If the adverb is placed after the second verb the meaning changes:

Bend your head as you write a little.

The same is true in the following:

Walk along the hall swinging your arms somewhat.

Walk somewhat along the hall swinging your arms.

General shifting of position would give results as follows:

Bend a little your head as you write.

A little bend your head as you write, etc., etc.

Somewhat walk along the hall swinging your arms.

Walk along somewhat the hall swinging your arms, etc., etc.

The child is quick to recognize by ear the accurate, the normal position

of the adverb.

On the other hand, adverbs of quantity and comparison precede the

adjective:

Make a very broad mark on the blackboard.

Place on your table the prism that is least thick.

Permutation gives the following results:

Make a broad very mark on the blackboard.

Place on your table the prism which thick least is, etc., etc.

Adverbs of time and place often ring like trumpet calls to attention at

the beginning of the sentence:

Drink the water in the glass now.

Now drink the water in the glass.

(Note: In English the adverb of time, placed at the end of the sentence,

gains quite as much emphasis. So for adverbs of place.)

LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON ADVERBS

Subject:

straight, zig-zag (diritto, a zig-zag).

Command:--

--Run _straight_ into the other room; return to your place

walking _zig-zag_.

Subject:

lightly, heavily, sedately (leggermente, gravemente,

pesantemente).

Command:--

--Walk _lightly_ into the other room; return to your

place walking _sedately_ as though you were a very

important person; walk across the room and back again

resting _heavily_ on each step as though it were

hurting you to walk.

Subject:

suddenly, gradually (ad un tratto, gradatamente).

Command:--

--Form in line and walk forward beginning _suddenly_

to stamp with your left foot. Return to your places

letting the stamping _gradually_ cease.

Subject:

meanwhile, frequently, occasionally (sempre, spesso, raramente).

Command:--

--Form in line and march slowly into the next room, stopping

_frequently_. Return to your places stopping

_occasionally_.

--Walk into the next room and back again, _meanwhile_ keeping

your eyes closed.

Subject:

back, forward, to and fro (avanti, indietro, su e giù).

Command:--

--Form in line and walk _forward_ to the other side of the

room; then come _back_ to your places.

--Walk _to and fro_ across the room with your heads lowered

and your hands behind your back.

Subject:

forwards, backwards.

Command:--

--Stand in the middle of the room; then walk

_backwards_ to the window, being careful to walk in a

straight line. Return to your places walking

_forwards_.

Subject:

slowly, abruptly (lentamente, bruscamente).

Command:--

--Rise _slowly_ from your seats.

--Rise _abruptly_ from your seats.

Subject:

politely, cordially (gentilmente, garbatamente).

Command:--

--Offer your chair _politely_ to your nearest neighbor.

--Shake hands _cordially_ with your nearest neighbor.

Subject:

alternately, in succession, simultaneously (successivamente,

alternativamente, simultaneamente).

Command:--

--Raise your two hands _alternately_ above your heads.

--Raise your two hands _simultaneously_ above your heads.

--One of you children walk around the room bowing to each pupil

_in succession_.

Subject:

Well, badly, fairly, best, worst (bene, male, meglio, peggio,

così così, benino, maluccio, benissimo, malissimo).

Command:--

--One of you call the children to the end of the room,

carefully observing how they walk; judge their

carriage without speaking and distribute the following

cards where they belong: _well_, _badly_, _fairly_,

_best_, _worst_.

Subject:

away, back (via).

Command:--

--One of you stand in the center of the room; the

others gather round him. Suddenly all of you run

_away_ from him. Then come _back_ to him again.

Subject:

here, there, somewhere, elsewhere (qui, qua, costì, costà,

lì, là, altrove).

Command:--

--Form in line and the first four children come to me

_here_; the rest go and stand _there_ by the window.

Now go and stand _somewhere_ in the other room. Remain

where you are a moment, then go and stand _elsewhere_.

Finally all come back _here_ to me.

Subject:

thus, likewise (così).

Command:--

--One of you walk around the room holding his arms in a certain

position. The rest of you do _likewise_.

--All of you hold your hands _thus_, as I am doing.

Subject:

up, down, upward, downward.

Command:--

--Roll your handkerchiefs into balls and throw them _up_

to the ceiling.

--Pick them up and throw them _down_ again to the floor.

--Look _upward_ to the ceiling. Now look _downward_ to

the floor.

Subject:

crosswise, lengthwise.

Command:--

--Lay two rods _crosswise_ on the table. Then lay them

_lengthwise_ on the table.

Subject:

sharply, sullenly, gently, kindly.

Command:--

--_Sharply_ order your nearest neighbor to rise from his seat.

--Ask him _gently_ to sit down again.

--Sit _sullenly_ in your chair with your eyes lowered.

--Smile _kindly_ at your nearest neighbor.

A BURST OF ACTIVITY:

THE FUTURE OF THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE IN POPULAR EDUCATION

In our own private experiments when we reached the adverb there occurred

among the children a veritable explosion into a new kind of activity.

They insisted on making up commands themselves. They invented them and

then read them aloud to their companions or had their companions

interpret the slips which they had written. All were most enthusiastic

in performing these commands and they were rigorously scrupulous in

acting them out down to the minutest detail. The executions came to be a

literal, intensely real dramatisation: if a word was inexact or

incorrect, the interpretation of the command threw the error into noisy

relief, and the child who has written it saw before him an action quite

different from what he had in mind. Then he realized that he had

expressed his thought wrongly or inadequately and immediately set to

work to correct his mistake. The revelation seemed to redouble his

energy. He would hunt among his numerous words for the one necessary to

translate his idea into a living scene before his eyes. Suppose a child

had written the following sentence involving the use of the adverb

_sempre_ "always":

Walk about the room (sempre) _always_ on tip-toe.

meaning that the child should _all the while_ go on tip-toe; if the

child began to walk on tip-toe and continued to do so for a long time,

trying to express _sempre_ (always--forever) he would find himself

facing a serious problem. Hence the spontaneous query: "What must I do

to express myself correctly?"

A little girl once wrote "Walk around the tables," meaning that the

children should form a line and walk in and out around each table.

Instead she saw her companions form a line and walk round the entire

group of tables. Red in the face and out of breath she kept calling:

"Stop, stop. That isn't the way," just as if this difference between the

thought she actually had in mind and the way it was being executed were

hurting her intolerably.

This is only a passing suggestion of something which, I think, will

merit much further development later on, after more thorough experiment.

It will suffice, however, to bring to the teacher a notion of a most

fertile field for the development of the written language in its most

rigorous purity. It is evident that the experiment shows the possibility

not only of having spontaneous compositions without grammatical errors

(just as the mechanical writing was spontaneous and without errors), but

of developing a love for clearness and purity of speech which will be a

potent factor in improving the literary appreciation of the masses, and

popular culture generally.

When the children are seized with this passion for accurate expression

of their thoughts in writing, when, spontaneously, clearness becomes the

goal of their efforts, they follow the hunt for words with the keenest

enthusiasm. They feel that there are never too many words to build with

exactness the delicate edifice of thought. Problems of language come to

them as a revelation. "How many words are there?" they ask. "How many

nouns, how many verbs, how many adjectives? Is there any way for us to

learn them all?" They are no longer content with their little copy-books

of words. They ask for a wealth of word material which they now enjoy

with all the delight of attractive and orderly interpretation. They

never get tired of it.

These developments in our work suggested to us the idea of giving the

children a large vocabulary comprising a sufficient number of nouns,

verbs, and adjectives and containing _all_ the words of the other parts

of speech. The difference in bulk between the real content of language

(substance and modification, that is, nouns with their adjectives, and

verbs with their adverbs) and the other words which serve to establish

relations and consolidate this content, is something very impressive to

children of eight. It is for them that we tried to prepare our word

charts and the dictionaries of synonyms for nouns, verbs, and

adjectives. Here, meanwhile, are some of the commands which the children

wrote themselves--things which they improvised all of a sudden, by an

explosion of energy, as it were, developed as the result of inner

maturity. Compare the aridity and uniformity of the commands we invented

ourselves with the variety and richness of ideas appearing in the

children's commands! We very evidently show the weariness the

preparation of the material caused us. They, on the contrary, reveal an

ardent, vivacious spirit, a life full of exuberance.

COMMANDS IMPROVISED BY THE CHILDREN

--Build the pink tower very _badly_.

--Make _accurately_ a pose for each of the pictures in

the room.

--Pretend you were two old men: speak _softly_ as if

you were very sad; and one of you say this: "Too bad

poor Pancrazio is dead!" And the other say: "Shall we

have to wear our black clothes to-morrow?" Then walk

along _silently_.

--Walk along limping _heavily_; then _suddenly_ fall

_prostrate_ on your faces as though you were

exhausted. Return tripping _lightly_ to your places,

without falling and without limping.

--Walk _slowly_ with lowered heads as though you were

very sad; return then _joyfully_ and walking

_lightly_.

--Take a flower and run _eagerly_ and give it to the

lady.

--Go half way round the room limping; the rest of the

way _on all fours_.

--Silence _immediately_; _silently_ act out poses for

the pictures in the room.

--Go from your seats to the door _on all fours_;

_then_ rise and limp _lightly_ half way round the

room; do the other half back to the door _on all

fours_; _there_ rise and run _lightly back_ to your

seats.

--Walk _silently_ into the next room; walk three times

around the big table and _then_ return to your places.

--Go into the next room running _quite fast_; come

back _gradually_ reducing speed until you reach your

places.

--Go to the cabinet _immediately_; take a

letter-chart, and walk twice around the room with the

chart on your head, trying _never_ to let it fall; go

back to your places _in the same way_.

--Walk around the large hall, walking _wearily_; sit

down, as though you were tired, and fall asleep; wake

up _shortly after_ and go back to your places.

--Form in line and march forward till you reach a

clear space; _there_ form a circle; _next_ a rhombus;

_then_ a square; _finally_ a trapezium. Go into the

big hall conversing _softly_; _suddenly_ fall to the

floor _lightly_ and go to sleep; then wake up and look

around, saying, "Where are we?" Then go back to your

seats.

IX

PRONOUNS

ANALYSES

Material:--The box has seven compartments marked with the colored title

slips; tan for the article, black for the noun, brown for the adjective,

red for the verb, violet for the preposition, pink for the adverb, and

_green_ for the _pronoun_. In the rear space are the slips for the

sentences to be analyzed. There are, as usual, fewer cards than words.

The exercise is to substitute the pronouns for nouns.

GROUP A

(Personal Pronouns)

--George's sister was weeping. George soothed his sister with a

kiss.

George's sister was weeping. _He_ soothed _her_ with a kiss.

--The book fell to the floor. Emma replaced the book on the table.

The book fell to the floor. _She_ replaced _it_ on the table.

--The children gave their mother a surprise. The children wrote a

letter to their mother.

The children gave their mother a surprise. _They_ wrote _her_ a

letter.

--The teacher said: The drawing is beautiful! Will _you_ give the

drawing to the teacher?

The teacher said: _It_ is beautiful! Will _you_ give _it_ to

_me_?

--Charles has gone into the other room. Can you find Charles?

Charles has gone into the other room. Can you find _him_?

GROUP B

(Demonstratives (questo, cotesto, quello) "this, that, these, those,

this one, that one)

(As already noted for the adjective English lacks the demonstrative of

the second person: that _near you_.)

--Show a child the prisms of the brown stair; _this_ prism is

thicker than _that_ prism; _that_ prism is thinner than

_these_ prisms.

Show a child the prisms of the brown stair; _this_ is thicker

than _that_; _that_ is thinner than _these_.

