The fresh attack on the night of 6th Aug. was not completely successful,

and the Anzac columns under General Godley were still short of the ridges

at Koja and Chunuk on the night of 7th Aug. The Turks were then alive to

the threat, and made continuous counter-attacks, so that by 10th Aug. all

the efforts of the combined force of Anzacs, Gurkhas, and English regiments

had failed to maintain more than a slippery hold on the ridges. The chief

cause of the failure was that the contributory aid of the attack at Suvla

Bay farther north had not been forthcoming, owing to various reasons. Lack

of water had exhausted the unseasoned divisions landed in Suvla Bay;

misunderstandings among the generals were other reasons; and when the

Commander-in-Chief, on hearing of their failure, came up from Zimbros, he

met a situation which it was too late to redeem. General Stopford was

succeeded by General de Lisle (15th Aug.). Lord Kitchener declined to send

further troops from home, and though Sir Ian Hamilton, bringing the veteran

29th Division up to Suvla, with reinforcements of yeomanry, made another

attempt on 21st Aug., it was unavailing. After 24th Aug. the British

campaign assumed a defensive character, and in spite of Sir Ian Hamilton's

representations the War Office declined to waste further men and material

on it. On 15th Oct. Sir Ian Hamilton was recalled, and Sir Charles Munro,

who reported that the expedition should be abandoned, was supported by Lord

Kitchener after personal inspection of the surroundings. The evacuation was

carried out with remarkable success on 18th Dec. and 8th Jan. (1916). The

cost of the expedition in men was 31,389 killed, 78,749 wounded, and 9708

missing.

[Illustration: Map showing approximately the area in the Southern Zone

evacuated in Jan., 1916]

_Mesopotamian Campaign_

The Mesopotamian campaign ran contemporaneously in part with the

Dardanelles operations, and in part with the campaign between Erzerum and

the Caucasus in Armenia, in which Russia co-operated. A small British

force, sent out to the Persian Gulf in 1914, occupied Basra (22nd Nov.) and

pushed outposts forward to the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates.

General Sir John Nixon took command (Jan., 1915), and in April (11th to

14th), following a Turkish attack, the British force, now a division

strong, advanced to Shaiba, and on 31st May took Kurna. Amara, on the

Tigris, capitulated to General Townshend (3rd June), who was empowered to

push forward an advance column, while another column, under General

Gorringe, beat the Turks at Nasiriyeh (24th July). At this time the

Russians were on the headwaters of the Euphrates.

Fired by these successes, General Nixon ordered Townshend to seize Kut if

possible. It was so dangerous an enterprise that probably the Turks did not

believe that it would be attempted. But Townshend traversed the difficult

country in six weeks, arriving within striking distance of the Turkish

forces under Nur-ed-Din Bey on 15th Sept., and, in a very capably devised

and executed engagement on 27th and 28th Sept., drove them before him.

Townshend, against his own better judgment, was then sent forward to

attempt the impossible feat of pushing on to the Turkish base of Bagdad. He

arrived in front of their advanced position, Ctesiphon, on 22nd Nov., and

attacked it with his four brigades, one of which was a reinforcement, and

his rather scanty cavalry and artillery. The first line of the defences was

carried, but Nur-ed-Din, who had retired on his supports, counter-attacked,

and in spite of Townshend's resistance compelled him to retreat (25th Nov.)

by way of Azizieh, fighting heavy rear-guard actions all the way to Kut

(3rd Dec.). Townshend's force suffered severely and lost part of its river

transport. By 5th Dec. it was invested in Kut, and after two unsuccessful

attempts to carry the town by force (8th and 23rd Dec.), the Turks sat down

to starve it out. Townshend's mixed force of British and Indians, ill-fed

and assailed by beri-beri and scurvy, endured the siege for 145 days, till

29th April, 1916, when it surrendered to Khalil Pasha. The prisoners were

at first well treated, but most of them were compelled to march through

Mesopotamia, Armenia, and Anatolia to prisoners' camps, and many died from

their hardships.

An attempt to relieve Kut failed. It was made by Generals Aylmer and

Younghusband, whose relief expedition set out on 3rd Jan., 1916. An

engagement was fought on 8th Jan., and a pitched battle at the Shatt-el-Hai

on 8th March. This failed, when on the brink of success, through want of

luck or enterprise at the critical moment. Several changes were made in the

Mesopotamia leadership after the impossibility of relieving Kut had become

apparent, and in Aug., 1916, General Stanley Maude took over the command.

The attention drawn to the blunders, and the scandals of medical assistance

and transport, enabled General Maude to begin his task by rectifying them,

and he built light railways from Basra. He made his first move forward on

12th Dec., 1916, and the history of the Mesopotamian campaign then entered

on a brighter epoch, a result due to Maude's deliberate, bold, and prudent

generalship. Contact began on 5th Jan.; the right bank below Kut was

cleared by 15th-16th Jan.; and by 23rd Feb. Kut itself was so far encircled

that the Turks had no option but to abandon it with guns and prisoners.

Maude resumed his advance on 5th March, and by 11th March had manoeuvred

the Turks out of Bagdad as he had forced them out of Kut. The integrity of

the Mesopotamian Turkish force had been destroyed, and its portions

distributed at points believed to be out of Maude's reach. One of these was

at Ramadie, but a dashing night-march captured the Turkish commander and

3400 prisoners (28th Sept., 1917). Other successes were gained at Tekrit

and the Jebel Hamrin hills before Sir Stanley Maude died of cholera (18th

Nov.). He was succeeded by General Marshall, who, in 1918, occupied Hit on

the Euphrates, and ended the Mesopotamian campaign with a crushing victory

at Mosul just before the Armistice.

[Illustration: Map showing the converging lines of the main British

advances in Mesopotamia and Palestine at the points reached on 31st Oct.,

1918]

_Palestine Campaign_

Turkey assumed the offensive against Egypt, of which the Sultans were

nominally suzerains, by an attempt to force the Suez Canal in Feb., 1915. A

force under Djemal Pasha made a dash across the 150 miles of the Sinai

Peninsula from Palestine, and was in a position to attack Ismailia and the

Bitter Lakes on 2nd Feb. The ample Imperial troops on the spot enabled

General Marshall to beat off the attack with ease, but the raiders were not

pursued. An attempt on a more concerted scale was made in 1916, though at

this time the Turkish garrisons in the Hejaz were having difficulties with

the Arabs. A base was established at El Arish, and on 3rd Aug. a

well-equipped force of 18,000 advanced to attack Major-General Lawrence's

outposts at Romani, in the north of the Sinai Peninsula. The attack was

beaten off, and General Sir A. Murray's main body of Australians, New

Zealanders, Yeomanry, Territorials, and the 52nd Division coming up,

counter-attacked and drove the Turks back 18 miles, inflicting a loss of

4000 prisoners and 4 guns. Between the 6th and 12th Aug. General Murray

improved on his victory, and advanced steadily to Mazar (16th Sept.) and El

Arish, evacuated by the Turks (20th Dec.). On 22nd Dec. an attack was made

by one of the desert columns on Magdhaba, and the whole Turkish force of

3000 destroyed or captured.

On 9th Jan., 1917, the columns under Generals Dobell and Chetwode reached

Rafa, the Mediterranean port on the southern borders of Palestine. A pipe

line conveying water and a railway followed close on General Murray's

advance, and by the middle of March, 1917, these had reached Rafa, enabling

an advance to be begun in Palestine, with Gaza as the immediate objective.

The first battle of Gaza began on 26th March. It was a failure. Chetwode's

mounted forces, including the Australians, moved in a wide detour round

Gaza, which was entered while Dobell's infantry attacked the main Turkish

positions. But the infantry thrust was not strong enough to penetrate the

opposition offered to it, and after two days' fighting the attack was

called off. Water was short, and General Murray suspended further attack

till 19th April, when, as frequently happened, the Turks, having been

reinforced and established in good positions, fought well and beat off the

assailants.

Sir A. Murray and General Dobell left the Palestine operations, and General

Sir E. Allenby was sent out to organize a subsequent advance when the

opportunity was propitious. He was reinforced; the communications were

improved through the summer; and on 31st Oct. he surprised the Turks by

making a diversion towards Beersheba while demonstrating towards Gaza.

Beersheba was rushed by the Australians, and Allenby's right secured. He

then sent the 52nd Division to a point between Gaza and the sea while

occupying Ali Muntar, and from these two vantage points shelled the Turks

out (7th Nov.). It was the decision of the Allied War Council at Versailles

in the autumn of 1917 that Allenby, strongly reinforced, should put the

Turks out of the war by one decisive blow, since they were already in

straits by reason of losses in their numerous campaigns, including those

against the Arabs of the Hejaz, which had been organized by the Emir Feisul

and Colonel T. E. Lawrence. Accordingly, the Turks were pursued through

Ascalon and Ashdod to Jaffa (16th Nov.). Allenby's main columns pressed on

more slowly between Beersheba and Hebron (7th Dec.), but entered Jerusalem

on 9th Dec., after disposing of an ineffective Turkish stand on the day

before. The operations were practically suspended after the Jordan had been

crossed at the end of March, 1918, when it became necessary to recall some

of the best British divisions to France to meet the last German onslaught

in France and Flanders.

When this had been disposed of, Allenby, who had been supplied with Indian

divisions, and who, in Sept., 1918, was much superior in forces and

artillery to the Turks, resumed his attack (19th Sept.). Facing him were

the Turkish Seventh and Eighth Armies in front of Shechem, and the Turkish

Fourth Army east of Jordan. A heavy artillery preparation ushered in a

frontal infantry attack which tore a gap in the Turkish right and right

centre, and through it the cavalry swept north across the Plain of Sharon

to reach and seize the passes at Megiddo. Another infantry attack pinned

the Eighth Army on the Jordan. The Turks began to retreat too late, for the

Imperial cavalry, pouring through the Megiddo passes, crossed the plain of

Esdraelon and barred every avenue of retreat on the western side of Jordan.

They only missed the capture of General Liman von Sanders at Nazareth by a

few hours.

The Turkish armies were in effect destroyed, for on the eastern side of

Jordan the Arab cavalry of the Emir Feisul had turned the line of retreat

there, and had cut the Hejaz railway running to Damascus. In less than a

week the Turkish Seventh and Eighth Armies were wiped out, and 10,000 of

the Fourth Army surrendered at Rabboth Amman (29th Sept.). Haifa and Acre

on the coast fell as fast as the Imperial cavalry could reach them.

Damascus was entered by the Australians on 1st Oct. Beirut fell a few days

later, and by the end of October General Allenby had reached Aleppo. The

Turkish Cabinet immediately entered into negotiations, Enver Pasha and

Talaat Pasha having been replaced. An armistice was signed on 30th Oct. at

Mudros, and Turkey was out of the war. It may be added that Talaat Pasha,

who was responsible for the massacres of the Armenians, was killed in

Berlin by an Armenian student in 1921.

_The War in Germany's Colonies_

Within a few weeks of the outbreak of hostilities the war had been carried

to all the scattered possessions of Germany in Africa, the Pacific, and the

Far East. Among the first to fall were German Samoa (occupied by the New

Zealand troops on 29th Aug.); the islands of the Bismarck Archipelago and

German New Guinea (occupied by the Australians on 11th-13th Sept.); and the

more northerly islands of the Pacific, surrendered at the beginning of

October to a Japanese squadron. These last were at once handed over by

Japan to Australia. Japan, faithful to her alliance with Great Britain, had

declared war against Germany on 23rd Aug., and attacked the formidable

German post of Kiao-Chau, 'the key to Northern China', which had been

seized by Germany on the flimsiest pretext in 1898. Japan invested

Kiao-Chau--garrisoned by 6000 well-armed men, with powerful defences--with

a force of 23,000 troops under General Kamio, supported by a small British

contingent of South Wales Borderers and Sikhs under General Bernardiston.

After a six weeks' siege, and a preliminary bombardment preparatory to

launching a final assault, the garrison capitulated (7th Nov.).[4]

The remainder of Germany's colonies were in Africa, where the campaigns

resulting in their conquest varied from a few weeks to the whole length of

the war. The shortest was in Togoland, which surrendered unconditionally to

a Franco-British force under Colonel Bryant on 27th Aug., 1914, after a

brisk little campaign lasting just three weeks. The Cameroons, larger than

the Fatherland, took much longer to subdue, and the operations were of a

more arduous nature. A false start was made from Nigeria with insufficient

forces, which met with disaster towards the end of August. A more adequate

expedition was then organized under General C. M. Dobell, in co-operation

with French forces under General Aymerich. Duala, the capital, was occupied

on 27th Sept., but it was only after desultory fighting for a year and a

half that the Germans, realizing the hopelessness of further resistance,

left the colony to its fate by retreating into the neighbouring Spanish

territory of Rio Muni.

