by Parliament for relief of the

sufferers. India has been the seat of many great famines, which recur at

more or less regular intervals; but of late the British officials have been

successful in organizing preventive and relief measures, such as

improvement in railways and irrigation, the multiplication of industries,

and the institution of a famine insurance grant. Amongst the more recent

famines are that in North-West India (1837-8), in which above 800,000

perished; that in Bengal and Orissa (1865-6), when about a million

perished; that in Bombay, Madras, Mysore (1877); that of 1896-7; and that

of 1900 in Bombay, Punjab, &c., perhaps the most serious on record, when

the Government spent L10,000,000 in relief. In China a great famine took

place in 1877-8, in which over 9 millions are said to have perished;

another took place in 1888-9, owing to the overflow of the Yellow River.

FAN, the name of various instruments for exciting a current of air by the

agitation of a broad surface. (1) An instrument made of wood or ivory,

feathers, thin skin, paper, variously constructed and mounted, and used by

ladies to agitate the air and cool the face. As an article of luxury the

fan was well known to the Greeks and Romans. Fans are said to have been

introduced into England from Italy in the reign of Henry VIII, and Queen

Elizabeth was very fond of them. There is a collection of fans at the

Victoria and Albert Museum, London. (2) Any contrivance of vanes or flat

discs revolving by the aid of machinery, as for winnowing grain, for

cooling fluids, urging combustion, or assisting ventilation, is also so

called.

FANAR'IOTS, or PHANARIOTS, the inhabitants of the Greek quarter, or Phanar,

in Constantinople, particularly the noble Greek families resident there

since the times of the Byzantine emperors. The dragoman or interpreter of

the Porte and other high officials used to be taken from their number. They

have now mostly lost their influence at Constantinople, and have in many

cases transferred themselves to Athens.

FANAT'ICISM, a term applied more particularly to the extravagance

manifested in religious matters by those who allow themselves to be hurried

away by their fancy and feelings, to the adoption not only of wild

enthusiastic views, but also of inordinate and not infrequently persecuting

measures. By an extension of the term it is also sometimes applied to other

forms of extravagance.

FANCY, a term approaching imagination in meaning. In its general

acceptation it refers both to the forms of the imagination and to the

mental faculty which produces them; but it is used frequently for the

lighter or more fantastic forms of the imagination, and for the active play

of that faculty which produces them. See _Imagination_.

FANEUIL HALL (fan'[=u]-il), a public building in Boston, famous as the

place where stirring speeches were made at the outbreak of the war for

American independence. It was built between 1740 and 1742 by a Huguenot

merchant named Peter Faneuil.

FANFARE (Sp. _fanfarria_, brag), a short, lively, loud, and warlike piece

of music, composed for trumpets and kettle-drums. Also small, lively pieces

performed on hunting-horns, in the chase.

FAN-FOOT, a name given to a North African lizard of the genus Ptyodactylus

(_P. lobatus)_, one of the geckoes, much dreaded in Egypt for its supposed

venomous properties.

FANNING ISLAND, a coral island in the centre of Polynesia, lat. 3deg 51'

N., long. 159deg 22' W. Since 1888 it belongs to Britain, is a

landing-place of the Canada-Australia cable, and the stretch from this to

Vancouver, 3458 miles, is the longest in the world. The island was

discovered by Edmund Fanning in 1798. Area, 15 sq. miles; pop. about 200.

It forms one of a small group sometimes called Fanning Islands.

FANO, a seaport of Italy, on the Adriatic, province of Pesaro e Urbino, 29

miles north-west of Ancona. It is a handsome town, and has a triumphal arch

erected to Augustus, and other antiquities. Pop. (commune), 25,000.

FAN-PALM, a name sometimes given to the talipot palm or _Cor[)y]pha

umbraculif[)e]ra_, a native of Ceylon and Malabar. See _Talipot Palm_.

FANS, an African race of people inhabiting the region of the west coast

about the Gaboon River and the Ogoway. They are an energetic race, skilled

in various arts, and are rapidly increasing in numbers (about 300,000).

They are cannibals, but contact with Europeans is leading them to give up

the practice.

