manufactured in Stroud, Gloustershire, England, and widely sold to
early Indian traders for blankets or garments; usually scarlet-dyed.
Footnote 9:
Therefore, the Choctaws were called by the traders Flat-Heads (Fr.
Têtes Plates) a term that came into general use as descriptive of the
tribe. See on artificial head deformation, Catlin, _North American
Indians_, and Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_, I, pp. 97, 465.
Dumont gives as reason: “So that when they grow up they may be in
better condition to bear all kinds of loads.” _Memoires Historique sur
La Louisiane_ (1753) I, 140.
_Observations on the origin and descent of the Indians._
The very remote history of all nations, is disfigured with fable, and
gives but little encouragement to distant enquiry, and laborious
researches. Much of the early history and antiquities of nations is
lost, and some people have no records at all, and to this day are rude
and uncivilized. Yet a knowledge of them is highly interesting, and
would afford amusement, and even instruction in the most polished times,
to the most polite. Every science has certain principles, as its basis,
from which it reasons and concludes. Mathematical theorems, and logical
propositions, give clear demonstrations, and necessary conclusions: and
thus other sciences. But, _history_, and the _origin_ of tribes and
nations, have hitherto been covered with a great deal of obscurity. Some
antient historians were ignorant; others prejudiced. Some searchers into
antiquities adopted the traditional tales of their predecessors: and
others looking with contempt on the origin of tribes and societies,
altogether exploded them, without investigation. My design is, to
examine, and if possible, ascertain the genealogy and descent of the
Indians, and to omit nothing that may in the least contribute to furnish
the public with a full INDIAN SYSTEM.
In tracing the origin of a people, where there are no records of any
kind, either written, or engraved, who rely solely on oral tradition for
the support of their antient usages, and have lost great part of
them—though the undertaking be difficult, yet where several particulars,
and circumstances, strong and clear, correspond, they not only make room
for conjecture, but cherish probability, and till better can be offered,
must be deemed conclusive.
All the various nations of Indians, seem to be of one descent; they call
a buffalo, in their various dialects, by one and the same name,
“_Yanasa_.” And there is a strong similarity of religious rites, and of
civil and martial customs, among all the various American nations of
Indians we {10} have any knowledge of, on the extensive continent; as
will soon be shewn.
Their language is copious, and very expressive, for their narrow orbit
of ideas, and full of rhetorical tropes and figures, like the
orientalists. In early times, when languages were not so copious,
rhetoric was invented to supply that defect: and, what barrenness then
forced them to, custom now continues as an ornament.
Formerly, at a public meeting of the head-men, and chief orators, of the
Choktah nation, I heard one of their eloquent speakers[10] deliver a
very pathetic, elaborate, allegorical, tragic oration, in the high
praise, and for the great loss, of their great, judicious war-chieftain,
_Shu-las-kum-másh-tà-be_, our daring, brave friend, _red shoes_.[11] The
orator compared him to the sun, that enlightens and enlivens the whole
system of created beings: and having carried the metaphor to a
considerable length, he expatiated on the variety of evils, that
necessarily result from the disappearance and absence of the sun; and,
with a great deal of judgment, and propriety of expression, he concluded
his oration with the same trope, with which he began.
They often change the sense of words into a different signification from
the natural, exactly after the manner also of the orientalists. Even,
their common speech is full of it; like the prophetic writings, and the
book of Job, their orations are concise, strong, and full of fire; which
sufficiently confutes the wild notion which some have espoused of the
North American Indians being Præ-Adamites, or a separate race of men,
created for that continent. What stronger circumstantial proofs can be
expected, than that they, being disjoined from the rest of the world,
time immemorial, and destitute also of the use of letters, should have,
and still retain the ancient standard of speech, conveyed down by oral
tradition from father to son, to the present generation? Besides, their
persons, customs, &c. are not singular from the rest of the world;
which, probably, they would, were they not descended from one and the
same common head. Their notions of things are like ours, and their
organical structure is the same. In them, the soul governs the body,
according to the common laws of God in the creation of Adam. God
employed six days, in creating the heavens, this earth, and the
innumerable species {11} of creatures, wherewith it is so amply
furnished. The works of a being, infinitely perfect, must entirely
answer the design of them: hence there could be no necessity for a
second creation; or God’s creating many pairs of the human race
differing from each other, and fitted for different climates: because,
that implies imperfection, in the grand scheme, or a want of power, in
the execution of it—Had there been a prior, or later formation of any
new class of creatures, they must materially differ from those of the
six days work; for it is inconsistent with divine wisdom to make a vain,
or unnecessary repetition of the same act. But the American Indians
neither vary from the rest of mankind, in their internal construction,
nor external appearance, except in colour; which, as hath been shewn, is
either entirely accidental, or artificial. As the Mosaic account
declares a completion of the manifestations of God’s infinite wisdom and
power in creation, within that space of time; it follows, that the
Indians have lineally descended from Adam, the first, and the great
parent of all the human species.