The campaign in German South-West Africa was held up at first by the revolt

in South Africa, which had to be crushed before General Botha was free to

give his undivided attention to the task which he had offered to undertake

in proof of the Union's loyalty. A preliminary move had been made in

September by the occupation of the coastal harbours, Luderitz Bay and

Swakopmund, from which the Germans retired to concentrate in Windhoek,

their capital inland. A 'regrettable incident' occurred on 26th Sept.,

1914, when a British patrol was attacked at Sandfontein and a small relief

force compelled to surrender. This was followed by news of the revolt of

Maritz, who had been partly responsible for the reverse at Sandfontein; and

the small civil war which followed in South Africa, though nipped in the

bud by the sterling loyalty of most South Africans, served to postpone the

conquest of German South-West Africa until the following year.

When the campaign began in earnest in the spring of 1915, the whole

south-eastern part of the German colony had already been cleared by Colonel

van Deventer, whose desert march with three separate columns in these

preliminary operations was one of the outstanding achievements of the

campaign. In the great converging march which followed, led in the south by

General Smuts, and in the north by General Botha, with columns consisting

largely of mounted burghers from the Transvaal and Orange Free State, the

Germans were outfought and outmanoeuvred throughout. The advance began on

27th April, and by 5th May Botha, building a light railway with supplies

behind him, entered Karibib without opposition, and Windhoek a week later,

the Germans, 5000 strong but greatly outnumbered, withdrawing the bulk of

their forces to the north. Twice they proposed an armistice, offering

terms, but the only terms that Botha would agree to implied unconditional

surrender. Having rested and refitted his men after this trying trek across

country from Swakopmund, he proceeded to enforce these terms by a series of

remarkable marching feats, with his own columns in the centre and those of

Brits and Myburgh to left and right respectively, starting on 18th June. In

less than a week Botha's force had covered 100 miles and captured

Otyiwarango; on 1st July, after a brief rest, his infantry were in touch

with the enemy's main force, entrenched from Otavi to Tsumeb, with Brits

and Myburgh sweeping round on either side. On 8th July all resistance

collapsed with the total surrender of the Germans under Colonel Franks, the

military commandant. The whole campaign in South-West Africa did not cost

us more than 140 lives, and total casualties amounting to 1200.

The conquest of German East Africa was a very different affair. It was

opposed by a force which, at its maximum, could muster 25,000 well-drilled

troops--2000 of them Europeans--with 60 guns and machine-guns, and

sufficient supplies of ammunition; the whole commanded by von

Lettow-Vorbeck, a leader of resource and inflexible determination. When, at

the outbreak of war, the British cruisers _Astraea_ and _Pegasus_ bombarded

Dar-es-Salaam and destroyed the wireless station, the Germans retaliated by

crippling the _Pegasus_, then lying at Mombasa, with their fast cruiser

_Koenigsberg_, which had fled to East Africa after escaping the fate of the

rest of von Spee's squadron off the Falkland Islands. They also raided the

Uganda railway, occupied Taveta on the British East African border, and

threatened an advance on Mombasa along the coast. This was checked by the

arrival of British reinforcements, naval and military, the naval units of

which forced the _Koenigsberg_ to seek the shelter of the Rufigi River,

where, as already stated, she was afterwards destroyed.

A second expeditionary force under General Aitken was brought from India in

the closing months of the year, and ordered to land at the northern German

port of Tanga, with the object of cutting off the enemy troops operating on

the British border. The magnitude of the task had been gravely

under-estimated. Landing on 4th Nov. in difficult bush country--familiar

enough to the defenders, but an impenetrable maze to the landing force--the

attempt ended in disaster, costing some 800 casualties before the

expedition re-embarked. Another blow was dealt by von Lettow-Vorbeck early

in 1915 (19th Jan.) when he recaptured Jassin, gallantly held to the last

by Indian troops under Colonel Ragbir Singh; but in the same month he lost

one of his chief ports on Victoria Nyanza; in the following May other

British forces captured Sphinxhaven after an action by armed steamers; and

a blockade was declared of the German East African coast, where the Island

of Mafia, off the mouth of the Rufigi River, was also seized. Several

blockade-runners succeeded in getting through to von Lettow-Vorbeck with

much-needed supplies of ammunition; and with Britain's hands full to

overflowing with other campaigns, the main German forces in East Africa had

perforce to be left until Botha had completed the conquest of South-West

Africa, and the Union was free to lend a hand in expelling the Germans from

the last and most valuable of their colonies.

[Illustration: Map illustrating the blockade of the German East African

Coast--the shaded area--and the military operations early in 1915]

When at length the new expeditionary force was nearly ready, the command

was given to General Smith-Dorrien, but he was forced to relinquish it

through ill-health shortly after landing in Africa. His place was filled by

General Smuts, who arrived on the scene in Feb., 1916, and started his

campaign in the following month by clearing the enemy from the British

borderland and the Kilimanjaro district. Much valuable spade-work had been

previously done in this direction by General Tighe as a preliminary to

sweeping the enemy's main forces southwards, while the Belgians from the

Belgian Congo cleared his north-western province of Ruanad, and British

forces drove his garrisons from the shores of Victoria Nyanza. The first

stage in the new campaign was closed when Smuts established his

head-quarters at Moshi, where he reorganized his force in three divisions,

one (British and Indian) under Hoskins, the other two (South African) under

van Deventer and Brits. Van Deventer's force had the hardest task in

clearing the Germans from Kondoa Irangi on his march to the central

railway, von Lettow-Vorbeck making his one great defensive stand in this

direction. Van Deventer, however, was too quick for him; beat off his

counter-attack after the capture of Kondoa Irangi (19th April, 1916); and

struck hard when he attempted to bar the progress of Smuts's other two

columns, which, after clearing the Gare and Usambara mountains in May and

June, had pushed into the Nguru hills from Kangata. By this time the

Germans realized that they were outmatched both in strategy and numbers,

and the bulk of them would probably have shortened the war but for von

Lettow-Vorbeck, who was determined to hold out, if possible, until the fate

of Germany's 'place in the sun' had been decided on the battlefields of

Europe. More than once it seemed as though he could not escape the wide net

which Smuts flung out to trap him, but he proved as elusive as De Wet in

the South African War, usually escaping with his diminishing forces through

tracks unknown to his pursuers.

All the railways and ports were lost during the remainder of 1916.

Dar-es-Salaam, the capital, surrendering on 3rd Sept. Towards the end of

that year the Belgians from the Congo under General Tombeur drove the enemy

from Tabora, on the central railway; British troops under General Northey

helped in the converging movement from Northern Rhodesia--which had been

invaded by the Germans at the beginning of the war--by advancing as far as

Iringa. In the extreme south some Portuguese had also joined in the

movement by an advance across the Rovuma River, but were forced back by a

German column, and punished by raiding parties in their own territory.

The campaign seemed practically over at the beginning of 1917, when General

Smuts was summoned to Great Britain to share in an imperial conference, and

General Hoskins was left to account for the remainder of the enemy, now

hemmed in on nearly all sides in the south-eastern corner of the colony,

with von Lettow-Vorbeck's head-quarters at Mahenge. Torrential rains came

to the Germans' rescue, and little progress had been made before Hoskins,

called away to another theatre of war, was succeeded by General van

Deventer in May (1917). Guerrilla warfare continued throughout the year, in

which both sides suffered heavily, but it was not until 1st Dec. that van

Deventer could report that the former Germany colony was at length clear of

the enemy. Forced out of Mahenge (occupied by the Belgians on 9th Oct.),

the Germans retired in two main bodies towards the Portuguese frontier, one

under Tafel, which was cut off and compelled to surrender on 26th Nov., and

the other under von Lettow-Vorbeck, which contrived to escape across the

border and continue the war in Mozambique for nearly another year. Allied

columns pursued the remnants unceasingly, but could never get to real grips

with them in the difficult bush country between the Rovuma and the Zambesi.

Towards the end of September, 1918, von Lettow-Vorbeck dashed back,

recrossed the Rovuma, and coolly marched across the south-western corner of

German East Africa into Northern Rhodesia, where he was being finally

rounded up when news arrived of the Armistice. It was not, however, until

12th Nov. that the German leader was able to comply with the Armistice

terms of unconditional surrender on his part, tendering his submission to

the British magistrate at Kasama. In recognition of their "gallant and

prolonged resistance", von Lettow-Vorbeck and his officers were permitted

by General van Deventer to retain their swords, while the European rank and

file were allowed to carry their arms as far as Dar-es-Salaam.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Earl French, _Despatches_; Earl Haig, _Despatches_ (edited by

Lieutenant-Colonel J. H. Boraston); Sir Julian Corbett, _The Official

History of the War: Naval Operations_; Viscount Jellicoe, _The Grand Fleet,

1914-1916_, and _The Crisis of the Naval War_; Filson Young, _With the

Battle Cruisers_; F. A. Mumby and others, _The Great World War_ (9 vols.);

_The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War_ (21 vols.); A. F. Pollard,

_A Short History of the Great War_; Lord Edward Gleichen, _Chronology of

the War_; Thomas G. Frothingham, _A Guide to the Military History of the

World War, 1914-1918_; Sir James Willcocks, _With the Indians in France_;

W. T. Massey, _How Jerusalem was Won_, and _Allenby's Final Triumph_; John

Masefield, _Gallipoli_; Sir Ian Hamilton, _Gallipoli Diary_; Sir Charles

Townshend, _My Campaign in Mesopotamia_; V. J. Seligman, _The Salonica

Side-Show_; Angus Buchanan, _Three Years of War in East Africa_; Boyd

Cable, _Airmen o' War_; J. F. C. Fuller, _Tanks in the Great War; Germany's

Violation of the Laws of War, 1914-1915_ (translated from the French

Official Records); _Ypres, 1914_ (published by order of German General

Staff, translated by G. C. W.); Theobald Bethmann-Hollweg, _Reflections on

the World War_ (translated by G. Young); General Ludendorff, _My War

Memories, 1914-1918_; Marshal von Hindenburg, _Out of my Life_ (translated

by F. A. Holt); Count Czernin, _In the World War_.

EUROTIUM. See _Plectascineae_.

EURYDICE ([=u]-rid'i-s[=e]), in Greek mythology, the wife of Orpheus

(q.v.).

EUSE'BIUS, of Caesarea, the father of ecclesiastical history, a Greek

writer, born in Palestine about A.D. 265, died about 340. About 315 he was

appointed Bishop of Caesarea. When the Arian controversy broke out,

Eusebius showed considerable sympathy with Arius. At the Council of Nicaea

(A.D. 325), when Arian doctrines were condemned, he took a leading part.

His ecclesiastical history (_Historia Ecclesiastica_) extends from the

birth of Christ to 324. Amongst his other extant works is a life of

Constantine the Great, which may be said to continue his ecclesiastical

history to within a few years of the writer's own death.

EUSPORANGIATE FERNS, those in which the sporangium is a massive organ

arising from several cells, whereas in leptosporangiate ferns it is a more

delicate structure derived from a single superficial cell. The bulk of

living ferns are leptosporangiate, the eusporangiate class comprising only

two living families, viz. the Marattiaceae and Ophioglossaceae, as well as

many extinct types. The eusporangiate types include the more primitive

ferns; all the other main groups of Pteridophytes, and the seed-plants are

also eusporangiate.

EUSTACHIAN TUBE, in anatomy, a canal leading from the pharynx to the

tympanum of the ear.

EUSTACHIO, Bartolomeo, Italian physician and anatomist, born soon after

1500, died about 1574. He devoted himself to medical science and in

particular to anatomy, which he much enriched by his researches. Amongst

his discoveries were the _eustachian tube_ and the eustachian valve of the

heart.

EUSTATIUS, ST., or ST. EUSTACHE ISLAND, a Dutch island in the W. Indies,

one of the Leeward Islands, 11 miles north-west of St. Christopher's,

pyramidal in form; area, 8 sq. miles. Sugar, cotton, and maize are raised;

but the principal production is tobacco. The climate is healthy, but

earthquakes are frequent. Pop. 1431.