FANSHAWE, Sir Richard, an English diplomatist, poet, and translator, born

in 1608, died at Madrid in 1666. He studied at Cambridge, was secretary of

the English Embassy at Madrid, and took the Royal side on the outbreak of

the Civil War in 1641. He was made a baronet in 1650, was taken prisoner at

Worcester, but permitted to go at large on bail. After the Restoration he

was employed on several diplomatic missions, and in 1664, as Ambassador at

Madrid, negotiated a peace between England, Spain, and Portugal. His

poetical abilities were above mediocrity, as is evinced by his translations

of the _Lusiads_ of Camoens, the _Pastor Fido_ of Guarini, the Odes of

Horace, and the fourth book of the _Aeneid_.

[Illustration: Fan-tail Pigeon]

FAN-TAIL, a variety of the domestic pigeon, so called from the fan-like

shape of their tails. Also a name applied to certain birds (species of

Rhipidura) of the fly-catcher family, native to India, Australia, and New

Zealand.

FANTEES', a people of West Africa inhabiting the coast district of the Gold

Coast Colony, between the Ashantis and the sea. They were at one time the

most numerous and powerful people situated immediately on the Gold Coast

seaboard; but their power was almost entirely broken after 1811 by repeated

invasions of the Ashantis, and they have since lived under British

protection. The soil is fertile, producing fruits, maize, and palm-wine.

[Illustration: Fan-tracery Vaulting, Gloucester Cathedral]

FAN-TRACERY, in architecture, elaborate geometrical curved work, which

spreads over the surface of a vaulting, rising from a corbel and diverging

like the folds of a fan. Fan-tracery vaulting is much used in the

Perpendicular style, in which the vault is covered by ribs and veins of

tracery, of which all the principal lines diverge from a point, as in Henry

VII's chapel, Westminster Abbey.

FARAD, the practical unit of capacity for electricity, in the

electromagnetic system of units. The capacity of a conductor or condenser

whose potential is raised by one volt when given a charge of one coulomb.

This unit is too large for most purposes, and capacities are usually

expressed in microfarads (q.v.).

FAR'ADAY, Michael, one of the greatest of English chemists and physicists,

was born in humble circumstances at Newington Butts, near London, 22nd

Sept., 1791, died 25th Aug., 1867. Early in life he was apprenticed to a

bookbinder in London, but occupied himself in his leisure hours with

electrical and other scientific experiments. Having been taken by a friend

to Sir Humphry Davy's lectures, he attended the course, and became so

interested that he decided to abandon his trade. With this end he sent his

notes of the lectures to Sir Humphry Davy, who was so struck with the great

ability they showed that he appointed him his assistant at the Royal

Institution. In 1829 he became lecturer at the Royal Military Academy at

Woolwich, and in 1833 he was appointed to the newly established chair of

chemistry at the Royal Institution. It was while in this office that he

made most of his great electrical discoveries. His communications to the

_Philosophical Transactions_ were published separately in three volumes

(1839, 1844, 1855). In 1832 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from

Oxford, and was made an honorary member of the Academy at Berlin. In 1835

he received a pension of L300 a year from Lord Melbourne. As an

experimentalist Faraday was considered the very first of his time. As a

popular lecturer he was equally distinguished, and used to draw crowds to

the Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution. Amongst his published

works we may mention the following: _Researches in Electricity_ (1831-55),

_Lectures on Non-metallic Elements_ (1853), _Lectures on the Forces of

Matter_ (1860), _Lectures on the Chemical History of a Candle_

(1861).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Tyndall, _Faraday as a Discoverer_; S. P.

Thompson, _Michael Faraday: his Life and Work_.

FARADIZATION, or FARADISM, the medical application of the induced currents

which Faraday discovered in 1831.

FARALLO'NES, a group of small islands in the Pacific, about 30 miles from

the entrance to the Bay of San Francisco.

FARAN'DOLA, an exciting dance popular amongst the peasants of the south of

France and the neighbouring part of Italy. The men and women, placed

alternately and facing different ways, form a long line winding out and in

with a waving motion.

FARCE, a subdivision of comedy, characterized chiefly by exaggeration and

lack of rational character drawing. Farce stands in the same relationship

to comedy as melodrama does to tragedy. Many farces commence with an

impossible postulate, such as _The Comedy of Errors_. Jonson's _Silent

Woman_ is one of the best English farces. Gilbert's _Engaged_ and

_Foggerty's Fairy_ are notable modern examples.