--Let us look at the children: _this_ child is taller than _that_

child; _that_ child is shorter than _this_ child.

Let us look at the children: _this one_ is taller than _that

one_; _that one_ is shorter than _this one_.

--Here is a cone on top of a cylinder: try to put the cylinder on

top of the cone.

Here is a cone on top of a cylinder: try to put _this_ on top

of _that_.

--Let us show the cubes of the pink tower to a little girl: _this_

cube is the largest; _those_ cubes are the smallest of the

series.

Let us show the cubes of the pink tower to a little girl: _this

one_ is the largest; _those_ are the smallest of the

series.

GROUP C

(Relatives and Interrogatives: (che, il quale, cui, chi? quale?) who,

whom, whose, which, that, who? whose? whom? what? which? where, when?)

Note: The situation with the relatives is different in

English: _who_ refers to persons; _which_ to things;

_that_ to either persons or things; whereas _che_ and

_il quale_ are interchangeable referring to both

persons and things, _il quale_ having special

rhetorical advantages over _che_, in addition to

showing gender and number. _Cui_ is used after

prepositions; and, for the possessive Italian has _il

cui_, _la cui_, etc., "whose".

--Ask the children: Which child wants to see my drawing?

Ask the children: _Who_ wants to see my drawing?

--Ask Charles for the pencil; Charles put the pencil into the

drawer.

Ask Charles for the pencil _which_ Charles put into the drawer.

Ask Charles for the pencil _that_ he put into the drawer.

--Thank Charles. Charles gave you the pencil.

Thank Charles _who_ gave you the pencil.

--Look at the children. You hear the children in the next room.

Look at the children _whom_ you hear in the next room.

--Yesterday you put the flowers into a vase: change the water in

the vase.

Change the water in the vase into _which_ you put the flowers

yesterday.

Change the water in the vase _where_ you put the flowers

yesterday.

Change the water in the vase _that_ you put the flowers into

yesterday.

--Choose among the pieces of cloth the cloth most like your dress.

Choose among the pieces of cloth _the one which_ is most like

your dress.

Choose among the pieces of cloth _the one that_ is most like

your dress.

--Here is the little girl. We found her pocketbook.

Here is the little girl _whose_ pocketbook we found.

--Here is the boy. We saw him yesterday.

Here is the boy _whom_ we saw yesterday.

--Select an inset from the insets used for drawing.

Select an inset from _those which_ are used for drawing.

Select an inset from _those that_ are used for drawing.

GROUP D

(Possessives: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs)

--This book is my book

This book is _mine_

--This book is your book

This book is _yours_

--Those pencils are his pencils

Those pencils are _his_

--Those pencils are her pencils

Those pencils are _hers_

--That house is our house

That house is _ours_

--This money is your money

This money is _yours_

--Those seats are their seats

Those seats are _theirs_

--This place is its place

This place is _its_

PERMUTATIONS

The function of the pronoun as a substitute for a noun has been made

clear in the analysis of the above sentences. After the children

themselves have composed the first sentence with the colored cards they

form the second sentence by taking away the noun card and substituting

the corresponding pronoun. In the work done by the teacher to give the

child an idea of the normal position of the pronoun, let her remember

that in Italian personal pronouns precede the verb except in

interrogation (where the subject may follow) and in cases where the

subject is specially emphasized and where the pronouns appear as a

suffix (infinitive, participle and imperative).

He soothed her with a kiss.

He her soothed with a kiss, etc., etc.

[It will become apparent that in English the personal pronoun takes the

position of the noun, whereas for Italian the pronoun shifts to a

position in front of the verb. Considerable variety develops in English

when the noun is replaced by a relative pronoun. However, the different

problems arising in connection with pronouns generally are so complex

that we return to this subject, especially to the question of subject

and object forms, in dealing with sentence-analysis later.]

LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE PRONOUN

Subject:

Subjective Personal Pronouns: I, you, he, she, we, you, they

(io, tu, egli, essa, noi, voi, loro, etc.).

Explain these pronouns as briefly and practically as possible from the

point of view of speaker and listener, etc., one child commanding the

others while they _execute_ the command along with him. Example: The

teacher, named for instance Anna Fedeli, explains in this way: "I don't

say _Anna Fedeli_; I say _I_." "To Carlino here I don't say Carlino; I

say, _you_." "Of Gigino, over there, I don't say Gigino; I say _he_,"

etc., etc.

Command:--

The command is given by a child; but he himself

executes the first personal form along with the other

children:

--_I_ walk around the table

--_You_ walk around the table

--_She_ walks around the table

--_He_ walks around the table

--_We_ walk around the table

--_You_ walk around the table

--_They_ walk around the table

--_I_ raise my arms

--_You_ raise your arms

--_She_ raises her arms

--_He_ raises his arms

--_We_ raise our arms

--_You_ raise your arms

--_They_ raise their arms

--_I_ lift the chair

--_You_ lift the chair

--_He_ lifts the chair, etc., etc.

--_I_ take the ink-stand

--_You_ take the ink-stand

--_He_ takes the ink-stand, etc., etc.

--_I_ wave my handkerchief

--_You_ wave your handkerchief, etc., etc.

From these exercises the notion gradually develops that:

the _first person_ is the one who _speaks_;

the _second person_ is the one who _listens_;

the _third person_ is the one spoken of.

Other commands may be dramatized by small groups as follows:

--The first person must put a question the second must

answer, and the third from a distance must try to hear

both of them.

--Let the first one write, the second one watch, and

the third one say "That is not right."

The following commands may be read aloud by the child:

--_I_ ask you a question very softly. _You_ answer

_me_; and _he_, over there, must try to hear both of

us.

--_I_ shall write; _you_ must act as if you were

trying to read what I am writing; and then _he_, over

there, will call out: "That is not right."

Subject:

Direct Objective Personal Pronouns: me, you, him, her,

us, you, them (mi, ti, si, lo, la, ci, vi, si, li,

le).

Reflexives and reciprocals: myself, yourself, etc.,

each other.

Command:--

(Here too one child commands executing the first

personal forms, while the others act out the second

and third):

--I touch the oil-cloth on the table; I touch

_myself_; I touch _you_; you touch _yourself_; I touch

_him_; you touch _her_; let us touch _each other_; you

touch _me_.

--Charles, take the whisk-broom and brush the table;

Charles, brush _me_; Charles, brush _him_; Charles,

brush _her_; Charles, brush _yourself_.

--Mary and I bow to the teacher; now we bow to _you_;

now we bow to _him_; now we bow to _her_; now we bow

to _each other_.

--I lead George by the hand to the window; I lead

_you_ by the hand to the window; I lead _him_ by the

hand to the window; he leads _us_ by the hand to the

window; we lead _her_ by the hand to the window.

Subject:

Indirect object personal pronouns: me, te, se, mi, ti,

si, le, gli, lui, lei, noi, voi, ci, vi, loro (the

disjunctive pronouns, used after prepositions, etc.,

do not differ in English from the simple direct object

forms).

(The commands are still executed as above):

Commands:--

--I am going to distribute these pencils: one to

_you_, one to _him_, one to _her_; one to _myself_.

--Louis, give _me_ a command; give _him_ a command;

give _her_ a command; give _yourself_ a command.

--Attention! Charles, give _her_ a blue bead! Mary,

give _him_ a red bead!

--Alfred, give a white bead to _me_; give _me_ also a

yellow bead!

Subject:

Demonstratives for persons (questi, costui, colui; the

second person, "that one near you," is lacking in

English, which also fails to distinguish between

persons and things and between genders).

When the distinctions in space represented by these pronouns have been

taught as above the children read and execute as follows:

Commands:--

Distribute the pronouns to different children in the

class; _questi_, "this one (near me)," _costei_

(feminine); _costui_, "that one (near you)," _costei_

(fem.); _colui_, "that one (over there)," _colei_

(fem.); when the children are in their proper places,

give to each child a different command.

--Call to you a boy and a girl, and then command:

_that one_ (_costui_) go and get a case; _that one_

(_costei_) go and get a counter; _those_ (_costoro_)

keep far away and preserve complete silence.

--Point to two children, one standing near you and one

far away; then command: _that one_ (_colui_) go and

fetch an armchair for _that one_ (fem. _costei_) and a

chair for _this one_ (_questo_); then have him return

to his place. Then have all the children execute the

commands which _those_ (_costoro_) will now give.

In case the class is made up entirely of girls or entirely of boys, the

children find considerable amusement in trying to imitate the manners of

whichever opposite sex is missing.

Subject:

Demonstratives of things (questo, cotesto, quello,

ciò, ne); here also English has no pronoun of the

second person (_that near you_), nor does it possess

the general indefinite _ciò_ (referring to a general

idea: _that_ (ciò) _is true_).

When the meaning of these words, in terms of space

location, has been taught, the children execute as

follows:

Commands:--

--You children divide into three groups; then go and

occupy three different places; change places as

follows: you leave _that_ (_cotesto_) and occupy

_that_ over there; the others leave _that_ (_quello_)

and occupy this (_questo_).

Subject:

Possessives: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs.

Commands:--

--Point out various objects, saying: This is my slate;

that one is _yours_, that is _hers_, and this one is

_his_.

--Point at the different seats, saying: Here are our

places, that is _mine_ and this is _yours_. Those over

there are _theirs_.

--Pass around little baskets, saying: This is my

basket. Whose is that? Is that _yours_? Is this

_hers_? Are these _ours_? Is this one _his_?

We dealt with the relatives only incidentally in the analyses (Group C

above); we do not treat them here, postponing the study of them in

detail to the chapter on sentence-analysis.

PARADYMS

In teaching the declension of the pronouns we use the method employed by

us in teaching all inflections: bundles of cards, of which one group is

tied separately and serves as a guide. The child arranges the cards on

the table, working first on the guiding group and putting the pronouns

in order of persons: first, second, third.

GROUP A

(Personal Pronouns)

_Masculine_ _Feminine_

I we io noi io noi

you, thou you tu voi tu voi

he they egli loro ella loro

she they esso essi essa esse

it they lo li la le

me us lui lei

you, thee you gli le

him them

her them

it them

GROUP B

(Demonstratives of Person)

_Masculine_ _Feminine_

this these questi costei

that those costui costei

this one these colui colei

that one those costoro costoro

coloro coloro

GROUP C

(Demonstratives of Things)

_Masculine_ _Feminine_

this these questo questi questa queste

that those cotesto cotesti cotesta coteste

this one these quel(lo) quegli, quei quella quelle

that one those ciò ciò

ne ne

GROUP D

(Relatives)

_Persons_ _Persons and Things_

_Masculine_ _Feminine_

who il quale i quali la quale le quali

whose che che

whom chi chi

that cui cui

_Things_

which chi (compound = "he who")

that

what (compound = that which)

GROUP E

(Possessives)

mine its

yours (thine) ours

his yours

hers theirs

GROUP F

(Interrogatives)

_Persons_ _Persons_

who? chi?

whose?

whom? quale?

which?

_Things_ _Things_

che?

what? cosa?

che cosa?

which? quale?

AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND VERB

The cards given to the child for this work are green for the personal

pronoun subjects, and red for the verb forms of the three simple tenses,

present, past, and future. There are, for Italian, three groups

corresponding to the three conjugations: _amare_, _temere_, _sentire_.