Both the Chikkasah and Choktah Indians, call a deceitful person,
_Seente_, a snake: and they frequently say, they have not _Seente
Soolish_, the snake’s tongue; the meaning of which, is very analogous to
דפי, a name the Hebrews gave to a deceitful person; which probably
proceeded from a traditional knowledge of Eve’s being beguiled by the
tempter, in that shape; for the Indians never affix any bad idea to the
present reptile fraternity, except that of poisonous teeth: and they
never use any such metaphor, as that of a snake’s teeth.
Some have supposed the Americans to be descended from the _Chinese_: but
neither their religion, laws, customs, &c., agree in the least with
those of the Chinese: which sufficiently proves, they are not of that
line. Besides, as our best ships now are almost half a year in sailing
to China, or from thence to Europe; it is very unlikely they should
attempt such dangerous discoveries, in early time, with their (supposed)
small vessels, against rapid currents, and in dark and sickly monsoons,
especially, as it is very probable they were unacquainted with the use
of the load-stone to direct their course. China is above eight thousand
miles distant from the American continent, which is twice as far as
across the Atlantic ocean.—And, we are not informed by any antient
writer, of their maritime skill, or so much as any inclination that way,
besides {12} small coasting voyages.—The winds blow likewise, with
little variation, from east to west, within the latitudes of thirty and
odd, north and south, and therefore they could not drive them on the
American coast, it lying directly contrary to such a course.
Neither could persons sail to America, from the north, by the way of
Tartary, or ancient Scythia; that, from its situation, never was, or can
be, a maritime power, and it is utterly impracticable for any to come to
America, by sea, from that quarter. Besides, the remaining traces of
their religious ceremonies, and civil and martial customs, are quite
opposite to the like vestiges of the old Scythians.
Nor, even in the moderate northern climates, is to be seen the least
vestige of any ancient stately buildings, or of any thick settlements,
as are said to remain in the less healthy regions of Peru and Mexico.
Several of the Indian nations assure us they crossed the Missisippi,
before they made their present northern settlements; which, connected
with the former arguments, will sufficiently explode that weak opinion,
of the American Aborigines being lineally descended from the Tartars, or
ancient Scythians.
It is a very difficult thing to divest ourselves, not to say, other
persons, of prejudices and favourite opinions; and I expect to be
censured by some, for opposing commonly received sentiments, or for
meddling with a dispute agitated among the learned ever since the first
discovery of America. But, TRUTH is my object: and I hope to offer some
things, which, if they do not fully solve the problem, may lead the way,
and enable others, possessing stronger judgment, more learning, and more
leisure, to accomplish it. As I before suggested, where we have not the
light of history, or records, to guide us through the dark maze of
antiquity, we must endeavour to find it out by probable arguments; and
in such subjects of enquiry, where no material objections can be raised
against probability, it is strongly conclusive of the truth, and nearly
gives the thing sought for.
From the most exact observations I could make in the long time I traded
among the Indian Americans, I was forced to believe them lineally
descended from the Israelites, either while they were a maritime power,
{13} or soon after the general captivity; the latter however is the most
probable. This descent, I shall endeavour to prove from their religious
rites, civil and martial customs, their marriages, funeral ceremonies,
manners, language, traditions, and a variety of particulars.—Which will
at the same time make the reader thoroughly acquainted with nations, of
which it may be said to this day, very little have been known. {14}
-----
Footnote 10:
“The Choctaws were superior orators. They spoke with good sense, and
used the most beautiful metaphors. They had the power of changing the
same words into different significations, and even their common speech
was full of these changes.” Pickett, _History of Alabama_, (Ed. 1896)
127.
Footnote 11:
Red Shoes, a noted chief of the Choctaws, is frequently mentioned in
later chapters. For sketch, p. 335M.
_Observations, and arguments, in proof of the American Indians being
descended from the Jews._
A number of particulars present themselves in favour of a Jewish
descent. But to form a true judgment, and draw a solid conclusion, the
following arguments must not be partially separated. Let them be
distinctly considered—then unite them together, and view their force
collectively.
ARGUMENT I.