FARCY, a disease to which horses are liable, intimately connected with

glanders, the two diseases generally running into each other. It is

supposed to be a disease of the absorbents of the skin, and its first

indication is generally the appearance of little tumours called farcy buds

on the face, neck, or inside of the thigh. By an order in Council animals

affected with farcy must be destroyed.

FARDEL-BOUND, a term applied to cattle and sheep affected with a disease

caused by the retention of food in the maniplies or third stomach, between

the numerous plaits of which it is firmly impacted. Over-ripe clover,

vetches, or rye-grass are liable to produce the disease.

FAREHAM, a town of England, in Hampshire, at the north-west extremity of

Portsmouth harbour, giving name to a parliamentary division of the county.

It has building-yards, potteries, and brickworks, and a considerable trade.

Pop. 10,066.

FAREL, Guillaume, one of the earliest and most active of the Swiss

reformers, was born in 1489 in Dauphiny, died in 1565. At an early period

he was led by his intercourse with the Waldenses to adopt similar views.

After preaching in various parts of Switzerland, he came to Geneva, where

he was so successful at the religious conferences of 1534 and 1535 that the

Council formally embraced the Reformation. He was instrumental, also, in

persuading Calvin to take up his residence in Geneva. At attempt on the

part of the two reformers to enforce too severe ecclesiastical discipline

was the cause of their having to leave the city in 1538. Farel took up his

residence at Neufchatel, where he died.

FARGO, a town of N. Dakota, United States, on the Red River of the North

and the N. Pacific Railroad. Pop. 14,330.

FARIA Y SOUSA, Manuel de, Portuguese historian and poet, born 1590, of an

ancient and illustrious family, died about 1649. Among his writings are:

_Discursos Morales y Politicos, Epitome de las Historias Portuguesas_;

_Comentarios sobre la Lusiada_; and a collection of poems.

FARIBAULT, a town of Minnesota, United States, 53 miles south of St.

Paul's. Here are the State asylum for the deaf, dumb, and blind, and an

episcopal divinity college. Pop. 9000.

FARIDPUR (fa-r[=e]d-poer'), a district of India, in Eastern Bengal; area,

2267 sq. miles; pop. 1,937,650. Chief town, Faridpur, on the Mara Padma.

Pop. 11,000.

FARI'NA, a term given to a soft, tasteless, and commonly white powder,

obtained by trituration of the seeds of cereal and leguminous plants, and

of some roots, as the potato. It consists of gluten, starch, and mucilage.

FARINEL'LI, Carlo, an Italian singer, born at Naples in 1705, died in 1782.

His true name was Carlo Broschi, and to develop his vocal powers he was

made a eunuch. He sang in Vienna, Paris, and London with the greatest

success. On visiting Spain, where he intended only a brief sojourn, he

found King Philip V plunged in a profound melancholy. He succeeded in

rousing him from it by the powers of his voice, and became his prime

favourite and political adviser. But the penalty of his advancement was

that for ten years he had to sing every night to his royal master the same

six airs. On his return to Italy, in 1762, he found himself almost

forgotten, but continued to exercise a splendid hospitality in his country

house, near Bologna.

FARI'NI, Luigi Carlo, an Italian statesman and author, born in 1812, died

1st Aug., 1866. He studied medicine at Bologna, and practised as a

physician. He became known as a nationalist and patriot in the political

movements of 1841, had to leave the country for a time, but returned and

was made a member of the Reform Ministry at Rome during the disturbances of

1848. Disapproving equally the views of the old Conservative and the

extreme Republican party, he went to Piedmont, where he was elected a

Deputy, and fought with great energy both in pamphlets and in Parliament on

behalf of Cavour and the Piedmontese Constitutionalists. After the peace of

Villafranca, he was chosen dictator of the duchies of Parma and Modena, and

was mainly instrumental in inducing them to unite with the Piedmontese

monarchy. His _History of the Papal States from 1814 to 1850_ is well

known. In 1862 he became President of the Ministry, but lost his reason in

1863.

FARMERS-GENERAL (Fr. _Fermiers generaux_), private contractors, to whom

under the old French monarchy was let out the collection of various

branches of the revenue, poll-tax, duties on salt and tobacco, and customs.