EUTER'PE, (1) one of the Muses, considered as presiding over lyric poetry,

the invention of the flute being ascribed to her. She is usually

represented as a virgin crowned with flowers, having a flute in her hand.

(2) In botany, a genus of palms, natives of South America, sometimes nearly

100 feet in height.

EUTHANASIA, literally, a painless or easy death, a term often used in

connection with the theory or proposal that it should be lawful to

administer drugs to bring about a painless death, in the case of persons

suffering from painful and hopeless diseases.

EUTRO'PIUS, Flavius, a Latin historian, who flourished about A.D. 360. His

abridgment of the history of Rome (_Breviarium Historiae Romanae_) is

written in a perspicuous style, and is often read, or rather spelled out

word by word, by beginners in Latin. It is of little or no authority as a

history.

EUTYCHES ([=u]'ti-k[=e]z), a Greek heresiarch who lived in the fifth

century after Christ. He was superior of a monastery near Constantinople,

and his heresy consisted in maintaining that after the incarnation there

was only a divine nature in Christ under the appearance of a human body.

The doctrines of Eutyches were condemned by the Council of Chalcedon in

451, and he was expelled from his monastery. He died not long afterwards.

His followers were often called Monophysites (Gr. _monos_, single,

_physis_, nature) as well as Eutychians.

EUXANTHINE, a substance supposed to be derived from the bile or urine of

the buffalo, camel, or elephant. It comes from India under the name of

purree or Indian yellow, and is used as a pigment.

EUX'INE (_Pontus Eux[=i]nus_), the ancient name for the Black Sea.

EVANGEL'ICAL, a term often used to qualify certain theological views,

especially strict views on the question of the atonement, justification by

faith, the inspiration and authority of the Scriptures, and allied

doctrines. In England the so-called Low Church party is evangelical in its

views. In a more general sense the word implies a peculiar fervency and

earnestness in insisting on such doctrines as regeneration and redemption.

The 'Evangelical Church' is the official title of the Established Church of

Prussia, formed in 1817 by the union of Lutherans and Calvinists.

EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, an association of members of different sections of

the Christian Church, organized in London in 1845, to lend its influence in

favour of evangelical doctrines, religious union and liberty, and against

superstition and unbelief. The Alliance, incorporated in 1912, has branches

throughout the world, the American branch being especially strong, and has

held meetings at Paris, Berlin, Amsterdam, Geneva, New York, Copenhagen,

Florence, and London. A week of united prayer is held in London in the

early part of January each year. The organ of the Alliance, _Evangelical

Christendom_, is published in London.

EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION, a body of American Christians, chiefly of German

descent, established about the beginning of the last century. In form of

government and mode of worship it generally agrees with the Methodist

Episcopal Church.

EVANGELICAL UNION, the name of a religious sect, also familiarly known as

the Morisonians, from the Rev. James Morison, its originator. It took rise

in Scotland in 1840, and three years afterwards organized itself as a

separate Christian denomination. The Morisonians maintain the universality

of the atonement, combining with this the doctrine of eternal personal and

unconditional election, and denying that anyone will be condemned for

Adam's fall. In point of government the individual Churches are

independent. The body has now only a few adherents, the majority having

united in 1896 with the Congregationalists.

EVAN'GELISTS, the writers of the history or doctrines, precepts, actions,

life, and death of Christ; in particular, the _four evangelists_, Matthew,

Mark, Luke, and John. The ancient symbols of the four evangelists are: for

Matthew, _a man's face_; for Mark, _a lion_; for Luke, _an ox_; and for

John, _a flying eagle_.

EV'ANS, Sir Arthur John, born in 1851, son of Sir John Evans. He was

educated at Harrow, Oxford, and Goettingen, is a distinguished

archaeologist, as well as an investigator into the history and affairs of

Eastern Europe, and in particular has made important investigations and

discoveries in Crete. He has travelled in Finland, Lapland, and the Balkan

countries, and has written works connected with these travels and with his

archaeological researches. From 1884 to 1908 he was keeper of the Ashmolean

Museum, Oxford. He was knighted in 1911, and was president of the British

Association 1916-7. Among his works are: _Through Bosnia_, and _Scripta

Minoa_.

EVANS, Sir George de Lacy, a British general, born at Moig, in Ireland, in

1787, died 9th Jan., 1870. After some years of service in India, he joined

the army of Wellington in the Peninsula in 1812, where he served with

distinction. In 1814 he was sent to America, and was present at the battles

of Bladensburg and New Orleans, returning to Europe in time to take part in

Waterloo. In 1830 and 1831 he was elected member for Rye, and in 1833 for

Westminster. In 1835 he was appointed to the command of 10,000 troops

raised in Britain on behalf of the Queen of Spain. Under the training of

Evans this force became an excellent army, and several times defeated the

Carlists. During the Crimean War he distinguished himself as commander of

the second division of the English army, and received the thanks of the

House and other honours.

EVANS, Sir John, English archaeologist, born in 1823, died in 1908, was an

active member of a firm of paper-makers, but eventually retired from

business and devoted himself chiefly to scientific pursuits, being

distinguished as a geologist, numismatist, and antiquarian. From 1878 till

1896 he was treasurer of the Royal Society; in 1897 he was president at the

Toronto meeting of the British Association. He was created a K.C.B. in

1892. His chief works are: _The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons, and

Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland_; and _The Ancient Bronze

Implements, Weapons, and Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland_.

EV'ANSTON, a city of the United States, Illinois, 13 miles from Chicago. It

is pleasantly situated on Lake Michigan. It is the seat of the

North-Western University and other institutions. Pop. 37,215.

EV'ANSVILLE, a town in the United States, in Indiana, pleasantly situated

on a height above the Ohio. It contains some handsome buildings, including

custom-house and post office. Coal and iron abound in the vicinity, and

there are numerous factories, flour-mills, and iron-foundries, and a large

shipping trade. Pop. 85,264.

EVAPORATION, the process of changing a liquid into vapour, which goes on at

the surface of the liquid. When evaporation takes place into a closed space

above the liquid, a state is reached in which the space is saturated with

vapour, and no further change is apparent. Certain conditions influence the

rate at which evaporation takes place in the open, such as the extent of

the exposed surface, the dryness, pressure, and temperature of the air, and

the presence or absence of wind. The farmer looks for a drying wind to dry

his corn-sheaves before they are carted from the field. Evaporation is

always accompanied by an absorption of heat by the vapour, namely the

latent heat necessary for the change of state from liquid to vapour. This

heat is abstracted from the liquid, which, as a consequence, falls in

temperature, and neighbouring bodies may also be cooled. A bather emerging

from the water experiences this cooling as the water evaporates from his

skin. In hot countries, water is kept cool by being placed in porous

earthenware jars: the evaporation which takes place at the outer surface

prevents the water in the jar from becoming too warm. The continual

evaporation from land and water surfaces is the cause of the presence of

water in the atmosphere, whether in the form of invisible vapour or of

cloud, mist, fog, rain, hail, or snow. The cooling caused by evaporation is

applied in industry in the case of the ammonia compression machine, in

working refrigerating plant for the preservation of food-stuffs, and in the

manufacture of artificial ice. When evaporation takes place at the surface

of a dry solid, the process is called sublimation, and it may be observed

in the cases of iodine, camphor, and ice.

EV'ELYN, John, an English writer of the seventeenth century, born at

Wotton, in Surrey, 31st Oct., 1620, died there, 27th Feb., 1706. After

completing his course at Oxford, he studied law at the Middle Temple,

visited various parts of the Continent, and in 1659 prepared the way for

the Restoration. He published numerous works, amongst which are:

_Sculptura, or the History and Art of Chalcography_; _Sylva, or a Discourse

of Forest Trees_; treatises on gardening and architecture. But by far his

most important work is his memoirs, comprehending a diary and

correspondence, which are interesting contributions to the history of the

time. Evelyn's _Diary_ was first published in 1818, and an edition by

Austin Dobson appeared in 1906.--Cf. H. Maynard Smith, _The Early Life of

John Evelyn_.

EVENING-PRIMROSE, Oenoth[)e]ra, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Onagraceae.

_Oe. biennis_, an American species common in cottage gardens, is not

infrequent as an escaped plant in England.

EV'EREST, MOUNT, the highest summit of the Himalayas and the loftiest

mountain in the world, 29,002 feet. It was named after Sir George Everest

(1790-1866), chief of the great Indian trigonometrical survey and

Surveyor-General of India. In 1921 an expedition set out to climb the

mountain.

EV'ERETT, Alexander Hill, an American diplomatist, born at Boston in 1792,

died at Canton in 1847. After studying at Harvard, in 1809 he accompanied

John Quincy Adams to St. Petersburg (Petrograd) as Secretary of Legation.

He afterwards filled successive diplomatic posts in the Netherlands, Spain,

and elsewhere. He was the author, amongst other works, of _Europe, or a

General Survey of the Present Situation of the Principal Powers_ (1822);

and a similar work on America.

EVERETT, Edward, an American statesman and author, brother of the

preceding, born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, 11th April, 1794, died at

Boston, 15th Jan., 1865. After travelling for some years in Germany and

England, he returned to America in 1819 to occupy the chair of Greek

literature at Harvard. He became editor of the _North American Review_, and

entering the political world became successively member of Congress,

Governor of Massachusetts, and Minister Plenipotentiary in England

(1841-5). In 1845 he was appointed president of Harvard College; in 1852

Secretary of State; in 1853 a Senator. He wrote poems; a _Defence of

Christianity_, and his speeches and orations have been published.

EVERGREEN, a plant that retains its verdure through all the seasons, as the

fir, the holly, the laurel, the cedar, the cypress, the juniper, the

holm-oak, and many others. Evergreens shed their old leaves in the spring

or summer, after the new foliage has been formed, and consequently are

verdant through all the winter season. They form a considerable part of the

shrubs commonly cultivated in gardens, and are beautiful at all seasons of

the year.

[Illustration: Everlasting Flower (_Helichrysum sentii_)]

EVERLASTING-FLOWERS, a name applied to certain plants which, when dried,

suffer little change in their appearance. The plants to which this name is

peculiarly applied belong to the genus Helichrysum, but it is also given to

members of allied genera, such as Antennaria or Gnaphalium.

EVERLASTING-PEA, a popular name for _Lathyrus latifolius_, cultivated in

flower-gardens, and belonging to the same genus as the sweet-pea.

EVERSION OF THE EYELIDS (Ectropion), is a turning outward of the eyelids,

and it may be congenital or acquired. The latter follows severe infection

of the hair-follicles of the eyelashes.

EVESHAM ([=e]vz'am), a town in England, in the county and 15 miles S.E. of

Worcester, beautifully situated on the Avon, and giving name to a

parliamentary division of the county. It was the seat of a monastery as

early as the eighth century. Simon de Montfort was defeated by the Royal

troops at Evesham on 4th Aug., 1265. Pop. 8685.

EVICTION, the dispossession of a person from the occupancy of lands or

tenements. The term occurs most commonly in connection with the proceedings

by which a landlord ejects his tenant for non-payment of rent or on

determination of the tenancy. In the case of eviction of tenants in

Ireland, generally for non-payment of rent, the tenants are frequently

readmitted as care-takers, or under some other title. The Rent Restrictions

Act, 1920, operative until 1923, severely curtails a landlord's common law

rights to recover possession of certain premises at the time when, but for

the Act, the tenancy would expire.

EVIDENCE is that which makes evident, which enables the mind to see truth.

It may be (_a_) _intuitive_, i.e. resting on the direct testimony of

consciousness, of perception or memory, or on fundamental principles of the

human intellect; or it may be (_b_) _demonstrative_, i.e. in a strict

sense, proofs which establish with certainty as in mathematical science

certain conclusions; or it may be (_c_) _probable_, under which class are

ranked _moral evidence_, _legal evidence_, and generally every kind of

evidence which, though it may be sufficient to satisfy the mind, is not an

absolutely certain and incontrovertible demonstration.