As the Israelites were divided into TRIBES, and had chiefs over them, so
the Indians divide themselves: each tribe forms a little community
within the nation—And as the nation hath its particular symbol, so hath
each tribe the badge from which it is denominated. The sachem of each
tribe, is a necessary party in conveyances and treaties, to which he
affixes the mark of his tribe, as a corporation with us doth their
public seal[IV].—If we go from nation to nation among them, we shall not
find one, who doth not lineally distinguish himself by his respective
family. The genealogical names which they assume, are derived, either
from the names of those animals, whereof the _cherubim_ are said in
revelation, to be compounded; or from such creatures as are most
familiar to them. They have the families of the _eagle_, _panther_,
_tyger_, and _buffalo_; the family of the _bear_, _deer_, _racoon_,
_tortoise_, _snake_, _fish_; and, likewise, of the _wind_. The last, if
not derived from the appearance of the divine glory, as expressed by the
prophet Ezekiel, may {15} be of Tyrian extraction. We are told in the
fragment of Sanchoniathon, that the Tyrians worshipped fire and the
ærial wind, as gods; and that Usous, the son of Hyposouranias, built a
sacred pillar to each of them: so that, if it is not of Israelitish
extraction, it may be derived from the Tyrians their neighbours—as may,
likewise, the appellative name of _fish_; especially, as the Indians,
sometimes, invoke the eagle, and the fish, when they are curing their
sick. The Tyrians were the people, in early times, who, above all
others, enriched themselves in the natural element of the fish.
Footnote IV:
Many of the ancient heathens followed the Jewish custom of dividing
themselves into tribes, or families. The city of Athens was divided
into ten parts, or tribes, and which the Greeks called _Phule_, a
tribe. They named each of the heads that presided over them, Archegos,
Archiphulogos, &c. And writers inform us, that the East-Indian pagans
have to this day tribes, or casts; and that each cast chuses a head to
maintain its privileges, to promote a strict observance of their laws,
and to take care that every thing be managed with proper order. The
ancient heathens mimicked a great deal of the Jewish ceremonial law.
The Indians, however, bear no religious respect to the animals from
which they derive the names of their tribes, but will kill any of the
species, when opportunity serves. The _wolf_ indeed, several of them do
not care to meddle with, believing it unlucky to kill them; which is the
sole reason that few of the Indians shoot at that creature, through a
notion of spoiling their guns.[12] Considering the proximity of Tyre to
Egypt, probably this might be a custom of Egyptian extraction; though,
at the same time, they are so far from esteeming it a deity, they reckon
it the most abominable quadruped of the whole creation.
There is no tribe, or individual, among them, however, called by the
name opossum[V], which is with the Cheerake stiled _seequa_; and with
the Chikkasah and Choktah Indians, _shookka_, synonymous with that of a
_hog_. This may be more material than at first appears, as our natural
histories tell us, that the opossum is common in other parts of the
world. Several of the old Indians assure us, they formerly reckoned it
as filthy uneatable an animal, as a hog; although they confess, and we
know by long observation, that, from the time our traders settled among
them, they are every year more corrupt in their morals; not only in this
instance of eating an impure animal, but in many other religious customs
of their forefathers.
Footnote V:
A creature that hath a head like a hog, and a tail like a rat.
When we consider the various revolutions these unlettered savages are
likely to have undergone, among themselves, through a long-forgotten
measure of time; and that, probably, they have been above twenty
centuries, without the use of letters to convey down their traditions,
it cannot be reasonably expected they should still retain the identical
names of {16} their primo-genial tribes. Their main customs
corresponding with those of the Israelites, sufficiently clears the
subject. Besides, as hath been hinted, they call some of their tribes by
the names of the cherubimical figures, that were carried on the four
principal standards of Israel.
I have observed with much inward satisfaction, the community of goods
that prevailed among them, after the patriarchal manner, and that of the
primitive Christians; especially with those of their own tribe. Though
they are become exceedingly corrupt, in most of their ancient
commendable qualities, yet they are so hospitable, kind-hearted, and
free, that they would share with those of their own tribe, the last part
of their provisions even to a single ear of corn; and to others, if they
called when they were eating; for they have no stated meal-time. An open
generous temper is a standing virtue among them; to be narrow-hearted,
especially to those in want, or to any of their own family, is accounted
a great crime, and to reflect scandal on the rest of the tribe. Such
wretched misers they brand with bad characters, and wish them the fate
of Prometheus, to have an eagle or vulture fastened to their liver: or
of Tantalus, starving in the midst of plenty, without being able to use
it. The Cheerake Indians have a pointed proverbial expression, to the
same effect—_Sinnawah nà wóra_; “The great hawk is at home.”[13]
However, it is a very rare thing to find any of them of a narrow temper:
and though they do not keep one promiscuous common stock, yet it is to
the very same effect; for every one has his own family, or tribe: and,
when one of them is speaking, either of the individuals, or habitations,
of any of his tribe, he says, “He is of my house;” or, “It is my house.”
Thus, when King David prayed that the divine wrath might only fall on
his house, he might mean the tribe of Judah, as well as his own
particular family, exclusive of the aggregate body of Israel.