These contractors made enormous profits on the farming of the public

revenues. A revenue collected in this way not only imposed a much heavier

burden on the people, but the merciless rigour of irresponsible and

uncontrolled exactors subjected them to hardships and indignities to which

they could not submit without degradation. In 1790 the system was

suppressed by the Constituent Assembly, and many of the farmers-general

were sent to the guillotine by the Revolutionary Tribunal.

FARNE, or FERNE, ISLANDS, a group of seventeen islets, England, separated

from the coast of Northumberland by a channel about 1-3/4 miles wide. They

have been the scene of some disastrous shipwrecks, including that of the

_Forfarshire_ in 1838. (See _Darling, Grace_.) There are two lighthouses.

Pop. 15.

FARNESE (f[.a]r-n[=a]'ze), an illustrious family of Italy, whose descent

may be traced from about the middle of the thirteenth century, and which

gave to the Church and the Republic of Florence many eminent names, amongst

which the following may be mentioned: Pietro Farnese (died 1363), a general

of the Florentines in the war against Pisa; Alessandro, who became Pope as

Paul III (1534-49), and whose gifts to his natural son Pier Luigi of the

duchies of Parma and Piacenza laid the foundation of the wealth and

greatness of the family; Ottavio (1520-85), son and successor of Pier

Luigi, spent a long and peaceful reign in promoting the happiness of his

subjects. Alessandro (1546-92), elder son of Ottavio, became famous as a

most successful general of the Spaniards in the wars with the Netherlands

and France. Ranuzio (1569-1622), son of Ottavio, was a gloomy and

suspicious tyrant. The line became extinct with Antonio in 1731. The name

of the Farnese is associated with several famous buildings and works of

art. The _Farnese Palace_, at Rome, was built for Pope Paul III, while he

was cardinal, by Sangallo and Michel Angelo. It now belongs to France, and

is occupied by the French Embassy. Its sculpture gallery was formerly very

celebrated, but the best pieces have been removed to Naples, including the

following: the _Farnese Bull_, a celebrated ancient sculpture representing

the punishment of Dirce, discovered in 1546 in the Baths of Caracalla at

Rome; _Farnese Hercules_, a celebrated ancient statue of Hercules by

Glycon, found in the Baths of Caracalla in 1540; _Farnese Flora_, a

colossal statue of great merit, found in the Baths of Caracalla; _Farnese

Cup_, an antique onyx cup, highly ornamented with figures in relief.

FARNHAM, a town of England, county of Surrey, 3 miles S.W. of Aldershot; a

well-built place. North of the town is Farnham Castle, the residence of the

Bishops of Winchester. The staple trade is in hops. Farnham was the home of

Swift's 'Stella' (Hester Johnson). Pop. 12,133.

FARNWORTH, a manufacturing and mining town of Lancashire, England, 3 miles

from Bolton. Pop. (urban district), 27,901.

FARO, a seaport of Portugal, province of Algarve, 62 miles S.E. of Cape St.

Vincent. It is surrounded by Moorish walls, and has a convenient harbour.

Its trade is considerable. Pop. 12,680.

FARO, a promontory forming the north-east point of Sicily at the entrance

to the Strait of Messina. The point is strongly fortified, and on it there

is a lighthouse over 200 years old.

FAROE ISLANDS (f[=a]'r[=o]; Dan. _Faeroeer_, 'Sheep Islands'), a group of

islands in the North Atlantic, lying between Iceland and Shetland. They

belong to Denmark, and are twenty-one in number, of which seventeen are

inhabited. The islands generally present steep and lofty precipices to the

sea. Barley is the only cereal that comes to maturity; turnips and potatoes

thrive well. There is no wood, but plenty of excellent turf, and also coal.

The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in fishing and the rearing of sheep.

Thorshavn, in Stroemoe, the largest island, is the seat of government. Pop.

18,000.