The child's work is to place the pronouns in the proper order of person

(first, second, third, singular and plural) and to put after each

pronoun the corresponding verb form. Each child corrects his work by his

own sense of the language; however, the teacher looks it over to verify

it. The resulting exercises when correctly performed are as follows:

GROUP A

io amo ("I love" Io amavo ("I was io amerò ("I shall

etc.) loving") love")

tu ami tu amavi tu amerai

egli ama egli amava egli amerà

noi amiamo noi amavamo noi ameremo

voi amate voi amavate voi amerete

essi amano essi amavano essi ameranno

GROUP B

io temo ("I fear") io temevo ("I was io temerò ("I shall

fearing") fear")

tu temi tu temevi tu temerai

egli teme egli temeva egli temerà

noi temiamo noi temevamo noi temeremo

voi temete voi temevate voi temerete

essi temono essi temevano essi temeranno

GROUP C

io sento ("I hear") io sentivo ("I was io sentirò ("I shall

hearing") hear")

tu senti tu sentivi tu sentirai

egli sente egli sentiva egli sentirà

noi sentiamo noi sentivamo noi sentiremo

voi sentite voi sentivate voi sentirete

essi sentono essi sentivano essi sentiranno

FOR ENGLISH

GROUP A

(Simple Tenses)

I love I loved I shall love

you love you loved you will love

he loves he loved he will love

we love we loved we shall love

you love you loved you will love

they love they loved they will love

GROUP B

(Progressive Forms)

I am loving I was loving I shall be loving

you are loving you were loving you will be loving

he is loving he was loving he will be loving

we are loving we were loving we shall be loving

you are loving you were loving you will be loving

they are loving they were loving they will be loving

GROUP C

(Interrogative Forms)

do I love? did I love? will I love?

do you love? did you love? shall you love?

does he love? did he love? will he love?

do we love? did we love? will we love?

do you love? did you love? shall you love?

do they love? did they love? will they love?

GROUP D

(Intensive and Negative Forms)

I do (not) love I did (not) love I shall (not) love

etc. etc. etc.

The child can shuffle his cards in various ways, mixing the verb forms

of the three different Italian verbs, or the four tense forms of the

English verb; passing then to a reconstruction of the different tenses

according to the pronouns, the order of which has by this time become

familiar to him.

The next step is to conjugate properly.

CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS

MATERIAL

In our material we offer (for Italian) the conjugation of the two

auxiliary verbs (_essere_ "to be," _avere_ "to have") and the model

verbs of the first, second and third conjugations. The colors used for

the five verbs are all different, yellow for _essere_ "to be," black for

_avere_ "to have," pink for _amare_ "to love," green for _temere_ "to

fear," light blue for _sentire_ "to hear." Each card has both pronoun

and verb form. This is not only to simplify and expedite the exercise

but also to make sure of auto-exercise, since the pronoun guides the

order of the forms in each tense. These verb forms of a given verb

preceded by the pronouns are, accordingly, made into a little package.

Here, however, the groups are not so simple as in other cases. For the

verb, the cards are kept in a sort of red envelope tied with a ribbon.

The infinitive of the verb is written on the outside of the envelope,

which, though very simple, is most attractive. When the whole verb is

wrapped in its package and tied with the ribbon, it forms a small red

prism of the following dimensions: cmm. 35 X 4 X 5.5. On untying the

ribbon and opening the envelope the child finds inside ten little

"volumes" with red covers. These volumes represent the _moods_ of the

verb and they have the following titles inscribed on the first page:

Indicative Mood

Conditional Mood (for Italian)

Subjunctive Mood

Imperative Mood

Verbals

To facilitate replacing these materials in an orderly way and to be sure

that this order is recognized, the child finds in the corner of each

envelope a Roman numeral (I, II, III, IV, V); and besides that, an

Arabic numeral indicating the number of tenses in the given mood. On

opening the little volume and taking off the cover we find many other

tiny volumes with red covers. These are the tenses. In the middle of

each cover is written the name and, to one side, the number indicating

the relative position of the tenses in the following manner: the

_simple_ tense is marked with the letter _S_ and the _compound_ tense

with the letter _C_. The titles, then, of the eight booklets contained

in the little volume for a given mood are:

Present Tense 1s

Past Tense 2s

Future Tense 3s

Perfect Tense 1c

Pluperfect Tense 2c

Future Perfect Tense 3c

(For Italian the tenses are: Present, 1s, Imperfect 2s, Remote Past 3s,

Future 4s, Perfect 1c, Pluperfect 2c, Past Anterior 3c, Future Perfect

4c.)

Finally, on opening each of these little booklets (which, by the way,

are 3.5 X 4 cmm. and only a bare millimeter thick) we have the cards

with the verb forms preceded by the corresponding pronoun.

This rather resembles the famous egg in which a number of smaller and

smaller eggs were enclosed. For this beautiful package forming as a

whole the entire conjugation of the verb contains the booklets of the

different moods, which in their turn contain the smaller booklets of the

tenses. The orderly enumeration of the moods and tenses, together with

the pronouns which serve to show the order of the verb forms, allows the

child to conjugate the entire verb by himself and to study the

classification of the different forms that make it up. In fact the

children need no help in this exercise. Once they have this attractive,

complicated, and mysterious little red package, they evolve on their

little tables in an orderly way the entire conjugation of the verb.

Having learned the verb forms little by little they shuffle the cards of

the different tenses in various ways and then try to put them in their

regular order. At length they are able to shuffle all the cards in the

entire verb as the children in the "Children's House" did with the

sixty-four colors; and to reconstruct correctly the whole conjugation by

tense and by mood. They themselves finally ask to write the verb and

they prepare of their own accord new booklets writing out the new verbs

as they meet them.

For this purpose we have included in our materials many booklets

likewise covered in red and filled with _blank_ cards of a variety of

colors. The children themselves fill out these cards in conjugating

their new verbs.

The exercises both of working out the conjugation of the verb and of

writing out new verbs may be performed at home.

X

CONJUNCTIONS

ANALYSES

Material: This box has eight compartments for the title cards, which are

tan (article), black (noun), brown (adjective), red (verb), violet

(preposition), pink (adverb), green (pronoun), and _yellow_

(_conjunction_). It also has the usual place for the sentences that are

to be analyzed. These again are given in groups.

GROUP A

Coordinate Conjunctions

(Copulative, Disjunctive, Illative, Adversative)

--Put away the pen _and_ the ink-stand.

Put away the pen _or_ the ink-stand.

Put away _neither_ the pen _nor_ the ink-stand, _but_ the paper.

--The table, therefore, is bare _and_ in order.

_For_ all your things are in their places.

--Do not leave the objects you use here and there about the room,

_but_ put them all back in their places.

--Speak to your nearest school-mate not aloud _but_ in a whisper.

--Move your table forward a little, _but_ only a little _and_

without making any noise.

[Illustration: Grammar Boxes, showing respectively eight and nine parts

of speech.]

GROUP B

Subordinate Conjunctions

(Time, condition, cause, purpose)

--You can push down a key of the piano without making

any sound _if_ you push it down slowly.

--You could write with your left hand _if_ you

"touched" the letters with that hand.

--You will get silence from the children _as soon as_

you write "silence" on the blackboard.

--That child is happy: he always sings _while_ he

works.

--Always shut the door _when_ you go from one room to

another.

--Everybody must be orderly _in order that_ the

"Children's House" may look neat.

GROUP C

Subordinate conjunctions, _continued_

(Cause, concession, alternative)

--The "Children's House" is attractive _because_ it is

pretty and _because_ it is so easy to keep busy all

the time.

--I shall give it to you _since_ you have asked me for

it very politely.

--We shall go to walk in the park rather _than_ in the

crowded streets.

--I shall give you that toy _although_ I should have

preferred to let you have a beautiful book.

--You may promise to go and visit him to-morrow

_provided_ you keep your promise.

[Illustration: The children are permitted to work at their various

occupations in complete freedom. (_The Lenox School, Montessori

Elementary Class, New York._)]

PERMUTATIONS

The removal of the conjunction destroys the relationship between the

words, and this brings out its function in the sentence:

Put away the pen and the ink-stand.

Put away the pen the ink-stand.

Put away the pen or the ink-stand.

Put away the pen the ink-stand.

You could write with your left hand if you touched the letters

with that hand.

You could write with your left hand you touched the letters with

that hand.

The conjunction must be placed between the words it connects: otherwise

the meaning is changed or destroyed:

Put away the pen and the ink-stand.

Put and away the pen the ink-stand.

The "Children's House" is attractive because it is pretty.

The "Children's House" is attractive it is pretty.

LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE CONJUNCTIONS

Subject:

Coordinate conjunctions: and, or, neither, nor (e, o,

nè).

Commands:--

--Come to "silence" where you are _and_ move only at

my call.

--Come to "silence" where you are _or else_ move

silently among the chairs.

--Walk on tip-toe about the room, being careful

_neither_ to meet _nor_ to follow one another.

Subject:

Declarative: that (che).

Command:--

--Tell two of your schoolmates _that_ you know a

conjunction.

Subject:

Adversatives: but, however, instead (ma, invece).

Command:--

--Form two lines; now one line face about turning from

left to right; the other line, _instead_, turn in

opposite direction.

--Form in one long line and advance; when you reach

the end of the room, do not stop, _but_ turn to the

left.

Subject:

Condition: if (se).

Command:--

--You will be able to hear this drop of water fall,

_if_ you remain for a moment in absolute silence.

Subject:

Time: while, when, as soon as (mentre, quando,

appena).

Command:--

--A few of you walk about among the tables; then stop

in the center of the room, _while_ the others gather

round you and try to cover your eyes with their hands.

--One of you start to leave the room. _When_ you are

about to cross the threshold, the others will block

the way compelling you to stop.

--All of you ready! _As soon as_ I say "Go!" run to

the other end of the room.

Subject:

Purpose: so that, in order that (affinchè, perchè).

Command:--

--One of you stand in the middle of the room; the

others try to pass near him quickly _so that_ he

cannot touch you.

--I am going to whisper a command: listen in perfect

silence _in order that_ you may hear what I command.

Subject:

Alternative: rather than (piuttostochè, anzichè).

Command:--

--Those children who would _rather_ work _than_ go out

of doors rise from their places.

Subject:

Cause: because, since (perchè, poichè).

Command:--

--Before beginning to work let us become entirely

quiet, _because_ then we can think about what we are

going to do.

Subject:

Exception: except, save (fuorchè, salvochè).

Command:--

--Get the counters and place one on every table in the

room _except_ on this one. Gather up all the counters

_save_ the red ones. Return all the counters to their

box.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

SERIES A

--Of these two long rods, this one is the _longer_.

Of these three rods, which is the _longest_?

--This rod is _longer_ than that.

That rod in the _longest_ of the three.

Which is the _longest_ of the series?

--This cloth is _smoother_ than that.

This cloth is _smoothest_ of all.

--Of these two shades of red which is the _darker_?

Of all these shades of red which is the _darkest_?

--Of these two prisms which is the _thicker_?

This prism is _thicker_ than that.

Of these three prisms, which is _thickest_?

--Which of these two children is the _taller_?

Which is the _tallest_ child in the room?

SERIES B

--Which of these two pictures is the _more_ beautiful?

This picture is _more_ beautiful than that.

--Which of these three pictures is _most_ beautiful?

Which is the _most_ beautiful picture in the room?

--Which of these two games is the _more_ amusing?

This game is _more_ amusing than that.

This game is _most_ amusing of all.

--This drawing is good.

That drawing is _better_.

That drawing is _best_.

--There are some beads on this table.

There are _more_ beads on that table.

There are _most_ beads on that table.

--There is a little water in this glass.

There is _less_ water in that glass.

There is _least_ water in that glass.

--Of these two children John is the _elder_.

Of these three children Mary is the _eldest_.

Mary is _older_ than John.

John is _older_ than Laura.