In jurisprudence evidence is classified into that which is _direct_ and

_positive_ and that which is _presumptive_ and _circumstantial_. The former

is that which is proved by some writing containing a positive statement of

the facts and binding the party whom it affects; or that which is proved by

some witness, who has, and avers himself to have, positive knowledge

thereof by means of his senses. Whenever the fact is not so directly and

positively established, but is deduced from other facts in evidence, it is

_presumptive_ and _circumstantial_ only. The following are the leading

rules regarding evidence in a court of law:

(1) The point in issue is to be proved by the party who asserts the

affirmative. But where one person charges another with a culpable omission

this rule will not apply, the person who makes the charge being bound to

prove it. (2) The best evidence must be given of which the nature of the

thing is capable. (3) Hearsay evidence of a fact is not admissible. The

principal exceptions to this rule are--death-bed declarations, evidence in

questions of pedigree, public right, custom boundaries, declarations

against interest, declarations which accompany the facts or are part of the

_res gestae_, &c. (4) Insane persons and idiots are incompetent to be

witnesses. But persons temporarily insane are in their lucid intervals

received as witnesses. Children are admissible as witnesses as soon as they

have a competent share of understanding and know and feel the nature of an

oath and of the obligation to speak the truth.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. F.

Stephen, _Digest of the Law of Evidence_; W. M. Best, _Law of Evidence_.

EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY. These may be divided broadly into two great

classes, viz. _external evidences_, or the body of historical testimonies

to the Christian revelation; and _internal evidences_, or arguments drawn

from the nature of Christianity itself as exhibited in its teachings and

effects, in favour of its divine origin. The first Christian

apologies--those of Justin Martyr, Minucius Felix, and Tertullian, written

in the second century--were mainly intended as justifications of the

Christian religion against the charges of atheism and immorality commonly

made at that time. Of a more philosophical kind, and dealing more

comprehensively with the principles of religion and belief in general, are

the works of Origen, Arnobius, and Augustine in the centuries immediately

succeeding. During the Middle Ages, the scientific representation of

Christianity is mostly the work of the schoolmen occupied in welding

Aristotelian or Platonic philosophy with the fabric of Christian dogmatics,

or writing attacks on the Jewish and Mohammedan faiths.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the influences of the

Renaissance and the Reformation gave rise to a spirit of inquiry and

criticism which developed English deism as represented by Herbert and

Hobbes in the seventeenth century, and Collins and Bolingbroke in the

eighteenth. The general position of English deism was the acceptance of the

belief in the existence of God, and the profession of natural religion

along with opposition to the mysteries and special claims of Christianity.

It was in confutation of this position that the great English works on the

evidences of Christianity of Butler, Berkeley, and Cudworth were written.

In France the new spirit of inquiry was represented by Diderot, D'Holbach,

and the encyclopedists in general, who assailed Christianity mainly on the

ground that it was founded on imposture and superstition, and maintained by

sacerdotal trickery and hypocrisy. No reply of any great value was produced

in the French Church, although in the previous age Pascal in his _Pensees_

had brought together some of the profoundest considerations yet offered in

favour of revealed religion. The nineteenth century has been distinguished

by the strongly rationalistic spirit of its criticism. The works of such

writers as Strauss, Bauer, and Feuerbach, attempting to eliminate the

supernatural and the mysterious in the origin of Christianity, have been

answered by the works of Neander, Ebrard, and Ullmann on the other side.

The historical method of investigation, represented alike by the Hegelian

school and the Positivists and Agnostics in philosophy, and by the

Evolutionists in science, is the basis of the chief attacks of the present

time against the supernatural character of Christianity. The tendency of

all the critics is to hold that while Christianity is the highest and most

perfect development to which the religious spirit has yet attained, it

differs simply in degree of development from any other religion. Notable

amongst later apologists of Christianity have been Paley (_Natural

Theology_), Chalmers (_Natural Theology_), Mansel, Liddon, and

others.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. R. Illingworth, _Reason and Revelation_; A.

Garvie, _Handbook of Christian Apologetics_.

EVIL, ORIGIN OF. The difficulty of the question lies mainly in this, that

the existence of evil in the world seems inconsistent with the view that it

was created and is maintained by an omnipotent and beneficent creator. The

various theories on the subject have all sought to elude this difficulty

either by the supposition of some principle of evil equally eternal with

that of good, or by regarding evil as having only a relative existence,

being a kind of good in an imperfect and immature stage. Perhaps the oldest

theory upon this subject is that of Parseeism, or the religion of

Zoroaster, according to which there were two original principles, one good

(Ormuzd) and the other evil (Ahriman). This is the doctrine that is now

very often spoken of as Manichaeism, from the fact that it was adopted by

Manes, who attempted to engraft it on the doctrines of Christianity. In

contradistinction to this dualistic theory with reference to the origin of

evil stand the Monistic theories of Brahmanism and Platonism. According to

the Brahmanic doctrine of the emanation of all things from one original

being (Brahma), this original being was regarded as the sole true

existence, and the phenomenal world, with all the evils appearing in it,

was held to be mere illusion. Similarly, Plato held that the good was the

essence of all things, and that the evil and imperfect contained in them

had no real existence. The theory enunciated by Leibnitz in his _Theodicee_

resembles that of Plato. In that work he assigns to the evil existing in

the world created by God, which he holds to be the best of all possible

worlds, a merely relative existence. According to Plato, all that we call

evil is only evil to us because we do not see it in relation to the rest of

the universe, for in relation to the universe it is not evil but good, and

accordingly cannot be evil in its own nature. Another view on the subject

is that which neither assigns to the evil principle (as it does to God or

the good principle) an original existence, nor denies the real existence of

evil, but ascribes it to the exercise of man's free-will. Besides the

theoretical problem of the origin of evil, there is the practical one of

the elimination of evil which forms the subject of _Ethics_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:

H. Rashdall, _The Theory of Good and Evil_; B. Bosanquet, _The Value and

Destiny of the Individual_.

EVIL EYE, a power which, according to an old and widespread superstition,

resides in some people of doing injury to others by a mere look, or a look

accompanied by certain words or charms. This belief, common amongst the

ancients, is still prevalent among the more ignorant classes in Italy,

Russia, Andalusia, the Highlands of Scotland, and other places. The Finns,

Lapps, and Scandinavians, the Arabs and the Turks are all firm believers in

the evil eye.

EV'OLUTE. The evolute of a curve is the curve which is the envelope of all

its normals or the locus of all its centres of curvature. The first curve

is called the involute of the second. These names are given to the curves

because the end of a stretched thread unwound from the evolute will

describe the involute.

EVOLUTION, a term introduced into biological writings in the early part of

the eighteenth century to denote the mode of generation of living things.

At first it was used in the same sense as we now apply the word

development, more especially with reference to the process whereby the germ

of an animal or plant becomes transformed into the adult organism; but it

is now used in biology for the process by which more complex plants or

animals have been derived from a series of less specialized ancestors by

transformation. In accordance with the teaching of modern biology, all

living creatures are the progeny of one original group of microscopic

unicellular organisms, different branches of which during many millions of

years have become diversely modified in structure and function to form the

vast multitudes of diverse species of plants and animals with which we are

acquainted.

The idea of a transformation of one type of being into another is extremely

ancient, and its origin was in all probability genetically related to the

primitive conceptions which have survived to the present day in totemism

(q.v.) and such myths as the story of the were wolf. For once it was

believed that a totem-animal, like a cow or a pig, could give birth to

human beings, or that the Great Mother could at will assume a great variety

of living forms, ranging from a mollusc or a grain of barley to a higher

mammal, it was a comparatively simple step to arrange these potential

'ancestors' in a series, and provide mankind with a mythical genealogy. It

is possible that such beliefs may have suggested to the Greek philosophers,

such as Aristotle, speculations as to the process by which custom and

change of habit might modify the structure of animals. But it was not until

the end of the seventeenth century that the trend of philosophical

speculation, associated with the growing understanding of natural

processes, started lines of investigation which, after many failures,

eventually brought forth Charles Darwin's _Origin of Species_ in 1859, and

established once for all the fact that different species of animals and

plants have been produced by the differentiation of the progeny of the same

ultimate ancestors. The history of these events was admirably summarized by

Huxley in 1878 in an article _Evolution in Biology_, republished in

_Darwiniana_ (1893, p. 187); in this account due credit is given to the

pioneers of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, such as Lamarck,

and to Darwin's co-discoverer of the hypothesis of natural selection,

Alfred Russell Wallace.

At the present time there is a general concensus of opinion among serious

biologists, and, in fact, most educated men, as to the reality of

evolution; but there is wide divergence of opinion as to the exact

pedigrees of the various groups of plants and animals, and especially as to

the mechanisms whereby the processes of transformation have been effected.

The evidence that establishes the proof of evolution is of manifold kinds.

"The gradations of structure, from extreme simplicity to very great

complexity, presented by living things, and of the relation of these

graduated forms to one another. The existence of an analogy between the

series of gradations presented by the species which compose any great group

of animals or plants, and the species of embryonic conditions of the

highest members of that group. Large groups of species of widely different

habits present the same fundamental plan of structure; and parts of the

same animal or plant, the functions of which are very different, likewise

exhibit modifications of a common plan. Structures are found in a

rudimentary or apparently useless condition in one species of a group which

are fully developed and have definite functions in other species of the

same group. These considerations, when studied in conjunction with the

facts of the geological succession of the forms of life, of geographical

distribution, and the effects of varying conditions upon living organisms,

establish the truth of evolution" (Huxley).

The full meaning of these statements will be better understood if a

concrete example is studied, and perhaps the case of man and his ancestry

is most instructive for this purpose. The fact that man has a vertebral

column, a brain and nervous system, a heart and blood-vessels, digestive

and other systems of organs, built up in accordance with the arbitrary plan

which is shared also by all mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and

fishes, proclaims that man belongs to the vertebrate group of animals, and

that all such vertebrata must originally have sprung from the same common

ancestors. The possession of four limbs with five fingers or toes on each,

and a host of identical arrangements of bones, muscles, nerves, &c., in

these limbs, reveals the fact that all the four-limbed creatures or

Tetrapoda represent one group which developed from some fish-like ancestor

to become an amphibian. The discovery of fossilized remains of extinct

animals reveals that the fishes are much older than the amphibians, and

that a number of intermediate stages demonstrate the process of gradual

transformation which converted one group of fishes into four-limbed,

semi-terrestrial amphibians. Geological evidence also proves that the

reptiles came definitely later than the amphibians, and that only one small

group of very primitive amphibians shared in the progressive modifications

of brain, limbs, and organs of circulation, &c., to become

reptiles--creatures able to live wholly on the dry land, and capable of a

wider range of activities than the Amphibia. From the primitive reptiles

were derived not only the highly specialized forms that have survived to

the present day as lizards, tortoises, snakes, &c., creatures that differ

profoundly from their earliest reptilian ancestors, but also the ancestors

of birds and the ancestors of mammals. One particular group of primitive

reptiles is known, from fossilized remains found in South Africa, that

reveals many of the distinctive peculiarities of mammals not shared by

other reptiles; and it is now certain that these cynodonts--so called from

their dog-like teeth--include the parents of the mammals. The fact that all

the Mammalia are provided with glands which in the female supply milk for

the nutrition of their young, that they have a hairy coat, that they have a

highly developed brain more fully adapted for learning by experience than

is the case in other vertebrates, that they have limbs capable of a much

more varied and active range of skilled movements, and a host of identical

transformations of viscera, muscles, nerves, and vessels prove the common

ancestry of mammals from some very primitive cynodont reptile. Different

mammals have been specialized in structure for amazingly varied modes of

life, on land, under the ground, in trees, in the air, or in rivers or the

sea. Of the terrestrial animals some have been modified for fleetness, like

the horse and the antelope; others for strength, like the elephant; others

again, like the lion and the tiger, to prey upon their weaker relatives. At

the dawn of the age of mammals one particular group was able to survive

without any of the profound alterations of the structure of the limbs which

such creatures as the horse and the ox, the elephant and the whale, the

tiger and the bat had to adopt to avoid extinction, and retained the

primitive type of limbs with their fingers and toes which became the most

useful and plastic instruments for performing skilled movements and

acquiring experience and knowledge as soon as the brain was sufficiently

advanced in structure and capability to put these instruments to their full

use. The group of mammals which delayed the time of specialization until it

was able to profit by its greater adaptability was the Prosimiae, the

ancestors of the apes and man. These small creatures for a long time lived

a life of obscurity in trees without submitting to those extreme

adaptations of structure which are found in most arboreal and flying

mammals. But the cultivation of their powers of vision, and the acquisition

of skill in the use of their primitive but plastic hands, guided by vision,

eventually conferred upon some of these Prosimiae vastly enhanced powers of

skilled action and of learning by experience and of acquiring knowledge,

which culminated in the attainment of the supreme power of discrimination

distinctive of human intelligence.