FARQUHAR (faer'k[.a]r), George, Irish playwright, was born in Londonderry

in 1677, and died in 1707. He was for a short time at Trinity College,

Dublin, but was, according to one account, sent down for making a profane

though clever joke on the miracle of walking on the sea. He became an

actor, but left the stage after inadvertently injuring a fellow-actor,

owing to his forgetting to substitute a stage-sword for the genuine

article. He produced his first comedy, _Love and a Bottle_, in 1698. It is

a lively and amusing comedy, and was well received. _The Constant Couple_

(1699) was also successful, as was its sequel _Sir Harry Wildair_. His

other best-known plays are _The Recruiting Officer_ (1706), and his

masterpiece _The Beaux' Stratagem_ (1707), written when he knew that death

was fast approaching him. Farquhar was in dire poverty most of his life; he

had a commission in the army for a while, but gave it up owing to some

false hopes of promotion held out by the Duke of Ormond. He increased his

embarrassments by marrying in 1703 a penniless woman who had fallen in love

with his appearance, and pretended to be an heiress. Although he lived and

died in great distress, his gaiety never flagged; and _The Beaux'

Stratagem_ is one of the most mirthful comedies of the time.

Farquhar was a great playwright, and not much of a literary man. His

comedies are all good acting comedies. He had been an actor himself, and so

was much more closely in touch with the stage than the aristocratic

Congreve. Farquhar stands above his contemporaries by reason of his

realism. He did not go to other dramatists for his characters, but went

straight to life. Indeed, in several cases his plays seem to have been in

part autobiographical; the bard was the hero of the story. His plots are

well constructed, especially his later ones. His characters are most of

them genial rogues, and while he is no Puritan his morality compares very

favourably with the cynical indecency of his contemporaries. His influence

upon Fielding, and therefore upon the rise and development of the English

novel, was great, as he introduced a return to real models, and eschewed

artificiality. Personally Farquhar was a most loveable man, and he appears

to have lived and died a very gallant gentleman.

FAR'RAGUT, David Glascoe, admiral of the United States, born in 1801, died

13th Aug., 1870. He entered the navy as midshipman at the age of eleven,

was promoted to a lieutenancy in 1821, and was actively engaged in his

profession up till 1851, when he was appointed assistant inspector of

ordnance. In 1855 he received a commission as captain. In 1861 he was

appointed to command the expedition against New Orleans, undertaken on the

formation of the Confederacy, and sailed in January of the following year.

New Orleans surrendered to the combined attack of the land and naval forces

on 28th April, and Farragut proceeded to Vicksburg, which he attacked

unsuccessfully. In consequence of his success at New Orleans he was

promoted to the rank of vice-admiral, and placed in command of the

blockading squadron of the Gulf of Mexico. In Aug., 1864, he attacked the

Confederate fleet in the Bay of Mobile, and forced it to surrender, thus

making the fall of Mobile merely a question of time. After this exploit he

was made admiral, a grade which had not hitherto existed in the United

States navy.

FAR'RANT, Richard, one of the earliest English composers of music. Very

little is known of his history. He was a gentleman of the Chapel Royal in

1564, and subsequently organist and choir-master. He is supposed to have

died about 1580. His music, which is ecclesiastical, is distinguished by

purity, simplicity, tenderness, and elevation. The anthems _Call to

Remembrance_, and _Hide not Thou Thy Face_, composed by him, are well

known.

FARRAR, Frederic William, English divine, son of a clergyman, born in

Bombay, 7th Aug., 1831, died 22nd March, 1903. He graduated at Cambridge,

1854, was assistant master at Harrow in 1855, headmaster of Marlborough

College in 1871, Archdeacon of Westminster, 1883, and Dean of Canterbury,

1895. He wrote various popular theological works and works of fiction, and

was Bampton Lecturer in 1885. Among his principal works are: _The Life of

Christ_ (1874), _Life of St. Paul_ (1879), _The Early Days of Christianity_

(1882), _Lives of the Fathers_ (1889), _Darkness and Dawn_.

FARS, or FARSISTAN, a maritime province in the south-west of Persia,

abutting on the Persian Gulf. It is mountainous, but has many rich and

well-cultivated districts. The most important products are grain, fruit,

wine, oil, cotton, tobacco, silk, cochineal, and attar of roses. The

manufactures include woollen, silk, and cotton goods; and in these and

other articles an active trade is carried on, chiefly with Hindustan. Pop.

estimated at 1,700,000.

FARSAN, two islands on the east side of the Red Sea on the coast of Yemen,

called respectively Farsan Kebir and Farsan Segir.

[Illustration: Farthingale]

FARTHINGALE, or FARDINGALE, an article of ladies' attire worn in the days

of Queen Elizabeth, and closely resembling the more recent crinoline. It

was formed of circles of whalebone hoops, and protruded more at the waist

than the Victorian crinoline.