When the Indians are travelling in their own country, they enquire for a
house of their own tribe; and if there be any, they go to it, and are
kindly received, though they never saw the persons before—they eat,
drink, and regale themselves, with as much freedom, as at their own
tables; which is the solid ground covered with a bear-skin. It is their
usual custom to carry nothing along with them in the journies but a
looking-glass, and red paint, hung to their back—their gun and shot
pouch—or bow and quiver {17} full of barbed arrows; and, frequently,
both gun and bow: for as they are generally in a state of war against
each other, they are obliged, as soon as able, to carry those arms of
defence. Every town has a state-house, or synedrion, as the Jewish
sanhedrim, where, almost every night, the head men convene about public
business; or the town’s-people to feast, sing, dance, and rejoice, in
the divine presence, as will fully be described hereafter. And if a
stranger calls there, he is treated with the greatest civility and
hearty kindness—he is sure to find plenty of their simple home fare, and
a large cane-bed covered with the softened skins of bears, or buffaloes,
to sleep on.[14] But, when his lineage is known to the people, (by a
stated custom, they are slow in greeting one another) his relation, if
he has any there, addresses him in a familiar way, invites him home, and
treats him as his kinsman.
When a warrior dies a natural death, (which seldom happens) the
war-drums, musical instruments, and all other kinds of diversion, are
laid aside for the space of three days and nights. In this time of
mourning for the dead, I have known some of the frolicksome young sparks
to ask the name of the deceased person’s tribe; and once, being told it
was a _racoon_, (the genealogical name of the family) one of them
scoffingly replied, “then let us away to another town, and cheer
ourselves with those who have no reason to weep; for why should we make
our hearts weigh heavy for an ugly, dead racoon?”
But notwithstanding they are commonly negligent of any other tribe but
their own, they regard their own particular lineal descent, in as strict
a manner as did the Hebrew nation.
-----
Footnote 12:
Mooney witnessed a confirmation among the Cherokees of the Eastern
Band, in North Carolina: “A man standing one night upon a fish trap
was scented by a wolf, which came so near that the man was compelled
to shoot it. He at once went home and had the gun exorcised by a
conjurer.” _Myths of the Cherokees_, 448.
Footnote 13:
Mooney gives Cherokee myths built upon Tlanuwa (the great hawk). On
the north bank of Little Tennessee River, in Blount County, Tennessee,
is a high overhanging cliff in which is a cave, the place where lived
the mythic great hawk. _Myths of the Cherokees_, 315. A reciter of one
of the myths insisted that the whites must also believe in it, as
evidence pointing to a coin of the United States and to what he called
the Tlanuwa, holding in its talons the arrows and in its beak the
serpent of the myth. _Ibid._, 466.
Footnote 14:
Confirmed as of later date: Cushman, _op. cit._, 487.
ARGUMENT II.
By a strict, permanent, divine precept, the Hebrew nation were ordered
to worship at Jerusalem, _Jehovah_ the true and living God, and who by
the Indians is stiled _Yohewah_; which the seventy-two interpreters,
either from ignorance or superstition, have translated _Adonai_; and
is the very same as the Greek _Kurios_, signifying Sir, Lord, or
Master; which is commonly applied to earthly potentates, without the
least signification of, or relation to, that most great and awful
name, which describes the divine essence, who naturally {18} and
necessarily exists of himself, without beginning or end. The ancient
heathens, it is well known, worshipped a plurality of gods—Gods which
they formed to themselves, according to their own liking, as various
as the countries they inhabited, and as numerous, with some, as the
days of the year. But these Indian Americans pay their religious
devoir to _Loak-Ishtōhoollo-Aba_, “the great, beneficent, supreme,
holy spirit of fire,” who resides (as they think) above the clouds,
and on earth also with unpolluted people. He is with them the sole
author of warmth, light, and of all animal and vegetable life. They do
not pay the least perceivable adoration to any images, or to dead
persons; neither to the celestial luminaries, nor evil spirits, nor
any created being whatsoever. They are utter strangers to all the
gestures practised by the pagans in their religious rites. They kiss
no idols;[15] nor, if they were placed out of their reach, would they
kiss their hands, in token of reverence and a willing obedience.
The ceremonies of the Indians in their religious worship, are more after
the Mosaic institution, than of pagan imitation: which could not be, if
the majority of the old natives were of heathenish descent; for all
bigots and enthusiasts will fight to death for the very shadow of their
superstitious worship, when they have even lost all the substance. There
yet remain so many marks, as to enable us to trace the Hebrew extraction
and rites, through all the various nations of Indians; and we may with a
great deal of probability conclude, that, if any heathens accompanied
them to the American world, or were settled in it before them, they
became proselytes of justice, and their pagan rites and customs were
swallowed up in the Jewish.
To illustrate the general subject, I shall give the Indian opinion of
some of the heathen gods, contrasted with that of the pagan.