The fact that man belongs to the same order (Primates) as the apes is

proved not merely by the possession of a body which in most respects is

identical in structure with such of them as the gorilla and the chimpanzee,

of a similar process of development characterized by identical stages up to

a certain stage, but also by the fact that the blood of man and the apes

react towards one another as those of relatives, and in a way not shared by

the blood-reactions of other mammals. The apes, also, are subject to

certain human diseases from which other mammals are immune. Man shares with

the anthropoid apes (gorillas, chimpanzees, orangs, and gibbons) so many

peculiarities which differentiate all of them from the tailed monkeys that

there can be no doubt that the human family was derived from a primitive

anthropoid ape, possibly a species that lived in the foothills of the

Himalayas in Miocene times, as is suggested by fossils recently discovered

by Dr. Pilgrim, director of the Geological Survey of India.

The vestigial remains of the muscles, blood-vessels, &c., of the tail

reveal the fact that man's Primate ancestry began with a tailed form. In

fact, the human embryo actually possesses a tail for some weeks of its

existence. If India reveals the fossilized remains of a variety of Miocene

anthropoid apes closely akin to the ancestors of man, the gorilla, the

chimpanzee, and the orang, the Egyptian Fayum has provided the evidence of

the origin of the anthropoid apes in Oligocene times as very diminutive

creatures distantly akin to the gibbons, but bearing very obvious

indications in the form of their teeth of an affinity with the Prosimian

sub-order Tarsioidea, a very interesting group of Eocene Primates found in

a fossilized condition in North America and France, one of the members of

which has survived in the peculiar Spectral Tarsier still found living in

the forests of Borneo, Java, and the Philippines. The detailed study of the

structure and development of Tarsius, and comparisons with other Primates

and mammals of other orders, provide the information necessary to fill in

the gaps left in the geological record, and enable us to sketch out the

general scheme of man's ancestry, and to appreciate the nature of the

factors which determined the evolution of such an intelligent mammal as

man.

Within recent years the increasing knowledge of embryology and comparative

anatomy, and the recovery of fossilized remains of vast numbers of hitherto

unknown animals, has established the truth of evolution and the exact line

of ancestry of many animals. Professor Osborn's work on the evolution of

the horse, and Dr. C. W. Andrews's revelation of the ancestry of the

elephant, are striking recent illustrations of the exactness of the

demonstration palaeontology can give of the past history of mammals. Dr.

Robert Brown and Professor D. M. S. Watson have given conclusive proofs of

the origin of mammals and birds from primitive reptiles, and the latter

zoologist has pushed back the ancestry of these higher vertebrates still

further, and shown how the reptiles were derived from primitive Amphibia,

and the changes that occurred in vertebrate anatomy when certain fishes

crawled out of the water and developed into four-footed Amphibia. All of

these conclusions are matters of fact and not of theory, even if we are

still in the dark as to the exact mechanism whereby the variations which

the forces of evolution use in effecting transformations were themselves

brought about. Within recent years there has been a revival of interest in

the problem whether characters acquired by parents as the result of their

individual experience can be transmitted to their offspring. For the last

thirty years biologists have been influenced by the teaching of Weismann

that nothing happening to the parents can affect the morphological

capabilities of the germ plasm from which the next generation is derived;

but recent research suggests that this negative doctrine is too rigid, and

makes it probable that certain influences brought to bear upon the parents

may be transmitted also to the offspring. If this is so, it opens one

avenue of explanation of how structural modifications are effected and the

possibility of evolution is created. But at the present moment the whole

question is being actively investigated and discussed.

Just as every complex animal can be shown to be derived during development

from a simple microscopic cell or egg, so the study of evolution reveals

the fact that all animals were originally derived from microscopic

unicellular animals known as protozoa, which are with difficulty

distinguishable from unicellular plants, from which all the varied forms of

complex vegetable life were derived. It is equally certain that these

unicellular plants and animals are themselves only the specialized

descendants of common ancestors--unspecialized unicellular organisms which

are neither strictly vegetable nor animal. But we are quite in the dark as

to the processes whereby these most primitive living organisms were evolved

from inorganic matter, and how they acquired these peculiar properties of

growth and differentiation and their powers of reproduction, commonly

called vital, which are their distinctive characteristics. Bibliographical

references to most of the matters mentioned in this article will be found

in the Presidential Address to Section H of the British Association for the

Advancement of Science, Dundee meeting (see Report of British Association,

1912).

EV'ORA, a town in Portugal, capital of the province of Alemtejo, 75 miles

east of Lisbon. It is an ancient place, poorly built, and its walls,

citadel, and forts are all in a state of ruin. It has a Roman aqueduct

still serviceable, a Gothic cathedral, and an ecclesiastical seminary. Pop.

17,900. The district of Evora has a pop. of 144,300.

EVREMOND, or EVREMONT. See _St. Evremond_.

EVREUX (ev-r_eu_), a town of N.W. France, capital of the department of

Eure, in a fertile valley on the Iton. It is an ancient town with narrow

streets and has many fine buildings, including an ancient Gothic cathedral.

The town was frequently occupied by the English in the fifteenth century.

Pop. 18,950.

EWALD ([=a]'v[.a]lt), Georg Heinrich August von, a German Orientalist and

Biblical critic, born at Goettingen 16th Nov., 1803, died there 5th May,

1875. After studying at the university of his native town, in 1827 he

became extraordinary, in 1831 ordinary professor of theology, and in 1835

professor of Oriental languages. In 1837 he lost his chair at Goettingen on

account of his protest against the king's abrogation of the liberal

constitution, became professor of theology at Tuebingen, but in 1848

returned to his old chair at Goettingen. When Hanover was annexed by

Prussia in 1866 he became a zealous defender of the rights of the ex-king.

Among his chief works are the following: _Complete Course of the Hebrew

Language_, _The Poetical Books of the Old Testament_, _History of the

People of Israel_, _Antiquities of the People of Israel_. The _History_ is

considered his greatest work.

EWALD ([=a]'v[.a]lt), Johannes, Danish poet, born at Copenhagen in 1743,

died in 1781. After studying theology at Copenhagen University he ran away

and enlisted in the Prussian service, which he soon deserted for the

Austrian. On his return to Copenhagen an elegy which he wrote on the death

of Frederick V of Denmark was received with general admiration, and awoke

in himself the consciousness of poetic talent. His reputation rapidly

increased with the publication of his tragedies, _The Death of Balder_

(English translation by George Borrow), _Adam and Eve_, and _Rolf Krage_;

and his odes and songs, notable amongst which are: _King Christian_ and

_Liden Gunver_. Ewald, who had dissipated habits, died in utter poverty.

His collected works were published in 1914.

EWART, James Cossar, zoologist, was born at Penicuik, Midlothian, in 1851,

studied medicine at Edinburgh University, graduated in 1874, and was soon

after appointed demonstrator of anatomy in the university. From 1875 to

1878 he was Conservator of the museums of University College, London, in

the latter year took his M.D. degree, and from 1878 to 1882 was professor

of natural history in Aberdeen University, being then appointed to the

natural history chair at Edinburgh. Since then (having been also connected

with the Scottish Fishery Board for about ten years) he has devoted much

attention to the question of fish-culture and preservation, and has visited

North America, Denmark, and Norway for purposes of investigation. He has

also carried out experiments in the hybridization of zebras and horses. His

publications include: _The Locomotor System of the Echinoderms_ (with G. J.

Romanes, 1881); _The Natural and Artificial Fertilization of Herring Ova_

(1884); _On Whitebait_ (1886); _On the Preservation of Fish_ (1887); _The

Electric Organ of the Skate_ (1888-9); _The Cranial Nerves and Lateral

Sense-organs of the Elasmobranchs_ (1889-91); _The Development of the Limbs

of the Horse_ (1894); _The Penicuik Experiments_ (1899); _Guide to Zebras,

Hybrids, &c._ (1900); _Multiple Origin of Horses and Ponies_ (1904).

EXALBUMINOUS SEEDS, those which, when ripe, contain no endosperm, this

having been entirely absorbed into itself by the developing embryo. Opposed

to albuminous seeds. See _Cotyledons_.

EXAMINER OF PLAYS, a British official and censor of plays, who acts for the

Lord Chamberlain, under whose jurisdiction the theatres are placed. No play

can be produced without the sanction of the examiner, to whom a copy of

every new play intended for production must be sent seven clear days before

the first performance. The examiner either grants or refuses his licence,

and frequently insists upon an alteration of the text. The abolition of

this censorship of plays is a subject which in recent years has given rise

to much discussion in the theatre-loving world.

EXANTHE'MATA (eruption of the skin), a term applied to infectious diseases

with skin eruptions, accompanied by general disturbances. The term includes

scarlet fever, measles, German measles, smallpox, chicken-pox, and others.

EXARCHATE (egz-aer'k[=a]t), a name of a province or territory under an

_exarch_, or viceroy. In the sixth century after Christ Justinian formed

the middle part of Italy into a province of the Eastern Empire, and gave

the government of it to an _exarch_. (See _Ravenna_.) Exarch was also the

title of an ecclesiastical grade in the Greek Church, inferior to the

patriarchs but superior to the metropolitans. Among the modern Greeks an

_exarch_ is a deputy of the patriarch, who travels about in the provinces

and visits the bishops and churches.

EXCAM'BION, in Scots law, the name given to the contract by which one piece

of land is exchanged for another.

[Illustration: Excavating the Culebra Cut, Panama Canal]

EXCAVATION, the process of removing soil or rock in engineering or

exploration works, such as for docks, retaining-walls, railway cuttings,

canals, foundations, &c. On a small scale, or in situations unsuitable for

machinery, it is performed by hand, the soil being first loosened by the

pick, and then shovelled into barrows. In rocky soils, drilling and

explosives may be employed. In large works power shovels or 'steam-navvies'

are employed, which are essentially cranes carrying a large shovel, or a

system of steel buckets of the dredger type. These carry their own means of

propulsion, and run on temporary rails laid down as the work proceeds. They

work against the face of the excavation, and load directly into bogies or

wagons.

EXCAVATIONS. The forgotten history of the remote past has been

reconstructed by those scientists who have explored the sites of ancient

seats of civilization. Egyptian and Babylonio-Assyrian investigations date

from the middle of the eighteenth century, but it was not until the middle

of the nineteenth century, when modern scholars first penetrated the

secrets of the lost languages (see _Cuneiform Writing_ and _Hieroglyphics_)

that the ancient civilizations were rendered more or less articulate. As

the texts were being deciphered with increasing ease and accuracy, a basis

was provided for archaeology, and it became possible to frame chronological

systems. During the latter years of the nineteenth and the early years of

the present century, excavators, philologists, and ethnologists have

provided a fairly continuous and detailed history of man from 3000 B.C.

till classical times, thus bridging a gulf which used to be misty with

doubtful legends and traditions. The most dramatic excavations were those

begun by Heinrich Schliemann in 1871 at Hissarlik, the site of ancient

Troy. On the hillock he dug through nine successive settlements. He

afterwards excavated at Mycenae and Tiryns in Greece and found evidence of

a high pre-Hellenic culture. Following up the clues thus afforded, Sir

Arthur Evans and others, excavating in Crete during the opening years of

the present century, discovered abundant relics, including palaces and

towns, of the earliest Aegean civilization now referred to as Minoan (see

_Crete_). Of late years Central and Western Europe have yielded evidence of

the 'drift' of Minoan culture to outlying parts. Excavations in Russian

Turkestan and Chinese Turkestan have revealed traces of ancient culture

centres dating back beyond 2000 B.C. In the Americas the excavators have

thrown considerable light on the pre-Columbian civilizations of Peru,

Central America (Maya), and Mexico, but the picture-writings have not been

deciphered. See _Babylonia_; _Crete_; _Egypt_; _Troy_.

EX'CELLENCY, a title given to ambassadors and plenipotentiaries, governors

of colonies, the President of the United States, of France, &c.