A set of exercises may be arranged to bring out the paradymns of

comparison by means of suffixes (_-er_, _-est_) and of adverbs (_more_,

_most_). Here the series of cards for the positive adjectival forms are,

as usual, brown, the phonograms for _-er_ and _-est_ in lighter and

darker shades of brown respectively. The cards for _more_ and _most_ as

adverbs are colored pink. When properly arranged, the cards appear as

follows:

long tall thick smooth

long _er_ tall _er_ thick _er_ smooth _er_

long _est_ tall _est_ thick _est_ smooth _est_

short dark light rough

short _er_ dark _er_ light _er_ rough _er_

short _est_ dark _est_ light _est_ rough _est_

beautiful amusing interesting

_more_ beautiful _more_ amusing _more_ interesting

_most_ beautiful _most_ amusing _most_ interesting

A second exercise contains cards for each of the forms for these same

words. There are three colors: brown, light brown and dark brown

(superlative). There are in addition similar cards for the adjectives of

irregular comparisons, and three title cards: _Positive_, _Comparative_,

_Superlative_. The exercise results as follows:

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_

long longer longest

tall taller tallest

thick thicker thickest

smooth smoother smoothest

short shorter shortest

dark darker darkest

light lighter lightest

rough rougher roughest

beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

amusing more amusing most amusing

interesting more interesting most interesting

old elder eldest

many more most

good better best

bad worse worst

little less least

XI

INTERJECTIONS

Since this is the last part of speech to be studied the children are now

able to recognize _all_ the different parts of speech and it is no

longer necessary to make sentences containing only parts of speech which

the children know. Therefore in our Italian lessons we choose henceforth

sentences from the classic authors (mostly from Manzoni). Since the

interjection is really a thought expressed in an abbreviated form it

lends itself readily to dramatic interpretation. With the same sentence

the children accordingly can now perform the two-fold exercise of

general analysis and "interpretative reading." They now recite sentences

which they have picked out and studied instead of the commands. At this

time also they are given a chart containing the complete classification

of interjections. The children read them, interpreting each as they go

along by voice and gesture. This is the first table of classification to

be presented. Later on all the parts of speech will be given on charts

with their definitions and classification.

ANALYSES

Material: The grammar box is complete. It now has nine separate

compartments for the colored cards, article (tan), noun (black),

adjective (brown), verb (red), preposition (violet), adverb (pink),

pronoun (green), conjunction (yellow), and _interjection_ (_blue_). In

the compartment for the sentence slips are groups of cards which

correspond exactly to the number of the words contained in the

sentences.

GROUP A

(Per amor del cielo! oibò! addio! ehm! misericordia! ah!)

_Please!_ Don't make so much noise!

_Shame on you!_ exclaimed Henry, much shocked at those

words.

_Good-by!_ We shall see you to-morrow.

_Look out!_ If you drop that vase, you will break it.

_Mercy on us!_ What is the matter with the poor man?

_Aha!_ now I understand!

GROUP B

(Eh via! bravo! bene! ehi! poh! per carità! oh!)

_Come, come!_ Do you think I am going to believe all

that nonsense?

_Goodness!_ I hope the child is not going to fall.

_Thanks!_ It was kind of you to help me put my objects

away.

_Cockadoodledoo!_ sang the rooster in the yard!

_Ding-dong, ding-dong!_ The engines were passing by.

There was a fire!

_Cheer up!_ There is no harm done!

GROUP C

(Ohè! ih! toh! poveretto! ahi! ohi! eh! animo! uh! ton!)

_Farewell!_ The ship gradually drew away from the

shore! The houses faded from view one by one. The

hills formed a low line on the horizon. _Farewell!_ It

would be months, years perhaps, before George would

see the old familiar town again. _Farewell!_

_Help! Help!_ came a voice through the fog! A man was

drowning.

_Hush!_ Do you hear that bird singing in the distance?

_Alas!_ It was too late! When the doctor came, the

poor man was dead!

_Hurrah! Hurrah!_ The soldiers were now almost at the

top of the hill. _Hurrah! hurrah!_ The

red-white-and-blue was waving at last where the enemy

had held out so long!

_Bang!_ In the still night the sound of a gun roused

the sleeping inhabitants.

CHART OF CLASSIFIED INTERJECTIONS

(For interpretative reading)

ITALIAN INTERJECTIONS:

_Pain_: ahi! ohi! ohimè! ahimè! ah! oh! poveretto!

_Prayer_: deh! mercè! aiuto! per carità! per amor di

Dio!

_Surprise_, _wonder_: Oh! ih! nientedimeno! poh! toh!

eh! corbezzoli! bazzecole! caspita! cospetto! uh!

oooh! misericordia! diavolo! bubbole!

_Threat_: ehm! guai!

_Disgust_, _horror_: puh! puah! brr!

_Anger_: oibò! vergogna!

_Doubt_: uhm!

_Weariness_: auf! auff!

_Calls_, _silence_: ehi! ohè! olà! alto là! pss! st!

psst!

_Demonstratives_: ecco! riecco! eccomi! eccoci!

_Encouragement_: orsù! via! suvvia! animo! coraggio!

arri là! hop hop!

_Greeting_: salve! vale! addio! arrivederci! ave!

ciao!

_Applause_: bene! bravo! viva! evviva! gloria! osanna!

alleluja!

_Onomatapoetic_: crac! patatrac! piff paff! din don!

ton ton! zum zum! bum bum!

_Animal sounds_: gnau! chicchirichì! coccodè! cra cra

cra! uè uè uè! glu glu glu! pi pi pi! cri cri! fron

fron! bu bu!

_Curses_: accidenti! accidempoli! perbacco! canchero!

malanaggia!

ENGLISH INTERJECTIONS:

_Pain_: oh! alas! ah! ouch! my!

_Joy_: oh! ah! oh my! good! splendid!

_Surprise_: ha! aha! oh! really! you don't say!

indeed! well, well! upon my word!

_Contempt_: fudge! pshaw! fie! nonsense! bother!

_Hesitation_: hum!

_Resolution_: by Jove!

_Silence_: hush! hist! listen! shh!

_To animals_: whoa! gee! haw! geddap! kitty-kitty!

puss-puss!

_Onomatapoetic_: ding-dong! bang! whiz! bing! crack!

snap! etc., etc.

(In general the use of interjections, especially of capricious

character, is much more characteristic of the best Italian writing and

speech than it is of English.)

XII

SENTENCE ANALYSIS

I

SIMPLE SENTENCES

The material for logical analysis consists of little rolls of fairly

stiff paper, on which are printed simple, compound and complex

sentences, in carefully prepared series.

There is also a chart, divided into two columns of rectangular spaces,

with the name of one sentence element printed in each space. The

sentence read on the roll can be torn off part by part, and each of

these parts is placed in one of the rectangles, according to the name

printed on it. This is another application of the compartment box method

used to analyze first the alphabet, then the sounds which go to make up

the word, finally the words as parts of speech. Here, the compartments

are reduced to a simple design.

The charts for logical analysis are on colored paper and are

artistically drawn and decorated. We have charts of four different kinds

as regards ornament and color, for such details exert a considerable

influence upon the work of the children. On the following page is a

sample of the charts with its "sections."

CHART A

+--------------------------+----------------------------+

| VERB | Who is it that? |

| | What is it that? |

| (The verbal or nominal | |

| predicate.) | SUBJECT |

+--------------------------+----------------------------+

| Who? What? | To whom? To what? |

| (Direct object.) | (Indirect object.) |

+--------------------------+----------------------------+

| By Whom? By What? | Of whom? Of what? |

| (Agent.) | (Possessive, material.) |

+--------------------------+----------------------------+

| When? | Where? |

| (Time.) | (Place.) |

+--------------------------+----------------------------+

| Whence? | How? |

| (Source.) | (Manner.) |

+--------------------------+----------------------------+

| Why? | What for? |

| (Cause.) | (Purpose.) |

+--------------------------+----------------------------+

| By means of whom? | With whom? |

| By means of what? | With what? |

| (Instrument.) | (Accompaniment.) |

+--------------------------+----------------------------+

| (Attributive (phrases).) | (Vocative.) |

+--------------------------+----------------------------+

The two spaces at the top, subject and predicate, are somewhat larger

and are more conspicuously decorated than the other rectangles below.

The words _subject_ and _verb_ are printed entirely in large capitals.

The other spaces, however, are much more simply decorated and the

words are in small letters. This helps to distinguish the principal from

the secondary elements in the sentences. The names of the parts of

speech, and the questions which bring out the meaning of these names,

are in different colors: for instance, the names may be black and the

questions red, or the names may be in red and the questions in green.

And the letters of the questions are larger than the letters of the

names, except in the two upper spaces, where the words _subject_ and

_verb_ are in the largest type.

The child begins to see what a sentence is: that is, he begins to

_concentrate_ on this particular question. How many times he has read

sentences, pronounced sentences, composed sentences! But now he is

examining them in detail, _studying_ them. The simple sentence is a

short proposition, with completed meaning, which expresses an action or

a situation, organizing its different parts around a _verb_.

The first exercise for the child must be to find the verb, a task not

very difficult after the preceding exercises on the parts of speech have

been performed. When he has found the verb, it becomes essential for him

to find the subject. The subject may be found by asking the question:

_Who is it that_--? For example:

The child reads.

The word _reads_ is the verb. The section of the roll where the word

_reads_ appears is torn off and placed in the space marked _Verb_. Then

ask: "_Who is it that_ reads?" The answer is, "_The child_ reads." The

section containing the word _the child_ is torn off and placed in the

space marked _Subject_.

Another sentence: on the roll the child finds written:

_The glass is broken._

The teacher can briefly explain that the verb taken by itself, has no

special meaning. _Is_ means nothing! "_Is?_ Is _what_?" Some attribute

must be added: "Is _broken_!" Here we get a _nominal predicate_. When

the verb contains some definite meaning in terms of action, for instance

_reads_, we get a _verbal predicate_. The section of the roll containing

_is broken_ is torn off, accordingly, and placed in the space of the

verb. But _what_ is broken? _The glass!_ The section containing the

words _the glass_ is placed in the space of the subject. All of this can

be copied off by the child by hand, as follows:

Simple sentence: The child reads.

The child: Subject.

Reads: Predicate (verbal).

SERIES I

(Simple Sentences)

The first roll contains the following simple sentences without modifiers

of any kind:

--The child reads.

--The glass is broken.

--Charles is tall.

--The trees are blossoming.

--The blackboard is clean.

--Who has come?

--The pencil is broken.

--The sky is blue.

--I am reading.

--I am studying.

--The children are playing.

--Time flies.

--The teacher sings.

SERIES II

(Simple Sentences, containing a few modifiers)

The roll contains the following sentences, written one after another:

--The mother loves her child dearly.

--Johnny brought his teacher a rose.

--You may keep the book for some days, Louis.

--Mary, give the poor man a penny.

--Where have you been, Mary?

--I will do it, mother.

--Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the whole

blackboard.

--Who drew the pretty picture?

--Last night I showed the letter to father.

--In the yard a red white and blue flag is waving.

--Did you go to the theater last night?

--The rain was beating against the window panes.

--The dog is barking at the cat.

--The poor deaf-mutes talk with their hands.

Example of application: The section containing the first sentence,

The mother loves her child dearly.

is first torn off from the roll. Then the section containing the word

_loves_ is placed in the space marked _verb_. _Who_ loves?--_the

mother_. The section containing the words _the mother_ is placed in the

space marked _subject_. The mother loved _whom_? _Her child._ The

section containing _her child_ is torn off and placed in the space

marked _direct object_. By thus reading the names printed in the spaces

of the chart the child learns to classify the various kinds of

modifiers. _How_ does the mother love her child? _In what manner?_

_Dearly._ The section containing the word _dearly_ is placed in the

space marked _Manner_ and the sentence is completed.