FARUKHABAD, or FARRAKHABAD (f_a_r-_a_k-ae-baed'), a city in Agra division,

United Provinces of British India, 2 or 3 miles from the Ganges, a

handsome, well-built town, with avenues of trees in many of its streets.

Pop. 59,647.

FASCES (fas's[=e]z), in Roman antiquities, a bundle of polished rods, in

the middle of which was an axe, carried by lictors before the superior

magistrates. The number of fasces and lictors varied with the dignity of

the magistrate. In the city the axe was laid aside.

FAS'CIA (Lat., a bandage), in anatomy, signifies any thin sheet of fibrous

tissue, such, for example, as the covering which surrounds the muscles of

the limbs and binds them in their places.

FASCINATION (Lat. _fascinare_, to charm), the exercise of an overpowering

and paralysing influence upon some animals attributed to certain snakes.

Squirrels, mice, and the smaller birds are said to be the most subject to

this power; but the fact is far from clearly explained, and is not perhaps

even sufficiently demonstrated. Most of the accounts agree in describing

the animal fascinated as having a painful consciousness of its danger, and

the power exercised over it, but to be unable to resist the desire to

approach the fascinator. It is probable, however, that the real explanation

of the phenomenon is to be found in the influence of the intense emotion of

fear upon the muscles.

FASCINES (fa-s[=e]nz'), in field engineering, bundles of boughs or rods

from 6 to 18 feet in length and usually 1 foot in diameter, used in raising

batteries, strengthening parapets, or revetting slopes. The twigs are drawn

tightly together by a cord, and bands are passed round them at the distance

of 2 feet from each other. Very long thin ones are called _saucissons_ or

_battery-sausages_.

FASHO'DA, a station in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, on the Bahr-el-Abiad or

White Nile, 400 miles south of Khartoum, and about 70 miles north-east of

the confluence of the Sobat with the Nile. In July, 1898, it was occupied

by a French force under Colonel Marchand, but some months later was claimed

by the British for Egypt. The affair threatened to involve the two

countries in war, but ultimately the French evacuated the place, which was

then formally occupied by Sudanese troops. It has been renamed Kodok.

FAST-AND-LOOSE, a cheating game sometimes played at fairs by gipsies, and

also called 'prick the garter'. A belt or strap is doubled and rolled up

with the double in the middle of the coils; it is then laid on a board, and

the dupe is asked to catch the double with a skewer, when the gambler takes

the two ends and looses it or draws it away, so as always to keep the

skewer outside the doubled end. The game is mentioned four times in

Shakespeare, e.g. _Antony and Cleopatra_, iv, 12, 28.

FASTI (Lat.), among the Romans, registers of various kinds; as, _fasti

sacri_, calendars of the year, giving the days for festivals or courts,

being a sort of almanac.

FASTING, the partial or total abstinence of mankind and animals from the

ordinary requisite supply of aliment, by which it is to be understood that

quantity which is adapted to preserve them in a healthy and vigorous

condition. It would appear that various warm-blooded animals are capable of

sustaining total abstinence much longer than human beings. Cats and dogs

have survived for several weeks without nourishment of any kind, but it is

probable that few human beings could survive such deprivation for more than

a week. The use of water without solid food enables life to be sustained

much longer than it could otherwise be.

FASTS, temporary abstentions from food, especially on religious grounds.

Abstinence from food, accompanied by signs of humiliation and repentance or

grief, is to be found more or less in almost all religions. Among the Jews

fasts were numerous, and we find many instances of occasional fasting in

the Old Testament. Herodotus says that the Egyptians prepared themselves by

fasting for the celebration of the great festival of Isis. So in the

Thesmophoria at Athens, and in the rites of Ceres at Rome, it was

practised. The Church of Rome distinguishes between days of fasting and of

abstinence. The former are: (1) the forty days of Lent; (2) the Ember days,

being the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday of the first week in Lent, of

Whitsun week, of the third week in September, and of the third week in

Advent; (3) the Wednesdays and Thursdays of the four weeks in Advent; (4)

the vigils or eves of Whitsuntide, of the feasts of St. Peter and St. Paul,

of the Assumption of the Virgin, of All Saints, and of Christmas Day. When

any fasting day falls upon Sunday, it is observed on the Saturday before.