EXCESS PROFITS DUTY, devised in 1915 to meet the extraordinary expenditure

occasioned by the war, is a tax upon the profits of certain trades and

businesses carried on in the United Kingdom, or owned or carried on abroad

by persons resident in the United Kingdom, in so far as these profits,

after deduction of a specified allowance, exceed a pre-war standard. The

main exceptions are agriculture, offices and employments, and professions

where personal qualifications predominate and only small capital is

necessary. In some cases, e.g. estate agencies, where a portion of the

profits arises from professional skill, only the portion otherwise arising

falls into charge. The pre-war standard is an alternative one at the option

of the taxpayer. Firstly, it may be a profits standard--the average of the

profits of any two of the last three pre-war years, or if there have been

only two pre-war years, then the average profits of those years, or the

actual profits of the last year, or if there has been only one pre-war

year, then the actual profits of that year. Where the average profits of

the last three pre-war years are 25 per cent less than the average of the

three years immediately preceding them, the taxpayer may take the average

of any four of those six years. Secondly, it may be, and as a general rule

where the business has not had one full pre-war year must be, a percentage

standard, calculated at the appropriate rate on the capital in the business

at the end of the last pre-war trade year, or where there has not been one

pre-war year, then on the average amount of capital employed (_a_) during

the year or accounting period in question, or (_b_) in respect of periods

ending after 31st Dec., 1919, during the first accounting period. The

percentage standard of sole traders, partnerships, and private companies

may in respect of accounting periods ending after that date be increased by

L500 per annum for each working proprietor, but not so as to exceed L750

per annum each. The general free allowance is L200, increased in 1920 to

L500 for new or re-opened businesses of ex-service men. A further abatement

is now granted where profits do not exceed L4000, with the result that

liability cannot arise unless profits exceed L832.

The rate of duty, at first 50 per cent, was raised to 60 per cent in 1916,

and to 80 per cent in 1917. Reduced to 40 per cent in 1919, it was again

increased to 60 per cent by the Finance Act, 1920. It was abolished in

1921. Undoubtedly it was injurious to trade and an incentive to wasteful

expenditure, but an effective substitute for supplying the unparalleled

financial needs of the State resulting from the war apparently could not be

devised.

'Munitions Levy' is the counterpart of Excess Profits Duty in its

application to Government-controlled establishments for the production of

munitions of war.

In the fiscal year 1919-20 the tax produced L290,045,000, while the

estimate for the year 1920-1 was L220,000,000.

EXCHANGE, a place in large commercial towns where merchants, agents,

bankers, brokers, and others concerned in commercial affairs meet at

certain times for the transaction of business. The institution of exchanges

dates from the sixteenth century. They originated in the important trading

cities of Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, from which last-named

country they were introduced into England. The Royal Exchange of London was

established by Sir Thomas Gresham in 1556. In some exchanges only a special

class of business is transacted. Thus there are stock exchanges, corn

exchanges, coal exchanges, cotton exchanges.

EXCHANGE, in commerce, that species of transactions by which the debts of

individuals residing at a distance are cancelled by order, draft, or bill

of exchange, without the transmission of specie. Thus, a merchant in London

who owes L100 worth of cotton goods in Glasgow gives a bill or order for

that amount which can be negotiated through banking agencies or otherwise

against similar debts owing by other parties in Glasgow who have payments

to make in London. The creditor in Glasgow is thus paid by the debtor in

Glasgow, and this contrivance obviates the expense and risk of transmitting

money. The process of liquidating obligations between different nations is

carried on in the same way by an exchange of foreign bills. When all the

accounts of one country correspond in value with those of another, so that

there is an even balance, the exchange between the countries will be _at

par_, that is, the sum for which the bill is drawn in the one country will

be the exact value of it in the other. Exchange is said to be _at par_

when, for instance, a bill drawn in New York for the payment of L100

sterling in London can be purchased there for L100. If it can be purchased

for less, exchange is _under par_ and is against London. If the purchaser

is obliged to give more, exchange is _above par_ and in favour of London.

Although the numerous circumstances which incessantly affect the state of

debt and credit prevent the ordinary course of exchange from being almost

ever precisely at par, its fluctuations are confined within narrow limits,

and if direct exchange is unfavourable between two countries this can often

be obviated by the interposition of bills drawn on other countries where an

opposite state of matters prevails. See _Bill of Exchange_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:

G. J. Goschen, _Theory of Foreign Exchange_; H. Withers, _Money Changing_.

EXCHANGE, DEED OF, in English law, an original common law conveyance for

the mutual transfer of real estate. It takes place between two contracting

parties only, although several individuals may be included in each party;

and the parties must take an equal estate, as fee-simple for fee-simple,

legal estate for legal estate, copyhold for copyhold of the same manor, and

the like.

EXCHEQ'UER (Fr. _echiquier_, chess-board), in Britain, the department which

deals with the moneys received and paid on behalf of the public services of

the country. The public revenues are paid into the Bank of England (or of

Ireland) to account of the Exchequer, and these receipts as well as the

necessary payments for the public service are under the supervision of an

important official called the Comptroller and Auditor General, the payments

being granted by him on receipt of the proper orders proceeding through the

Treasury. The public accounts are also audited in his department. The

Chancellor of the Exchequer, who must be a member of the House of Commons,

is the head of the Treasury Department. When the Prime Minister is a member

of the House of Commons, he sometimes holds the office of Chancellor of the

Exchequer.

EXCHEQUER, COURT OF, an ancient English court of record, established by

William the Conqueror, and intended principally for the care and collection

of the royal revenues. It was one of the supreme courts of common law, and

is said to derive its name from the chequered cloth, resembling a

chess-board, on which the sums were marked and scored with counters. The

judges of this court were the chief baron and five junior or _puisne_

barons. This court was abolished by the Judicature Act of 1873, and its

jurisdiction transferred to the High Court of Justice. In Canada there is a

Court of Exchequer for the Dominion.

EXCHEQUER AND AUDIT DEPARTMENT, a department of the English Civil Service

charged with the functions of auditing the accounts of all other

departments.

EXCHEQUER BILLS, bills of credit issued by authority of Parliament as a

means of raising money for temporary purposes. They are of various

sums--L100 or any multiple--and bear interest at a rate fixed for every

half-year according to the rate ruling in the money-market at the time.

These bills pass from hand to hand as money, and form part of the public

unfunded debt of Great Britain. _Exchequer bonds_ are similar, but they run

for a definite number of years (six at most) at a fixed rate of interest.

EXCISE', an inland duty or impost laid on commodities produced and consumed

within a country, and also on licences to manufacture and deal in certain

commodities. Excise duties were introduced into England by the Long

Parliament in 1643, being then laid on the makers and vendors of ale, beer,

cider, and perry. Being found to be a convenient and productive source of

revenue, they continued to gain ground, and in 1919 yielded L59,663,000. In

Britain the excise includes duties on spirits and beer, licences on dogs,

guns, carriages, servants, plate, railways, game, &c. In 1917 an excise

duty was laid on entertainments, matches, and table waters. Spirits and

beer yield over L44,000,000.

EXCI'TO-MOTOR ACTION, the action of nerves distributed to muscular organs,

the stimulation of which leads to movement. Thus, irritation of a nerve

supplying a muscle will lead to contraction of the muscle by excito-motor

action, and irritation of certain nerves distributed to blood-vessels will

lead to contraction of the vessel by acting on its muscular coat.

EXCLUSION, BILL OF, a bill introduced into the British Parliament during

the reign of Charles II for the purpose of excluding the Duke of York

(afterwards James II), he being a Roman Catholic, from the throne.

EXCOMMUNICATION, the exclusion of a Christian from the communion and

spiritual privileges of the Church. Excommunication was a recognized

penalty among the Jews (_John_, ix, 22), and was practised early by the

Christian Church. A distinction gradually arose between a lesser and a

greater excommunication, the former being a suspension from Church

privileges, the latter a formal expulsion excluding from all communion with

the faithful. In the Middle Ages the Popes often excommunicated whole

cities and kingdoms. In such a case all religious services ceased, and the

grave inconveniences thus caused made excommunication a formidable weapon

in the hands of the Pope, till with frequent abuse it lost its force.

Besides excommunication an extreme degree of denunciation called

_anathema_, and cutting the offender off from all the hopes and

consolations of the Christian faith, is used in the Roman Catholic Church.

Both Luther and Calvin were in favour of the right of excommunication by

the ministers of the Church. In the Church of England both the less and the

greater excommunications are recognized.--Cf. E. Taunton, _The Law of the

Church_.

EXCRE'TION, in physiology, the separation and carrying off of waste matter

from some organ of an animal body, a function performed by the lungs,

kidneys, and the skin, besides the action of the intestinal canal.

[Illustration: Excubitorium, St. Alban's Abbey]

EXCUBITO'RIUM, in mediaeval churches, a gallery where public watch was kept

at night on the eve of some festival, and from which the great shrines

could be seen.

EXE, a river of England, which rises in Exmoor, in the county of Somerset,

and after a southerly course of about 50 miles falls into the English

Channel at Exmouth.

EXECUTION, in law, is a judicial writ grounded on a judgment of the court

by which the writ is issued, and is granted for the purpose of carrying the

judgment into effect, by having it executed. Execution is granted by a

court only upon the judgments given by the same court, not upon those

pronounced by another. See _Elegit_; _Fieri facias_.

EXECUTIONER, the official who carries into effect a sentence of death, or

inflicts capital punishment in pursuance of a legal warrant. In England the

duty of executing the extreme sentence of the law devolves upon the

sheriff, and in Scotland on the civic magistracy, but in practice the duty

is performed by another in presence of these functionaries. In the reign of

James I Gregory Brandon was the executioner of London, and hence the name

Gregory has often been employed to designate executioners. In France the

executioner is styled Monsieur de Paris.

EXEC'UTIVE, that branch of the government of a country by which the laws

are carried into effect or the enforcement of them superintended. The term

is used in distinction from the _legislative_ and the _judicial_

departments, and includes the supreme magistrate, whether emperor, king,

president, or governor, his cabinet or ministers, and a host of minor

officials.

EXEC'UTOR, in law, is one appointed by a man's last will to carry its

provisions into execution after the testator's death. The testator may, by

the English law, appoint any person of sound mind and discretion, though

otherwise under some legal disabilities as to contracting and transacting

business in general, such as a married woman, or a minor. The duties of

executors and of administrators are, in general, the same, the difference

of the two depending mostly on the mode of appointment, the executor being

nominated by the testator, the administrator being appointed by the Judge

of Probate. In Scotland an executor appointed by will is styled executor

_nominate_, and by authority of the court executor _dative_.

EXEQUA'TUR (Lat., 'Let him accomplish'), a written recognition of a consul

or commercial agent issued by the Government to which he is accredited, and

authorizing him to exercise his powers.

EX'ETER, a city, river-port, parliamentary county, and municipal borough of

England, county town of Devon, on the left bank of the Exe, 10 miles

north-west of its outlet in the English Channel. It is pleasantly situated

on the summit and slopes of an acclivity rising from the river, and has

handsome squares, terraces, and streets. The chief architectural feature is

the cathedral (founded in 1112), a long, low building with fine west front,

unique in having two towers forming its transepts, and only these two. The

city has remains of the old castle and old walls, Guildhall, Albert

Memorial College, training college, and St. Michael's Church. There are

iron-foundries, works for agricultural implements and paper, and 'Honiton'

lace is made. By a canal vessels of 300 tons can reach the city. The

largest vessels remain at Exmouth. Exeter is a place of remote antiquity,

having been a British settlement long prior to the invasion of the Romans,

by whom it was called _Isca Damnoniorum_. It was taken by William the

Conqueror in 1068. It long returned two members to Parliament, but lost one

of them in 1885. Pop. 59,608.

EXETER COLLEGE, Oxford, a college, originally called Stapledon Hall,

founded in 1314 by Walter de Stapledon, Bishop of Exeter, who made a

foundation for a rector and twelve fellows. In 1404 Edmund Stafford, Bishop

of Exeter, added two fellowships and obtained leave to give the college its

present name.

EXETER HALL, a large building on the north side of the Strand, London,

opened in 1831, and capable of containing over 3000 persons. In it the 'May

Meetings' of the several religious societies were held. It was sold in 1907

by the Young Men's Christian Association to a firm of caterers, who

demolished it in 1908. The Strand Palace Hotel now stands on its site.

EXFOLIATION is the scaling off of dead tissues; thus there may be

exfoliation of the skin, of bone, or of other parts from their living

surroundings.