Now the child can copy off these analyses immediately or make others, as

he thinks best. The copy may be as follows:

The mother loves her child dearly.

The mother: Subject.

Loves: Predicate (verbal).

Her child: Direct object.

Dearly: Adverb, manner.

In classifying the vocatives and attributives, a little help from the

teacher may be required. Example:

You may keep the book for some days, Louis.

The word _Louis_ can be dramatized somewhat into a kind of invocation,

as--_O Louis, you may keep the book_ and so on. Vocatives can almost

always be identified by trying the exclamatory _O_ before them.

In the sentence,

Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the

whole blackboard.

_only three years old_ is an attributive of Harry. It should be torn off

and placed in the space marked _Attributive_.

SERIES III

(Simple sentences with two or more modifiers of the same kind)

The roll contains the following sentences in sections which may be read

and torn off one after the other as the child unrolls the strip:

--The child sleeps and dreams.

--Everybody likes fruit and flowers.

--He took paper, pen and ink to write to his friends.

--Charles opened and closed the book.

--The doctor and the father left the sick child's room.

--The women recommended calmness, patience and prudence.

--In the beginning God created heaven and earth.

--He will always have money and friends.

--In the street we could see crowds of men and a few women.

SERIES IV

(Elliptical sentences with subject understood)

[This situation does not however arise in English, which, save in the

imperative, always requires at least a pronominal subject for the verb.]

Here, the child interprets the sentence, completing it and finding the

element that is lacking.

--La ringrazio (_I_ thank you).

--Verrete? (Will _you_ come?)

--Sono stanco (_I_ am tired).

--Non mi sento bene oggi (_I_ don't feel well to-day).

--Com'è andata? (How did _it_ turn out?)

--Dico la verità (_I_ will tell you all about it).

--Siamo contentissimi (_We_ are delighted).

--Vi saluto (_I_ bid you good-by).

--Vado a casa (_I_ am going home).

--Lampeggia (_It_ is lightening).

--M'impose silenzio (_He_ told me to say nothing).

--Ascolto (_I_ am listening).

SERIES V

(Elliptical sentences where the predicate is understood)

--Silence!

--Why all this noise?

--After me, the deluge!

--The sooner the better!

--Good luck to you, sir!

--What nasty weather!

--What an attractive school!

--O for a calm, a thankful heart!

--A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse!

--Away with him!

--Fire! Fire!

--Here, here, quick!

--Honor to the brave!

SERIES VI

(Elliptical sentences where the direct object is understood: _incomplete

predication_)

--They drove away.

--He spends like a millionaire.

--He drinks like a fish.

--The farmer's boy had just milked.

--Do you understand?

--The cavalry spurred across the field at full speed.

--Did you see?

--The child did not hear.

SERIES VII

(Sentences with numerous modifiers and of increased difficulty)

--The poor boy came home that night, all tired out, covered

with mud from head to foot, with his coat torn and

with a black and blue lump on his forehead.

--Ethel hurried home as fast as possible.

--We heard the clatter of horse's hoofs on the pavement.

--And so through the night went his cry of alarm

To every Middlesex village and farm.

--The beautiful child with the black hair is here on the lawn.

--And yet through the gloom and the night

The fate of a nation was riding that night.

--The woman walked along in front of me with the child in her

arms.

--The girl's voice sounded distinctly above all the others.

--To-morrow I shall come to town on foot.

--He spent the summer every year with his parents in their old

home on the mountain side.

--That evening the old house was more lonely than ever.

--They are very busy this morning.

--I never did such a thing in my life!

--Every now and then a group of people hurriedly crossed the

street.

--The doctor whispered something into the Mayor's ear.

--Just then some one knocked at the door.

--Here I am back again at my work.

--Mary had a little lamb

With fleece as white as snow.

THE ORDER OF ELEMENTS IN THE SENTENCE: PERMUTATIONS

Rules:

The English (the Italian) language tends to follow the direct order in

prose, inversion being very rare.

In poetry, inversion is very common.

The direct order consists in placing: first, the subject, then the

predicate, then the objects, direct and indirect; then the modifiers

follow according to the importance they derive from the meaning of the

sentence.

These ideas are after all so simple and clear that the child rarely has

any difficulty in understanding them. Nevertheless, it is much easier to

give the child a vivid impression of them by the permutation of parts

than by explanation. This permutation is made very convenient by the

sentences being printed in sections which may be moved about and

combined at will. Just as the sequence of the various parts of speech

was made clear by transposing the parts, here the same result can be

accomplished by transposing the sections of the printed slip. Example:

We heard the clatter of the horse's hoofs

(subject) (predicate) (direct object) (attribute)

on the pavement.

(place: adverb)

The following combinations are possible results of permutation:

We--heard--the clatter--of the horse's hoofs--on the

pavement.

We--the clatter--heard--on the pavement--of the

horse's hoofs.

We--of the horse's hoofs--on the pavement--the

clatter--heard.

Of the horse's hoofs--on the pavement--heard--the

clatter--we, etc., etc.

SERIES VIII

(The inverted order)

The effect of direct and inverted order can be shown in every sentence.

But it is better to try examples of inversion from poetic language. In

this series, all the sentences show inversion of one type or another:

--Meanwhile, impatient to mount and ride,

Booted and spurred, with a heavy stride

On the opposite shore walked Paul Revere.

--Upon the roof we sat that night!

The noise of bells went sweeping by;

Awesome bells they were to me.

--Still sits the school-house by the road.

--Before them under the garden-wall

Forward and back

Went drearily singing the chore-girl small.

--And day by day more holy grew

Each spot of the sacred ground.

--There thronged the citizens with terror dumb.

Exercises on the putting together of sentence elements can lead to

practise in the identification and use of grammatical forms as parts of

speech, which the study of single words would not at first permit; as

for instance, forms of the verbs used as nouns (infinitive and gerund as

subject and object), the difference between personal pronouns used as

direct or indirect objects, and so on.

SERIES IX

(The forms of the verb)

The roll contains the two forms of the verb, active and passive, in

sections. The analysis is conducted on the chart for the simple

sentence:

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE REFLEXIVE

(Action performed by (Action performed by (_Middle Voice_)

subject) agent) (Subject is direct

object)

Mary dresses the little The little girl is The little girl

girl. dressed by Mary. dresses herself.

The teacher praised Charles was praised Charles praised

Charles for the by the teacher for himself for the

drawing. the drawing. drawing.

The little girl excused George was excused George excuses

George for his for his roughness by himself for his

roughness. the little girl. roughness.

The janitor accused The boy was accused The boy accused

the boy. by the janitor. himself.

The old man liked Albert Albert was very much Albert liked himself

very much. liked by the old man. very much.

The nurse tucked the The child was tucked The child tucked

child into the warm into the warm bed himself into the

bed. by the nurse. warm bed.

The girl rocked her The little friend was Her little friend

little friend to sleep rocked to sleep in rocked herself to

in the rocking-chair. the rocking-chair by sleep in the

the little girl. rocking-chair.

The teacher saw Henry Henry was seen in the Henry saw himself in

in the large mirror. large mirror by the the large mirror.

teacher.

The angry boy hurt Louis was hurt by the Louis hurt himself.

Louis. angry boy.

SERIES X

(Use of the personal pronoun)

The sentences previously given for analysis in teaching the personal

pronouns can be used over again at this point for analysis on the

sentence-chart.

--The children wrote a letter to their mother

The children wrote her a letter

They wrote it to her

--They gave their mother a surprise

They gave her a surprise

--I told father all about it

I told him all about it

--Charles soothed his sister with a kiss

He soothed her with a kiss

--Will you give your drawing to the teacher?

Will you give her your drawing?

Will you give it to her?

--Don't think badly of your schoolmates

Don't think badly of them

--Show those dirty hands to the teacher

Show her those dirty hands

Show them to her

--Tell the story to the children in the other room

Tell it to the children in the other room

Tell it to them there

The exercise in permutation brings out the relative positions of the

direct and indirect objects; as also the conditions under which the

preposition _to_ is required before the indirect object.

II

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES

Here we are dealing with a number of propositions (clauses) which

combine into one complete meaning. The clauses fit together in the

sentences just as did the various elements in the simple sentence. The

material for the analysis is therefore analogous to that used in the

analysis of the simple sentence: strips of paper in rolls on which are

written the sentences to be analyzed, and a chart with spaces where the

detached pieces may be placed, according to the designation of these

spaces.

The principal space on the chart is reserved for the main clause, around

which the other clauses are arranged, as coordinate or subordinate.

Since the work of logical analysis of the complex sentence is

sufficiently interesting to attract the attention of the child to

various forms of study, the material contains in addition to the rolls

and the chart, a number of test-cards where the analysis is completed

and logically demonstrated. These cards serve as tests of the accuracy

of the work done by the children, and as actual charts for analytical

study. Of course, when the child is doing his exercise with the strips

of paper and the chart, he does not have these test-cards before him. He

should, however, always have free access to them. His interest in the

game is to succeed by himself in placing the different propositions

where they belong.

CHART B

+-------------------------------------------------------------------+

| PRINCIPAL CLAUSE |

+-------------------------------------------------------------------+

| INCIDENTAL CLAUSES (Parenthetical clauses) |

+-------------------------------------------------------------------+

| SUBORDINATE ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE (Adjective or Relative clauses) |

+-------------------------------------------------------------------+

| who is it that...? | whom...? what...? |

| | |

| subordinate _subject_ clause | subordinate _object_ clause |

| (subject clause) | (object clause) |

+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+

| when...? | where...? |

| | |

| subordinate clause of _time_ | subordinate clause of _place_ |

| (temporal clause) | (locative clause) |

+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+

| for what purpose...? | why...? for what cause? |

| | |

| subordinate clause of _purpose_| subordinate clause of _cause_ |

| (purpose clause) | (causal clause) |

+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+

| how...? than what? | on what condition...? |

| | |

| subordinate clause of _manner_ | subordinate clause of _condition_|

| or comparison | (conditional clause) |

| (modal clauses) | |

+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+

| in spite of what...? | with what result...? |

| subordinate clause of | |

| _concession_ | subordinate clause of _result_ |

| (concessive clause) | (result clause) |

+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+

SERIES I

(Compound Sentences)

The clauses are independent of each other. Each contains a complete

meaning, and each therefore could stand alone. It is a question of

simple sentences _coordinated_ with each other.

--I hunted carefully everywhere and at last I found it.

--She started in fear, lifted her face and shaded it from the

strong sun.

--The bees hummed in the warm sunshine and the cat sat purring

at her side.

--She dropped her sewing and went to the door.

--The girl covered her eyes with her hands and wept.

--They looked into each other's faces: each of them had a question

to ask and neither dared to speak.

--I am a lowly peasant and you are a gallant knight.

--They all looked at the speaker, and crowded round him and waited

for his next word to attack him.

--Then he began to weep and he tore his hair in anguish.

--Louis clapped his hands for joy and began to dance around the

room.

--He looked into the mirror, straightened his tie, smoothed his

hair and went out to greet his two friends.

--She went to the window and looked out over the stormy sea.

The child divides these sentences into clauses, analyzing each

separately. Then, placing one under the other, he is impressed by the

fact that each has a complete meaning and can stand by itself; save that

in English the subject of the first clause is often carried over to the

second:

I hunted carefully everywhere.

And at last I found it.

I am a lowly peasant.

And you are a gallant knight.

Louis clapped his hands for joy.

began to dance around the room.

He looked into the mirror.

straightened his tie.

smoothed his hair.

_and_ went out to meet his two friends.