The Greek Church observes four principal fasts: that of Lent, one beginning

in the week after Whitsuntide, one for a fortnight before the Assumption,

one forty days before Christmas. In the East, however, the strict idea of a

fast is more preserved than in the West. The Church of England appoints the

following fixed days for fasting and abstinence, between which no

difference is made: (1) the forty days of Lent; (2) the Ember days at the

four seasons; (3) the three Rogation days before Holy Thursday; (4) every

Friday except Christmas Day. The Church, however, gives no directions

concerning fasting.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Duchesne, _Christian Worship_; J.

Dowden, _The Church Year and Kalendar_; article _Fasting_ in Hastings'

_Encyclopaedia of Ethics and Religion_.

FAT, an oily concrete substance, a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen, deposited in the cells of the adipose or cellular membrane of

animal bodies. In most parts of the body the fat lies immediately under the

skin. Fat is of various degrees of consistence, as in tallow, lard, and

oil. It is generally white or yellowish, with little smell or taste. It

consists of esters of glycerine with fatty and other acids, and these are

generally termed glycerides. The commonest of these are stearin, a waxy

solid, palmitin, a softer solid, and olein, an oil. Fats are insoluble in

water. When boiled with caustic alkalies, e.g. caustic soda, they are

decomposed (saponified), yielding an alkali salt of the fatty acid (soap)

and glycerine. The consistency of any natural fat depends on the

proportions in which these three substances are present, e.g. mutton suet

consists mainly of stearin, and olive oil of olein. In the body fat serves

as a packing, and helps to give roundness of contour. Being a bad conductor

of heat, it is useful in retaining warmth, but its chief function is that

of nutrition.

FA'TALISM, the belief in fate, or an unchangeable destiny, to which

everything is subject, uninfluenced by reason, and pre-established either

by chance or the Creator. Fatalism existed among the Hebrews, Greeks, and

Romans, and is still prevalent among Mohammedans. The fact that many events

in man's life seemed to be inevitable gave rise to the belief in fatalism.

Amongst notable historical examples of the belief in fate may be mentioned

the old Greek conception of a fate which stood behind the gods themselves

as a controlling power; the Mohammedan fatalism, which regards all things

great and small as inexorably predetermined, so that no accident is

possible. Fatalism is to be distinguished both from _determinism_ and

_predestination_.

FATEGARH (f_a_t-e-g_a_r'), a town, United Provinces of India, on the

Ganges, now municipally united with Farukhabad; the scene of a massacre of

upwards of 200 Europeans during the Mutiny of 1857. Pop. 12,500.

FATEHPUR (f_a_t-e-poer'), a town of India, in district of the same name,

Allahabad division, United Provinces, 50 miles S.E. of Cawnpore. Pop.

16,939.--The district has an area of 1639 sq. miles, and a pop. of 686,400.

FATEHPUR SIKRI, a town of India, district of Agra, United Provinces. It was

the favourite residence of the Emperor Akbar, who enclosed and fortified

it. It now chiefly consists of a vast expanse of magnificent ruins enclosed

by a high stone wall some 5 miles in circuit. Pop. 6132.

FATES (in Lat. _Parcae_, in Gr. _Moirai_), in Greek and Latin mythology,

the inexorable sisters who spin the thread of human life. The appellation

_Clotho_ (the spinner) was probably at first common to them all among the

Greeks. As they were three in number, and poetry endeavoured to designate

them more precisely, _Clotho_ became a proper name, as did also

_Atr[)o]pos_ and _Lach[)e]sis_. Clotho means she who spins (the thread of

life); Atropos signifies unalterable fate; Lachesis, lot or chance; so that

all three refer to the same subject from different points of view. They

know and predict what is yet to happen. Lachesis is represented with a

spindle, Clotho with the thread, and Atropos with shears, with which she

cuts it off. We find also in the northern mythology three beautiful

virgins, the _Nornen_, who determine the fate of men. Their names are _Urd_

(the past), _Varande_ (the present), and _Skuld_ (the future).

FATHERLASHER, or BULL-HEAD, a fish of the genus Cottus (_Cottus

bub[)a]lis_), from 8 to 10 inches in length. The head is large, and is

furnished with several formidable spines. The fish is found on the rocky

coasts of Britain, and near Newfoundland and Greenland. In the latter

regions it attains a much larger size, and is a considerable article of

food.