EXHIBITION, a fixed sum given for a term of years from the funds of a

school, college, or university, generally upon the result of a competitive

examination. An exhibition, no matter what its pecuniary value, is less of

a distinction than a scholarship. At Cambridge an exhibitioner has no

standing in his college different from that of the ordinary 'pensioner',

while a scholar is on the Foundation of his college.

EXHIBITIONS. The earliest recorded 'exhibition', in the modern acceptation

of the word, is that in which, for one hundred and eighty days, Ahasuerus

"shewed the riches of his glorious kingdom" at Shushan (_Esther_, i, 2-4).

The first European exhibition was held at Venice in 1268; while the great

fairs of Leipzig and Nijni-Novgorod partook of the same nature. But the

real forerunner of the modern exhibition was that held in London by the

Society of Arts in 1756, when carpets, china, and similar artistic objects

were displayed. This was followed in 1761 by an exhibition of agricultural

machinery. In 1797 France held a display of _objets d'art_ at St. Cloud;

there was another two years later at the Louvre; while a third in 1802 is

memorable for the first issue of an official catalogue, and for the

presence of Montgolfier the aeronaut, and Jacquard the inventor of the loom

that bears his name, among exhibitors. Besides the exhibition of Irish

industries, held at Dublin (1829), and the Birmingham exhibition of

metal-work (1849), numerous displays were held in both Europe and America

before the first International or 'Great' Exhibition of 1851. This

memorable display was under the active patronage of Prince Albert, and for

its accommodation the Crystal Palace was erected in Hyde Park. Its success

gave the exhibition movement an impetus which produced examples at New York

and Dublin (1853), both of which proved financial failures; at Munich and

Melbourne (1854); Paris (1855); and at South Kensington, where was held the

second International Exhibition (1862). Five years later, after

Constantinople, Oporto, and Agra had, among other places, held displays,

came the great Paris Exhibition, planned on a colossal scale; though the

main building in the Champ de Mars was stigmatized as 'a gasometer' by

Napoleon III. Vienna had a magnificent but financially disastrous

exhibition in 1873, and in 1876 Philadelphia celebrated the centenary of

the Independence of the United States by a display. In 1878 Paris held

another exhibition, for which the Trocadero was built. A series held at

South Kensington (1871-4) had only a moderate success, but great popularity

was attained by the 'Fisheries', 'Health', 'Inventions', and Colonial

Exhibitions held in the years 1883-6. Edinburgh was the scene of a forestry

display in 1884, and at the same time New Orleans opened an exhibition

which continued till the following year. The Paris Exhibition of 1889 was

notable for the 'side-shows', which included the Eiffel Tower; while the

financial result of that held in 1900, which covered 550 acres of ground

and admitted thirty-nine million people, was far from satisfactory.

Meanwhile Chicago had in 1893 celebrated the four hundredth anniversary of

Columbus's discovery of America by a huge 'World's Fair'. The present

century opened inauspiciously with the assassination of President McKinley

at the Pan-American Exhibition at Buffalo (1901); Glasgow had a thoroughly

successful exhibition the same year; St. Louis was the scene of another in

1904; while London organized the Franco-British Exhibition in 1908. This

last owed much to the late Imre Kiralfy, who had directed many previous

displays, and was the designer of the 'White City' at Shepherd's Bush,

where in 1914 was held the Anglo-American Exposition. After the conclusion

of the European War various plans for new exhibitions were put forward,

such as the British Empire Exhibition, which is to be held in London in

1923, and which is intended to foster imperial interests.

EX'ILE, a punishment by which a person is compelled to leave the city,

province, or the country where he has previously resided. It is a

punishment for State criminals.

EXMOOR', a wild and hilly district of England, in the extreme south-west of

Somersetshire, extending also into Devonshire, formerly a forest.

EX'MOUTH, a town of England, in Devonshire, 10 miles S.S.E. of Exeter, at

the mouth of the Exe. It is picturesquely situated, and is one of the

best-known sea-bathing places on the Devonshire coast. The chief industries

are lace-making and the fisheries. Pop. 13,614.

EXMOUTH, Edward Pellew, Viscount, a British naval officer, born at Dover in

1757, died 23rd Jan., 1833. He went to sea at the age of thirteen, served

as midshipman in the _Blonde_ frigate during the American War, and greatly

distinguished himself at Lake Champlain. In 1782 he was made a post-captain

for a brilliant action in the _Pelican_, and on the outbreak of the war in

1793 was appointed to the command of the frigate _La Nymphe_. From this

time till the peace in 1802 he was employed on active service. In 1804, on

the resumption of hostilities, he was sent to take the chief command on the

East India station, in the _Culloden_, of seventy-four guns; and here he

remained till 1809, when he had attained the rank of vice-admiral. His next

appointment was the command of the fleet blockading the Scheldt. In 1814 he

was made Baron Exmouth with a pension of L2000 per annum. In 1816 he was

sent with a fleet to punish the Dey of Algiers for outrages committed, and

to force him to give up his Christian captives and abolish Christian

slavery. Along with some Dutch war vessels he bombarded the city for eight

hours, and inflicted such damage that the Dey agreed to every demand. Three

thousand Christian slaves were thus restored to liberty. Lord Exmouth was

made a viscount and received honours from several of the European

sovereigns, and the freedom of the City of London. In 1821 he retired into

private life.

EXOASCINEAE, a family of parasitic ascomycetous Fungi, distinguished by the

absence of any definite fruit-body, the asci being produced in a layer on

the surface of the host. The best known are _Exoascus Pruni_, the cause of

the mal-formed fruits called 'bladder-plums' or 'pocket-plums', and _E.

turgidus_, which produces the abnormal tufts of branches on silver birch

known as 'witches' brooms'.

EXOBASIDIINEAE, a family of parasitic basidiomycetous Fungi, resembling the

Exoascineae in most respects, but producing basidia in place of asci, a

remarkable instance of parallel evolution. The commonest British species is

_Exobasidium Vaccinii,_ which is frequent on cowberry (_Vaccinium

Vitis-Idaea_) in Scotland. _E. vexans_ is the cause of a serious disease of

the tea-plant called 'blister-blight', which is very destructive to the

Assam plantations.

EX'ODUS (Gr. _exodos_, a going out), the name given in the _Septuagint_ to

the second book of the _Pentateuch_, because it describes the departure of

the Israelites from Egypt. The contents of the book are partly historical,

describing the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, and partly

legislative, describing the promulgation of the Sinaitic law. One of the

difficulties connected with this book is that, according to Scriptural

chronology, the residence of the Israelites in Egypt was only 215 years,

and it seems incredible that in this time "the threescore and ten souls"

who accompanied Jacob to Egypt could have become the two and a half

millions who left with Moses.

EXOGAMY (Gr. _exo_, outside, and _gamos_, marriage), a term applied to the

custom of allowing marriages only between members who do not belong to the

same group. The study of exogamy is practically a branch of ethnology. The

opposite of exogamy is endogamy, or prohibition of marriage outside the

tribe. Exogamy, which among other causes may be ascribed to a desire of

forming useful alliances with hostile tribes, is practised among Australian

aborigines, Mongols, and American Indians, and the custom is widely

distributed in various forms in all stages of civilization.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Sir J. G. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_; E. A. Westermarck, _The History

of Human Marriage_.

EXOGENOUS PLANTS (_eks-oj'e-nus_), or EXOGENS, old names for Dicotyledons

(q.v.).

EXOGENOUS STRUCTURES, in botany, are those which arise from superficial

tissues of the parent organ, as stem-branches and leaves. Opposed to

endogenous structures.

EX'ORCISM (Gr. _exorkizein_, to expel with an oath), the casting out of

evil spirits by certain forms of words or ceremonies. An opinion prevailed

in the ancient Church that certain persons, those particularly who were

afflicted with certain diseases, especially madness and epilepsy, were

possessed by evil spirits; this was called _demoniac possession._ Over such

persons forms of conjuration were pronounced, and this act was called

_exorcism_. There were even certain men who made this a regular profession,

and were called _exorcists_. Exorcism still forms a part of the beliefs of

some Churches. In the Roman Catholic Church exorcist is one of the inferior

orders of the clergy.--Cf. Sir J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_.

EXOSTO'SIS, in medicine, an excrescence or growth from one of the bony

structures of the body. It is generally found at the end of long bones near

the joints, and in connection with the skull.

EXOTHERMIC COMPOUNDS are compounds which evolve heat during their

formation; these are usually stable compounds, as they must be supplied

with a corresponding amount of heat for their decomposition.

EXOT'IC, belonging to foreign countries; a term used especially of plants.

Exotic plants are such as belong to a soil and climate entirely different

from the place where they are raised. They are nearly always greenhouse or

hothouse plants.

EXPANSION, in physics, the increase of the dimensions of a body caused by a

change of temperature. In general, bodies expand with rise of temperature,

solids expanding least and gases most. This change in the dimensions of

solids with temperature is expansion in length, area, and volume. These

changes are referred to a unit called the coefficient of expansion, or

expansion of unit length, area, or volume for 1deg rise. For example, the

coefficient of linear expansion of iron is .000011; that is, a yard, say,

of iron rod becomes longer by this fraction of a yard for each degree

centigrade that its temperature is raised. The coefficient of volume

expansion of a solid is three times its linear coefficient. Crystals have

different rates of expansion along the three crystalline axes. Fused silica

or quartz expands so slightly that it may be plunged when red-hot into

water without being cracked. Invar, a nickel-steel alloy, which also has an

extremely small coefficient of expansion, is used in making clock

pendulums, which are unaffected by change of temperature. The observed

expansion of liquids is affected by the expansion of the vessel containing

them, and the apparent expansion of a liquid is thus always less than its

real expansion. The expansion of water with rise of temperature is

irregular; water contracts from 0deg to 4degC., and thereafter expands at

an increasing rate until the boiling-point is reached. The expansion of

mercury and other liquids is employed in thermometry. Gases when kept at

constant pressure expand by about 1/273rd part of their volume at 0degC.

for each degree rise.

EXPECTATION, in the doctrine of chances, the value of any prospect of prize

or property depending upon the happening of some uncertain event. A sum of

money in _expectation_ upon a certain event has a determinate value before

that event happens. If the chances of receiving or not receiving a hundred

pounds, when an event arrives, are equal, then, before the arrival of the

event the expectation is worth half the money.--_Expectation of life_, the

number of years which a man or woman of any age may be expected to live. To

calculate this with any reasonable degree of probability, it is necessary

to have particulars of a large number of individuals. The earliest

observations were based upon the records of the registers of certain towns.

Out of a number of people alive at one date the numbers still living at the

end of successive years were found, and an estimate of the probable

duration of life was made. With increased facilities for collecting

statistics of a larger number of lives, this estimate has since been

modified. It is necessarily influenced by the progress of civilization,

improved methods of sanitation, increased knowledge of the best methods of

treating diseases, and other causes, but the collected statistics are now

so numerous that the actuaries of life assurance offices have been able to

prepare tables of mortality from which the cost of life premiums and the

price of annuities are calculated.

EXPEC'TORANTS are drugs used to increase and liquefy the secretion in the

lungs and air-passages. The most effective are ipecacuanha, squills,

apomorphine, ammonium carbonate, and potassium iodide. Some of these are

usually present in the many cough mixtures so widely used.

EXPER'IMENT, an operation designed to discover some unknown truth,

principle, or effect, or to establish it when discovered. It differs from

observation in the fact that the phenomena observed are, to a greater or

less extent, controlled by human agency. Experiment distinguishes the

modern method of investigating nature, and to it we owe the rapid strides

made in chemistry and physics.

EXPERT' (Lat. _experiri_, to test), a person eminently skilled in any

particular branch or profession; specifically, a scientific or professional

witness who gives evidence on matters connected with his profession, as an

analytical chemist or a person skilled in handwriting.

EXPLOITS', RIVER OF, a river which traverses nearly the whole of

Newfoundland from S.W. to N.E., and falls into the Bay of Exploits. It is

about 150 miles long, and is navigable for steamers for 12 miles.

EXPLO'SION, a sudden violent outburst accompanied by a loud noise, and

giving rise to an impulsive wave which spreads outwards from the place of

explosion. Generally applied to the very rapid combustion of explosive

substances which, under the influence of heat or shock, are resolved with

extreme rapidity into gaseous form. Substances are termed low explosives or

high explosives according as they are set off by combustion or detonation.