The bees hummed in the warm sunshine.

And the cat sat purring at her side.

Then he began to weep.

And he tore his hair in anguish.

The girl covered her face with her hands.

_and_ wept.

They looked at the speaker.

crowded around him.

_and_ waited for his next word to attack him.

SERIES II

(The Complex Sentence)

Here only the main clause has a complete meaning. The other clauses make

sense only when they are united with the main clause. On this roll, the

subordinate clauses are attributes of one of the elements of the main

clause (relative clauses).

--The gold ring which you found yesterday on the stairs belongs

to my mother.

--The man who brought me to school this morning was my uncle.

--He was educated by his sister who taught him many beautiful

things.

--The colors which Aunt Anna gave me Christmas are very good.

--A little girl who was at a party sat looking with longing eyes

at a plate of sandwiches.

--The knife with which you sharpened my pencil was very dull.

--Bees don't care about the snow!

I can tell you why it's so:

Once I caught a little bee

Who was much too warm for me.--(F. D. SHERMAN)

--We have at home the prettiest cat you ever saw.

--Here are the pennies my mother gave me.

--The children I play with did not come to school to-day.

--The house we live in is beautiful and airy.

--Stars are the little daisies white

That dot the meadow of the night.--(SHERMAN)

TEST CARDS

PRINCIPAL CLAUSE ATTRIBUTIVE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

(The words modified by the relative (Relative or Adjective Clauses)

clause are in _italics_). (The clause has no meaning until

united with some noun in the

main clause).

The gold _ring_ belongs to which you found on the stairs

mother yesterday

The _man_ was my uncle who brought me to school this

morning

He was educated by his _sister_ who taught him many beautiful

things

The _colors_ are very good which Aunt Anna gave me

Christmas

A little _girl_ sat looking with who was at a party

longing eyes at a plate of

sandwiches

Once I caught a little _bee_ who was much too warm for

me

Stars are the little _daisies_ that dot the meadow of the

white night

RELATIVE OMITTED

_What word is omitted?_

Here are the _pennies_ --my mother gave me

The _children_ did not come to with--I play

school to-day

The _house_ is beautiful and in--we live

airy

SERIES III

In the preceding roll, the subordinate clauses completed the meaning and

constituted an attribute of _one word_ of the principal clause. Here,

however, the subordinate clauses refer to the whole content of the main

clause and complete _the whole thought_ of the main clause. They have,

therefore, a logical dependence on the main clause. The child will be

guided in finding the place of the different subordinate clauses and in

classifying them according to the designations of the spaces by the

questions which appear in the analytical chart. It is presupposed that

he can readily identify the main clause itself.

The following sentences come one after the other on the rolled strip of

paper:

--Do not forget that your objects are not in their places.

--Will you play with me when you have finished your work?

--When the sun is low our shadows are longer.

--I hope that you will write me a long letter as soon as you

arrive in Europe.

--The little girl stood on tiptoe so that she could see the queen

as the procession went by.

--Brer Rabbit thought it was the worst time he had had in all his

life.

--All is well that ends well, says the proverb.

--The people mourned when the good President died.

--It is not right that the big boys should have all the candy.

--As she sat there reading, a beautiful red bird flew in through

the window.

--They could not play in the yard because the ground was too wet.

--Remember that you must thank the lady who gave you the book.

TEST CARD

PRINCIPAL AND INCIDENTAL QUESTION SUBORDINATE AND ATTRIBUTIVE

CLAUSES CLAUSES

Do not forget what? that your objects are not

in their places.

Will you play with me when? when you have finished

your work?

Our shadows are longer when? when the sun is low.

I hope what? that you will write me a

long letter.

when? as soon as you arrive in

Europe.

The little girl stood on tip-toe why? so that she could see the

queen

when? as the procession went by.

Brer Rabbit thought what? (that) it was the worst

_time_ he had had in all

his life (_attributive,

relative pronoun

omitted_)

All is well that ends well

says the proverb (incidental (_attributive_).

clause)

The people mourned when? the good President died.

It is not right what? that the big boys should

have all the candy.

A beautiful red bird flew when? as she sat there

in through the window reading.

They could not play in the why? because the ground was

yard too wet.

Remember what? that you must thank the

_lady_ who gave you the

book (_attributive_).

SERIES IV

Here we have sentences both compound and complex, containing both

coordinate and subordinate clauses.

--As he said this, he rose from his chair and left the room.

--The two friends shook hands and said they would always be

faithful to each other.

--When the wolf came out, Brer Rabbit threw the stone on him and

laughed.

--When the lady knocked on the door, a smiling old man appeared

and asked what he might do for her.

--The children walked along in the forest and became very hungry

because they had had nothing to eat since morning.

--The king's face grew very red and he angrily ordered that the

deceitful general be put to death.

--Since the wind was blowing hard, the captain told the children

to keep off the deck and a sailor carried them to their

state-rooms.

--The dogs began to bark and the people all ran out into the

streets as the uproar of the combat increased.

--Where that tree now stands, there was once a beautiful house

and a fine road led up to it.

--He had left the village and mounted the steep,

And under the alders that skirt its edge,

Now soft on the sand, now loud on the ledge,

Is heard the tramp of his steed as he rides.

TEST CARD

SUBORDINATE AND

PRINCIPAL CLAUSE COORDINATE CLAUSE QUESTION ATTRIBUTIVE

CLAUSES

He rose from his and left the when? as he said this

chair room

The two friends and said what? that they would

shook hands always be faithful

to each other

Brer Rabbit threw and laughed when? when the wolf came

the stone on him out

A smiling old man and asked what? what he might do for

appeared her

when? when the lady

knocked on the

door

The children walked and became very why? because they had had

along in the hungry nothing to eat

forest since morning

The king's face grew and he angrily what? that the deceitful

very red ordered general be put to

death

The captain told the and a sailor why? because the wind was

children to keep carried them blowing hard

off the deck to their

state-rooms

The dogs began to and the people when? as the uproar of the

bark all ran into combat increased

the streets

There was once a and a fine road where? where that tree now

beautiful house led up to it stands

He had left the and mounted the

village steep

under the that skirt its edge

_alders_ now (attributive).

soft on the

sand, now loud

on the ledge,

is heard the

tramp of his

steed when? as he rides

SERIES V

(Correlative Sentences)

The clauses are here dependent upon each other:

--The flowers were so beautiful that we picked them all.

--That day he was so lazy that he did not get his work done.

--She sings much better than she plays.

--The more one studies, the more one learns.

--Either you return your objects to their places or some one

else must do it.

--Not only was the man very cross, but he actually punished

the little boy.

TEST CARD

PRINCIPAL CLAUSE QUESTION SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

The flowers were so with what result? that we picked them all.

beautiful

That day he was so with what result? that he did not get his

lazy work done.

She sings much than what? than she plays.

better

The more one with what result? the more one learns.

studies

Either you return with what result? or some one else must do

your objects to it.

their places

Not only was the man with what result? but he actually punished

very cross the little boy.

SERIES VI

(The Order of Clauses in Sentences: Sentence Forms in Prose and Verse)

Our material makes it very easy for the children to understand the

mutual dependence of the subordinate clauses. We take the commonest

cases within easy reach of the children. There are clauses of the first

degree of subordination, dependent directly on the principal clause.

There are others of the second degree of subordination which depend on a

subordinate clause (clause subordinate to a subordinate). We have the

same situation in coordinates. We have the first degree of coordination

when the clause is parallel with the principal clause, and the second

degree when the clause is parallel with a subordinate clause.

Since the slips have as many sections as there are clauses, the clauses

may be arranged on the table in the order of their subordination,

keeping, for example, the principal clause to the left, and arranging

the subordinate clauses downward and downward to the right. Take, for

instance, the sentence:

--The old man liked to tell stories; and he would

laugh heartily when the women were frightened at the

terrible things that he had to relate.

As the different clauses are torn off they are placed on a chart marked

into sections by vertically placed arrows: the principal clause to the

right of the first arrow; the first subordinate clause to the right of

the second; the subordinate to the subordinate to the right of the

third, and so on. The above sentence results as follows:

Principal and Coordinate 1st subordinate subordinate to

subordinate

The old man liked to

tell stories

and he would laugh

heartily

when the women were

frightened at the

terrible things

that he had to tell.

CHART C

/|\ Principal and 1st subordinate subordinate to

| coordinate and its coordinates subordinate

| (incidental)

|

| I shall feel

| better /|\ if you will let me sit

| | next to the window

| | /|\ where there is more

| | | air.

Here is another example:

--I often sit and wish that I

Could be a kite up in the sky,

And ride upon the breeze, and go

Whatever way it chanced to blow.

/|\ Principal and 1st subordinate and subordinate to

| Coordinates coordinate subordinate

|

| I often sit

| and wish

| /|\ that I could be a kite

| | up in the sky

| | and ride upon the

| | breeze

| | and go whatever way

| | /|\ it chanced to blow.

| | |

Here, finally, is another:

-- I was a bad boy, I admit, but no one ever paid any attention to me,

unless I was to be blamed for something wrong that I had done, or was

accused of doing.

/|\ I was a bad boy

| I admit (incidental)

| but no one ever paid

| any attention to me

| /|\ unless I was to be

| | blamed

| | for something wrong

| | /|\ that I had done,

| | | or was accused of

| | | doing.

| | | (coordinate of second

| | | subordinate)

In using this material, the child tears off the clause-slips using the

analytical sentence-chart (Chart B). This gives him the classification

of the clauses. The strips are then to be placed on the dependence chart

(Chart C) according to the indications of the arrows. This brings out

the mutual relation of the clauses.

PERMUTATIONS

The preceding exercises have created in the child a notion of sentence

construction and of the position of the clauses which make it up. Our

material permits, of course, as an exercise supplementary to the

analyses, dislocations and translocations of parts just as was true with

the simple sentence. To derive the full benefit of this possibility, the

teacher should have in mind the general rules for location of clauses:

Adjective clauses (relative, attributive) always follow, and most often

directly, the noun they modify.

Subject subordinate clauses may stand either before or after the

principal clause. If the subject clause follows, it is usually

anticipated before the verb by the pronoun it (just as a following noun

subject is anticipated by _there_).

(In Italian, if the object clause precedes the main clause, it is

usually repeated before the noun by a conjunctive object personal

pronoun.)

The position of the other clauses depends on considerations of emphasis.

The direct order for complex sentences is in general similar to that for

simple sentences:

subject clause

principal clause

object clause

adverbial clauses.

Coordination is possible with subordinate as well as with principal

clauses.

The special exercises on the complex sentence conclude with some

practise in turning simple inversions as found in poetry into direct

sentence order.

SERIES VII

The detachable strips are used here also. The exercise should be

conducted with reference to the sentence charts.

1

--Just where the tide of battle Old John Burns stood, erect and

turns, lonely just where the tide of

Erect and lonely stood old battle turns....

John Burns ... A bright blue coat, with a rolling

And buttoned over his manly collar, was buttoned over his

breast manly breast.

Was a bright blue coat with a

rolling collar.

2

--It was terrible: on the right It was terrible: the deadly

Raged for hours the deadly fight raged for hours on the

fight, right; the battery's double bass

Thundered the battery's double thundered,--difficult music for

bass, men to face; while round shot

Difficult music for men to face; ploughed the upland glades on

While on the left, where now the left, where now the graves

the graves undulate like the living waves

Undulate like the living waves that swept unceasing all that

That all that day unceasing day up to the pits the rebels

swept kept.

Up to the pits the rebels kept,

Round shot ploughed the upland

glades.