EXPLOSIVE MECHANISM, in botany, (1) in flowers, an arrangement for the

transference of pollen to an insect-visitor by a sudden movement of floral

organs. (2) In fruits, an arrangement for the forcible expulsion of seeds

from a fruit brought about in various ways (see _Sling-fruits_). The spores

of Ferns, ascospores, and some conidia are also liberated explosively.

EXPLOSIVES. An explosive is a substance or mixture of substances which, by

the action of a blow or of heat, can be converted very easily and suddenly

into a more stable substance or substances, usually gaseous, with the

simultaneous liberation of a large amount of heat. Explosives are divided

into classes according to the uses to which they are put, but the line of

demarcation is not always very clear. The industrial and blasting powders

may be either low or high explosives. A 'low' explosive explodes by the

application of heat, and burns more or less uniformly and slowly, and

projects neighbouring objects to a distance. A 'high' explosive explodes

under a blow, and the whole of the substance is instantly transformed, and

instantly exerts its maximum pressure, creating a violent disturbance in a

limited area without necessarily projecting substances to any great

distance. Service explosives, for naval and military purposes, are divided

into propellants and high explosives. Sporting powders are specially

modified propellant powders. Examples of these classes of explosives, with

notes on their composition, are given below.

_Low Explosives._--The best examples of the low explosive are gunpowder and

similar mixtures. The constituents of the 'gunpowder' explosives are

generally not explosive alone, but only when mixed. A 'gunpowder' mixture

contains carbon or carbonaceous matter like wood-meal, hydrocarbons,

starches, and sugars, &c., which burn owing to the presence of highly

oxygenated substances like peroxides, chlorates and perchlorates, nitrates,

permanganates, chromates and dichromates, all of which convey the necessary

oxygen. In addition, there usually is present some very easily ignited

substance like sulphur or sulphides, or phosphorus or phosphides, &c. As

compared with other explosives, gunpowder or black-powder has certain

advantages. It is cheap, easily ignited, insensitive to shock, and stable

at moderately high temperature; it burns regularly, and its residue is

non-corrosive. But it is weak in power, and produces much smoke. It is

excellent for armour-piercing shell and for rings of time-fuses. Gunpowder

made in different countries varies in composition, but for rifle, cannon,

and sporting powders it, usually contains 74 to 75 parts of saltpetre, 9 to

14 parts of sulphur, 12 to 16 parts of charcoal. For blasting powders less

saltpetre and more charcoal is used. Charcoal is made by the carbonization

of wood. In England dogwood, alder, and willow woods are used; in Germany

alder and willow are used; in France black alder and also white alder,

poplar, aspen, birch, and hazel; in Switzerland hazel wood; in Spain

oleander, yew, willow, hemp stems, and vine; in Italy hemp stems. The wood

is generally carbonized in iron retorts. The product is allowed to cool out

of contact with air, else it may inflame. Wood burnt for ordnance powders

gives a yield of 20 to 30 per cent charcoal; that for small-arms gives a

yield of 40 per cent. The charcoal contains from 68 to 85 per cent carbon,

from 2.8 to 3.7 per cent hydrogen, from 12 to 27 per cent oxygen, and may

have up to 5 per cent ash. The saltpetre is found naturally in Chile,

India, and in other countries, and is refined by crystallization from

water. It is a colourless, crystalline solid. Sulphur, a pale-yellow solid,

melting-point 113deg C., boiling-point 444.5deg C., is found in nature, and

is refined to a purity of 99.5 per cent and over. It has a low ignition

temperature of 261deg C., and makes the powder burn more readily. Under the

pressure of the press and the incorporating mill it flows and cements the

minute particles of charcoal and saltpetre together. The three ingredients

are ground, mixed, sieved, incorporated or mixed in drums or mills, broken

down, and then pressed, corned or granulated, and glazed. Cannon powders

receive an addition of graphite to reduce the rate of burning. The powder

is then dried in a stove, finished in a reel to get rid of the last traces

of dust, and blended. In the United States powder for blasting contains

sodium nitrate instead of potassium nitrate. The powder is cheaper and

stronger, but is hygroscopic. Sprengsaltpetre is largely used in Stassfurt

salt-mines, where a mild explosive is required, and consists of 75 parts by

weight of sodium nitrate, 10 parts by weight of sulphur, and 15 parts by

weight of brown coal. It is cheap, and does not produce poisonous fumes.

Bobbinite is largely used in coal-mines. It is black powder with ammonium

and copper sulphates, possibly also starch and paraffin wax. When gunpowder

explodes, the product consists of 43 per cent gases, 56 per cent solids,

and the rest water. The composition of other industrial and blasting

powders is given in the sequel.

_Propellant Explosives._--The chief propellants arc nitrocellulose, also

called nitrocotton or guncotton, and nitroglycerine.

_Nitrocellulose._--The chief sources of cellulose are wood and cotton. When

cotton is plentiful, nitrocellulose is made as follows. Cotton-waste is

hand-picked to get rid of string, wood, &c.; it is opened out by a

teasing-machine, which tears off small portions at a time, and the cotton

is then dried to about 0.5 per cent moisture content. The cotton is then

nitrated with 'mixed acid'--a mixture of about 16 per cent nitric and 75

per cent sulphuric acid and about 8 per cent water--at 15deg to 25deg C.

After the nitration, the acid is removed and the nitrocotton boiled up in

water to stabilize it. Generally nitrocotton contains about 12 to 13 per

cent of nitrogen. Wet nitrocotton is quite safe although it can be

detonated, but dry nitrocotton is very dangerous. To-day, paper is usually

made from wood-pulp, and when the cotton supplies of Germany were stopped

during the European War, nitrocellulose had to be made from wood-pulp via a

form of paper crepe prepared by the Germans from the pulp. For propellant

purposes the nitrocotton is 'gelatinized', either alone or mixed with

nitroglycerine, and is then worked up into different forms, such as wire,

rods, grains, or tape, when it becomes controllable at will, so that the

firing is not dangerous.

_Nitroglycerine._--Mixed acid, containing 41 per cent nitric acid and 57.5

per cent sulphuric acid, is brought to 22deg C. by cooling coils of brine,

and pure glycerine is injected into the acid at such a rate that no

glycerine accumulates unchanged, and that the temperature is kept between

15deg and 22deg C. When all the glycerine has been added, the liquid is

allowed to stand, and the nitroglycerine rises to the surface. It is run

off to the wash-house, where it is washed free from acid and settled. The

process is a dangerous one, and great care must be taken at every stage of

the manufacture. The floors of the plant must be free from grit and dirt,

no accumulation of liquid should be allowed anywhere, special clothing and

rubber boots must be worn, no metallic implements may be used, and the

plant should not be handed over for repairs except under the supervision of

a responsible person. Nitroglycerine, when absorbed in a porous earth

called 'Kieselguhr', is called dynamite. Kieselguhr, or simply guhr,

absorbs twice its weight of nitroglycerine; cork charcoal absorbs nine

times its weight. Dynamite cartridges are generally exploded by detonators.

_Preparation of Cordite; Nitrocellulose Tape (N.C.T.); Ballistite;

&c._--For cordite, the nitrocotton, freed from moisture, is mixed with

nitroglycerine, and the paste or the cotton itself, if N.C.T. is to be

made, is incorporated into a uniform dough with ether and alcohol. Some

mineral jelly is added to render the explosive more stable. The dough is

pressed through different sizes of dies according to the product desired.

For rifle powder fine cords are used; for artillery, thicker cords or flat

ribbons of varying thicknesses are required. The cords or tapes from the

dies are cut into suitable lengths, the solvents driven off, and the

products blended to obtain uniform ballistic quality. For ballistite the

nitrocellulose is beaten up with nitroglycerine in water. The paste is

freed from water, dried, and worked into horn-like sheets by means of

rollers.

_High Explosives; Picric Acid._--At the outbreak of the European War the

chief high explosive of the Entente Powers was lyddite (in France,

melenite), also called trinitrophenol or picric acid. It is a bright-yellow

solid, melting-point 122deg C., sparingly soluble in water, and forms

easily exploded metallic salts. It is now displaced by trinitrotoluene.

Picric acid is made from phenol or carbolic acid. Phenol is obtained from

coal-tar, or made synthetically from benzene. The phenol is sulphonated

with strong sulphuric acid, and the phenol-sulphonic acid resulting is

nitrated with strong nitric acid at about 100deg C. Picric acid separates,

and is washed free from mineral acid and dried. It may also be made from

benzene without converting it into phenol thus: The benzene is chlorinated

and gives chlorbenzene. This is nitrated into dinitrochlorbenzene, and is

then treated with caustic soda to give dinitrophenol. This is then further

nitrated into trinitrophenol or picric acid. Picric acid has a high

melting-point, it must be used pure, is dissolved by water, it attacks

metals forming dangerous compounds, and requires troublesome plant for its

manufacture. Hence it has been displaced by more suitable substances,

notably by trinitrotoluene.

_Trinitrotoluene_ (_T.N.T._).--This compound may now be made in a

continuous plant. Mononitrotoluene is put in at one end of the plant and

comes out as trinitrotoluene. Mixed nitric and sulphuric acid is put in at

the end where the T.N.T. is obtained, and emerges, where mononitrotoluene

is put in, as waste acid. T.N.T. in the past has also been made

discontinuously thus: The toluene is nitrated by mixed acid into either

mono- or dinitrotoluene, which is then trinitrated. The conversion into

mononitrotoluene was used in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Canada,

and America; the conversion into dinitrotoluene was used in Italy. The

T.N.T. emerges liquid, and is passed over a rotating drum internally cold

water cooled. A knife strips the thin congealed skin of T.N.T. off. This

T.N.T. is only grade 3, and for conversion into grade 1 it must be

purified. Formerly this was done by means of an organic solvent, but this

dangerous and expensive method has been displaced by treatment either with

phenol or sodium sulphite, which gives a grade 1 product. T.N.T. is a very

pale yellow solid, melting-point 80.2deg C., and therefore, melted by hot

water, almost insoluble in water, burns quickly in the air, is inert, and

comparatively safe to handle. It has displaced picric acid owing to its

superiority, physically and chemically, over that substance.

_Tetryl or C.E._ (_Composition Exploding_).--Tetryl, also called

tetranitrodimethylaniline, or more correctly trinitrophenylmethylnitramine,

is a powerful high explosive, and is thus obtained. One part of

dimethylaniline is dissolved in 10 parts of strong sulphuric acid, and the

solution allowed to flow into strong nitric acid. The temperature should be

kept below 40deg C., else decomposition may occur. After nitration the

yellow tetryl separates out, and is filtered off and water-washed till free

from acid. It is then dried in hot-air stoves. Tetryl is much more

dangerous than T.N.T., and is also more poisonous to handle. No other

nitro-bodies were made in England on the large scale during the European

War, but on the Continent, owing to the scarcity of raw materials,

dinitrobenzene, dinitrotoluene, and nitronaphthalenes, and even less

important nitro-bodies, were made. Their manufacture is similar to that of

those already described. Probably none of these nitro-bodies so pressed

into use is as good as T.N.T.

_Detonating Substances._--Though modern explosives are not easily exploded

by a blow, they are sensitive to shock of given intensity, and lesser or

different shocks will not suffice. The 'detonator' to produce the shock is

set into the explosive. A complete shell carries two detonators. One, in

the percussion cap, sets off the propellant charge which expels the

projectile; the other, in the fuse in the nose of the shell, is ignited by

the discharge of the gun, and detonates the high-explosive filling at a set

interval after the discharge of the shell. Therefore, the shell can be

exploded either in its flight when it is used as shrapnel shell, or on its

arrival at its objective when it can be used for small-calibre artillery

shell for field-guns, &c., or after its arrival when it is used for heavy

howitzer and armour-piercing shell for destroying entrenched works,

armoured forts, or ships. The manufacture of detonators is a very dangerous

and delicate operation. Some substances (the copper acetylides) explode by

a scratch, some (nitrogen iodide) by the touch of a feather or the tread of

a fly, some explode even in solution when poured from one vessel into

another (diazobenzeneperchlorates). Mercury fulminate is more often

employed in the detonator, and is prepared from mercury, alcohol, and

nitric acid. It is expensive, and most modern detonators consist of lead

azide or salts of styphnic acid, with a layer of T.N.T. in a narrow

aluminium cylinder.

The following is a list of the more important explosives, the different

groups not being mutually exclusive:--