BRET HARTE.--_John Burns

of Gettysburg._

3

--Merrily rang the bridle reins, The bridle reins rang merrily

and scarf and plume steamed and scarf and plume streamed

gay, gay, as the riders, held their

As fast beside her father's way fast by her father's gate.

gate the riders held their

way ...

"Now break your shield asunder Now break your shield asunder

and shatter your sign and shatter across your knightly

and boss, knee your sign and boss unmeet

Unmeet for peasant-wedded for peasant-wedded arms.

warms, your knightly

knee across.

WHITTIER.--_King Volmer._

4

The breaking waves dashed high The breaking waves dashed

On a stern and rock bound coast; high on a stern and rock-bound

And the woods against a stormy coast; and the woods tossed their

sky giant branches against a stormy

Their giant branches tossed. sky.

And the heavy night hung dark The heavy night hung dark

The hills and waters o'er, over (o'er) the hills and waters,

When a band of Pilgrims moored when a band of Pilgrims moored

their bark their bark on the wild New England

On the wild New England shore. shore.

Not as the conqueror comes They, the true hearted, came

They the true hearted came, not as the conqueror comes, not

Not with the roll of the stirring with the roll of the stirring

drums drums and the trumpet that

And the trumpet that sings of sings of fame.

fame.

MRS. HEMANS.

5

My golden spurs now bring to me Bring to me now my golden

And bring to me my richest mail, spurs and bring to me my richest

For tomorrow I go over land and mail; for I go in search of the

sea Holy Grail tomorrow over land

In search of the Holy Grail. and sea; a bed shall never be

Shall never a bed for me be spread for me, nor shall a pillow

spread. be under my head till I begin to

Nor shall a pillow be under my keep my vow; I will sleep here

head, on the rushes, and perchance a

Till I begin my vow to keep; true vision will come _before_ (ere)

Here on the rushes will I sleep. day creates the world anew.

And perchance there may come a

vision true

Ere day create the world anew.

LOWELL.

6

Glad tidings of great joy I bring I bring to you and all mankind

To you and all mankind: glad tidings of great joy. The

To you, in David's town this day Saviour, who is Christ the Lord,

Is born of David's line is born to you this day in David's

The Saviour, who is Christ the town, of David's line; and this

Lord, shall be the sign: you shall find

And this shall be the sign: the heavenly Babe there displayed

The heavenly Babe you there to human view, all meanly wrapt

shall find in swaddling clothes and laid in

To human view displayed, a manger.

All meanly wrapt in swaddling

bands

And in a manger laid.

TATE.--_While Shepherds

Watched._

7

The harp that once through The harp, that once shed the

Tara's halls soul of music through Tara's

The soul of music shed, halls, now hangs on Tara's walls,

Now hangs on Tara's walls as though that soul were fled.

As if that soul were fled. So the pride of former days

So sleeps the pride of former sleeps, so glory's thrill is over,

days, and hearts that once beat high

So glory's thrill is o'er, for praise now feel that pulse no

And hearts that once beat high more. The harp of Tara swells

for praise no more to chiefs and bright ladies:

Now feel that pulse no more. the chord alone, that breaks

at night, tells its tale of ruin.

No more to chiefs and ladies Thus Freedom now wakes so seldom

bright (that) the only throb she

The harp of Tara swells; gives is when some indignant

The chord alone that breaks at heart breaks to show that she

night still lives.

Its tale of ruin tells.

Thus Freedom now so seldom

wakes,

The only throb she gives,

Is when some heart indignant

breaks

To show that still she lives.

THOMAS MOORE.

8

Childhood is the bough where Childhood is the bough where

slumbered many numbered birds and blossoms

Birds and blossoms many numbered; slumbered; Age encumbered

Age that bough with snow encumbered. that bough with snow.

LONGFELLOW.

TEST CARDS

1

Just where the tide of battle subordinate of place (locative)

turns

Erect and lonely stood old John principal

Burns

And, buttoned over his manly (verbal attributive phrase)

breast,

Was a bright blue coat with a coordinate of principal

rolling collar

2

It was terrible principal

on the right

raged for hours the deadly fight coordinate of principal

thundered the battery's double coordinate of principal

bass

Difficult music for men to face (verbal attributive phrase in

apposition)

While on the left (round shot subordinate of time (temporal)

ploughed, etc.) begun

where now (_While_ may be considered as

the graves adversative coordinate)

Undulate like the living waves subordinate to subordinate

(locative) 2d degree

That all that day unceasing

swept attributive subordinate (relative

up to the pits adjectival clause modifying

_waves_) of 3d degree

the rebels kept attributive subordinate (relative

pronoun omitted) of 4th degree

Round shot ploughed the upland subordinate of time (concluded).

glades

3

Merrily rang the bridle reins principal

and scarf and plume coordinate

streamed gay

As fast beside her father's gate

the riders held their way subordinate of time

Now break your shield asunder principal

and shatter

your sign and boss coordinate

Unmeet for peasant-wedded arms

your knightly knee across

4

The breaking waves dashed high

On a stern and rock-bound coast principal

And the woods against a stormy

sky

Their giant branches tossed coordinate

And the heavy night hung dark

The hills and waters o'er principal (coordinated in

paragraph)

When a band of pilgrims moored

their bark

On a wild New England shore subordinate temporal

Not principal begun

as the conqueror comes subordinate of manner (modal)

They the true hearted came principal concluded

Not with the roll of the stirring

drums

and the trumpet coordinate (elipsis of verb _they_

_came_ continued from principal)

that sings of fame attributive (relative)

subordinate to coordinate.

5

My golden spurs now bring to me principal

And bring to me my richest mail coordinate

For tomorrow I go over land and subordinate of cause (causal):

sea may be considered coordinate

In search of the Holy Grail of _reason_

Shall never a bed for me be

spread principal

Nor shall a pillow be under my

head coordinate

Till I begin my vow to keep subordinate of time (temporal)

Here on the rushes will I sleep principal

And perchance there may come a

vision true coordinate

Ere day create the world anew subordinate temporal.

6

Great tidings of great joy I

bring

To you and all mankind principal

To you in David's town this day

Is born of David's line

The Saviour principal

who is Christ the Lord attributive (relative) subordinate

And this shall be the sign coordinate

The heavenly Babe you there

shall find

To human view displayed

All meanly wrapped in swaddling

bands

And in a manger laid. simple sentence with three

coordinate verbal phrases.

7

The harp principal begun

that once through

Tara's hall

The soul of music shed attributive subordinate (relative)

Now hangs on Tara's walls principal concluded

As if that soul were fled subordinate of manner (modal)

So sleeps the pride of former

days principal

So glory's thrill is o'er coordinate

And hearts coordinate begun

that once beat high attributive relative subordinate

for praise

Now feel that pulse no more coordinate concluded.

No more to chiefs and ladies

bright

The harp of Tara swells principal

The chord alone coordinate begun

that breaks at night attributive relative subordinate

Its tale of ruin tells coordinate concluded.

Thus freedom now so seldom

wakes principal

The only throb subordinate result begun

(conjunction _that_ omitted)

she gives subordinate to subordinate (2d

degree; relative omitted)

Is when some heart indignant

breaks

To show subordinate result concluded

that still she lives subordinate object (noun) clause

of 2d degree.

8

Childhood is the bough principal

where slumbered

Birds and blossoms many-numbered subordinate locative (of place)

Age that bow with snows encumbered coordinate.

(Note: the best English poetry makes far less use of inversion than does

Italian. Such exercises as the above could be profitably applied to the

analysis of the different kinds of phrases (adjective, adverbial, etc.).

It should be noted that Dr. Montessori in her own exercises treats

verbal phrases (participles and infinitives) as subordinate

clauses.--TR.)

COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

This study of the complex sentence leads the child to a more precise

comprehension of the values of certain parts of speech as, notably, the

conjunction. We have found, in fact, that little difficulty is

experienced in realizing the distinction between the terms

_coordinating_ and _subordinating_ as applied to conjunctions which

_unite_ clauses but in different ways. The following charts serve to

cover the vast majority of cases that the child is likely to meet. We

may add that at this point it may be found useful to have the child

analyze the complex sentences which appeared in the commands and

readings already familiar to him (see below under _Reading_).

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

_Copulatives_: and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, furthermore,

nor.

_Disjunctives_: or else, otherwise, rather.

_Adversatives_: but, nevertheless, however, notwithstanding, yet, still,

while, only, instead.

_Declaratives_: namely, in other words, that is.

_Asseverative_: in fact, assuredly, really.

_Illative_: hence, therefore, then, accordingly, so.

PRINCIPAL AND COORDINATE CLAUSES MAY BEGIN WITH ONE OF THESE

CONJUNCTIONS

CHART D

THE CONJUNCTIONS IN THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

+--------------------------------------------------------------------+

| PRINCIPAL CLAUSE |

+--------------------------------------------------------------------+

| Incidental (parenthetical) clause |

+--------------------------------------------------------------------+

| Adjective (relative, attributive) clause |

| who, which, that, whose, whom |

+--------------------------------------------------------------------+

| Subordinate subject clause | Subordinate object clause |

| that | that |

+--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

| Subordinate clause of time | Subordinate clause of place |

| (temporal) | (locative) |

| when, while, as soon as, | where, whence, wherever, whither |

| before, after, till, until | |

+--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

| Subordinate clause of purpose | Subordinate clause of cause |

| (final, purpose clause) | (casual clause) |

| that, in order that, so that | as, because, for, since, |

| | in as much as |

+--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

| Subordinate clause of | Subordinate clause of condition |

| manner and comparison | |

| (modal clause) | (conditional clause) |

| as (manner), than (comparison) | if, unless, provided, |

| | provided that |

+--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

| Subordinate clause of | Subordinate clause of |

| concession | result and correlatives |

| (concessive clause) | that, so that (result) |

| though, although, even if, | so ... as, so ... that |

| however, notwithstanding that | (correlative, degree) |

+--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

A special series of exercises on the relations of the subordinate to the

principal clause brings out the changes in tense made necessary in the

subordinate clause as the tense of the principal clause varies.

SERIES VIII

Sequence of Tenses

GROUP A

(Causal Clauses)

--I am writing to you because I have some important news.

" wrote " " " " had " " "

--I shall not go because I must attend to my work.

" did " " " " had to " " " "

--I am glad that you have done so well.

" was " " " had " " "

--I will give it to you since you insist on having it.

" gave " " " " " insisted " " "

--He does not answer because your letter is insulting.

" did " " " " " was "

GROUP B

(Miscellaneous Clauses)

--I shall be proud of you if you become a fine scholar.

" should " " " " " " became " " "

--I believe that only the rich can be happy.

" believed " " " " could " "

--I am waiting here till my father returns from town.

" waited " " " " returned " "

--They expect that something will happen before long.

" expected " " would " " "

--He is doing that for you, in order that you may go to school.

" did " " " " " " " might " " "

--He will let you know where he has been.

" let " " " " had "

GROUP C

(Object Clauses)

--They are telling me what they have been doing.

" were " " " " had " "

--I promise you that I will do everything punctually.

" promised " " " would " " "

--I think he will not be back before Wednesday.

" thought " would " " " " "

--Do you know that your friend has gone away?

Did " " " " " had " "

--I assure you that I will take good care of it.

" assured " " " would " " " " "

--I repeat that you ought to be ashamed of yourself.

" repeated " " " " have been " " "

GROUP D

(Conditional Sentences)

--I would read this book too, if I could.

" " have read " " " " " had been able.

--If I see him, I shall tell him what you say.

" " saw " " should " " " " said.

--I will finish this work, if you can wait.

" would " " " " " could "

--I shall come sooner if I can.

" should " " " " could.

--He would give it to you if you asked him for it.

" " have given " " " " " had asked " " "

--He would give it to you if you should ask him for it.

--I shall go there if I have time.

" should " " " " had "

" shall " " " " should have "

" should have gone " " " had had "

XIII

PUNCTUATION

The permutations of clauses permitted by our materials give empirical

evidence of the pauses and accordingly of the functions of the

orthographical signs of suspense in the sentence. These signs are

included also in our alphabets. All the exercises hitherto given require

more or less spontaneous attention to punctuation. We offer, however, in

addition, several series of sentences for analysis in illustration of

the principal rules for the use of punctuation points. Almost all of our

Italian sentences are taken from Manzoni, a writer especially noteworthy

for his care in punctuation. (The majority of the sentences below are

taken from the _Book of Knowledge_, by special permission of the

publishers.)

SERIES I

The comma may separate coordinate elements.

--The mother took a glowing pride in the beauty of her

children's faces, the grace and strength of their

bodies, their reckless daring and unflinching courage.

--The little star fell plump into the middle of a big

puddle, and there it lay sad and shaken and quaking

with fright.

--It was dumb and half blind, it had a soiled face,

and could give no more light.

--A mouse was just then peeping from its hole to see

whether it was going to rain, and whether it would be

safe to cross the fields.

--The mouse started running again, and ran until it

was tired out and had to sit down.

--The little star poured a flood of bright light over

the poor woman, and made her bright and cheerful and

strong again, and then the little girl became very

happy.

SERIES II

A comma isolates vocatives and incidental clauses.

--"Cæsar, let your men go forward," said the guide.

--Why do you want to find your father, Mora?

--"No," said he, "I shall be very well presently."

--"Boys," said our host, "I know whose hand it is."

--That, excuse me for saying so, is not the way to

speak to a friend.

--"Come with us, you handsome young huntsman," he

cried.

SERIES III

A comma separates clauses, especially for clearness, when the elements

of one clause might seem to apply equally well to another clause, and

when one clause is interpolated between the essential elements of

another.

--Mohammed taught that men should pray at stated

times, wherever they are.

--George, who was only five years old, could not go

with his father to fight.

--The tribemen, after quarreling a long time, decided

to march away.

--He went that evening, as he had planned, to the

doctor's house.

--The poor Indian had been kept moving, ever since he

was born, to regions farther and farther north.

--The child crept to the bed, and, taking his little

fan, stood over his father all night fanning him.

SERIES IV

A comma indicates a pause caused by the ellipsis of some word or idea

(in such cases longer suspense can be indicated by a colon or a

semi-colon).

--Very well, what of it?

--Good-by, all you nice people!

--Just what I wanted: a plate of wild strawberries

with real cream!

--Please, mother, just a little more, a very little

more!

--Silence, obedience, and everybody at work!

--Enough said; I know exactly what the matter is!

SERIES V

A semi-colon marks a considerable halt between clauses. In some special

cases, a colon is used. The dash. Quotations.

--The knight mounted a superb steed; the old huntsman

did the same.

--Some carriages opened at the back, with the driver

sitting perched high above the door; others had the

driver's seat at the side, and in all sorts of queer

positions.

--The first trams were drawn, usually, by horses;

though many people can remember when London

street-cars were drawn by mules--two big ones or three

little ones for each car.

--The letter began: "I hope you will let me know if

this letter does not reach you."

--Patrick Henry said: "Give me liberty, or give me

death!"

--The boy's mind was full of love and romance but not

of sadness for--

Singing he was and fluting all the day:

He was as fresh as in the month of May.

--The king will ask you three questions: "How old are

you?" "How long have you been in his service?" "Are

you satisfied with your food and lodgings?"

--How happy they were: all kinds of toys to play with;

all sorts of good things to eat; and a kind old father

to satisfy their every want!

--Slowly one of the dialects of English--the language

of London--came to be regarded as standard English.

--Washington is called "the Father of his Country."

--When he got home, he said to his wife: "See, I have

brought you a present."

--He shouted gleefully: "I am a lion--a terrible

lion."

SERIES VI

(Other Punctuation Points)

The period, the question mark, exclamation point and other signs of

punctuation:

In this series should be given dialogues, interesting stories, passages

which express emotional states of mind vividly portrayed. Such

selections, as is true also of our shorter passages, ought to be taken

from the best writers, distinguished by the naturalness and vivacity of

their style and the use of an accurate orthographical technique. At this

point we make use of the selections used for our "interpretations,"

since the question of punctuation coincides with the problems of text

interpretation itself.

XIV

WORD CLASSIFICATION

THE KINDS OF WORDS

In doing the work outlined thus far, the children have acquired

considerable resources in vocabulary. They have seen all the articles,

prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, many of the

adverbs; and they know many nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which will be

increased in number as their culture is widened. They know something

also of the use of the parts of speech and their functions in the

expression of thought. This is the natural place for a classification in

retrospect of those words which the children have in writing before them

on the cards and slips of different colors. Separate tables should be

used for these exercises in word grouping.

This new step is preparatory to a _theoretical study_ of language to be

developed in later courses in the second period of their education.

WORDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORMATION

Root }

Derived[3] } words

Compound[4] }

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO INFLECTION

There are two kinds of words, thus considered: variable and invariable:

/ /

| preposition | They may be simple or

INVARIABLES: < conjunction < compound, made up,

| interjection | that is, of one word or more.

\ \

/ / may be of masculine,

| \ | feminine, neuter or

| in gender | | common gender.

| and number > nouns < form their plurals by

| | | adding -s or by

| / | changing the root

| \ vowel (umlaut)

|

| \ / have special

| | | words for

| in gender, number > pronouns < each form: e.g. he,

| person and case | | him, who, whom, I,

| / \ me, etc.

|

| } adjectives { -er for comparative

| in degree } adverbs { -est for superlative

|

| / show third person

| | singular by adding -s,

VARIABLES < | and old second person

| | singular by adding

| | -st

| | show moods by adding

| | -ing, -ed or by vowel

| in person, number,} verbs < change for participles:

| tense and mood } | or by special

| | forms (I be, he be,

| | etc.) for subjunctive.

| | show tense by suffix

| | -ed, -t: or by vowel

| | change (I go, I

| | went).

| \ show irregular forms.

|

| / _the_ has two

| \ definite | pronunciations

| for | article < according to

| phonetic reasons > | the following word.

| | \

| | { _a_ becomes _an_ before

\ / indefinite { a vowel.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR USE

(Parts of Speech)

Article Verb Pronoun

Noun Adverb Conjunction

Adjective Preposition Interjection

NOTE: In actual usage the parts of speech perform not only their own

functions, but also the functions of other parts of speech, for

instance, the adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, etc., may be used as

nouns. The participles, etc., may be used as adjectives, or as clauses,

etc.

THE NOUN

Proper Common

Concrete Abstract

Collective Individual

THE ARTICLE

Definite--the

Indefinite--a, an

THE ADJECTIVE

Descriptive: Properties, qualities of things and living beings.

/ _cardinal_: one, two, three, four, etc.

| _ordinal_: first, second, third,

/ Definite | fourth, last, etc.

| (numeral) < _multiple_: single, double, triple,

| | quadruple, etc.

| \ _fractional_: half, third, etc.

Quantitative: <

| / many, all, some, much, enough, no,

| | more, most, other, little, few,

\ Indefinite <| whatever, each, every, certain,

| several, somewhat, etc.

\

Demonstrative (position in space): this, that, these, those, such, same.

Possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their.

Interrogative: what? which?

VERB

The verb indicates:

existence: _to be_.

state or condition: _nominal predicate_ (copular): e.g., She _is_

beautiful.

action: _verbal predicate_: e.g., I _run_.

/ lay, throw, toss, hurl, roll, raise,

| lower, attach, touch, tie, cover, uncover,

Transitive (action upon | undo, invert, rub, spread, collect,

an object different < scatter, sprinkle, stir, beat, mix,

from subject) | dissolve, flavor, arrange, clean, dust,

| sweep, button, lace, hook,

\ brush, wash, wipe, embrace, etc., etc.

/ grow, die, smile, laugh, stare, walk, stagger,

Intransitive | march, sing, whistle, speak, hum, dance,

(action remains < shout, dine, bark, think, burst, blossom,

in subject) | remain, stand, rise, go, run, breathe, sigh,

\ hesitate, weep, sleep, etc., etc.

Note: Certain verbs may be by nature both transitive

and intransitive (incomplete predication).

Impersonals (the /

subject is _it_ | rain, snow, hail, dawn, lighten, thunder,

without reference to a < etc.

specific object): |

\

ADVERBS

/ slowly, rapidly, silently, noisily, abruptly,

| loudly, strongly, weakly, moderately, well, ill,

of Manner: < better, worse, otherwise, differently, thus, so,

| lightly, heavily, etc., etc.

\

of Place: { here, there, elsewhere, up, down, forward,

{ backward, upstairs, downstairs, etc., etc.

/

| always, ever, never, again, still, yesterday,

of Time: < tomorrow, today, now, occasionally, before,

| afterwards, soon, etc., etc.

\

of Quantity: { much, little, enough, nothing, more, less,

{ least, most, about, only, too, very, etc.

of Comparison: more, less, than, etc.

of Affirmation: { yes, certainly, precisely, indeed, surely,

{ assuredly, truly, even, etc.

of Negation: no, never, not, at all, etc.

of Doubt: perhaps, perchance, almost, probably, etc.

PREPOSITION

/

| of, to, by, from, in, with, on, among, above,

Simple: < through, under, around, beside, behind, save,

| except, near, next, like, during, off, etc.

\

Compound { in place of, out of, away from, as to, on board,

(preposition { with regard to, etc.

phrases):

PRONOUN

/

| subject: { I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they

|

Personal < { me, thee, him, her, it, us, you,

| object: { them

\

/

| definite: { this, this one, that, that one,

| { these, those

Demonstrative <

| /

| | one, ones, some, somebody,

| indefinite: < everyone, each, each one, no one,

\ | nobody, none, nothing, etc.

\

/

| /

| | subject: who, that

| of person: < possessive: whose

| | object: whom, that

| \

|

| of thing: which, that

Relative <

| indefinite: whoever, which ever

|

| compound (antecedent understood): what (that

| which), whereof, wherewith, etc.

\

/

| who

/ | whose

| of person < whom

| | which

| \

Interrogative <

|

| of thing { what

\ { which

Possessive: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, ours, yours, theirs.

CONJUNCTION

Disjunctive: or, or else, otherwise, rather.

Copulative: { and, also, too, besides, moreover, further,

{ furthermore, nor, etc.

Adversative: { but, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet, still,

{ while, however, only, on the contrary, instead, etc.

Declarative: namely, in other words, that is, etc.

Relative: that.

Illative: { hence, therefore, wherefore, then, accordingly, so,

{ with the result that, etc.

Temporal: { while, when, as soon as, after, before, until, till,

{ hardly, etc.

Concessive: though, although, even if.

Purpose (Final): that, in order that, to the end that, etc.

Conditional: if, unless, provided, provided that, etc.

Causal: as, because, for, since, seeing that, etc.

Result: that, so that, etc.

Locative: where, whence, whither, whereto, wherefrom, etc.

Degree and Comparison: as, than.

INTERJECTION

See list already given on pp. 122-123.

FOOTNOTES:

[3] Under this heading we include all derivations by suffix: some

suffixes change one part of speech into another: _love_ (verb),

_lovable_ (adj.), etc.; others, such as _diminutives_, _peggioratives_,

_augmentatives_, etc., change the quality of a word's meaning. In

adjectives we have suffixes of degree (comparison: _-er_, _-est_).

[4] Under this heading we include all words formed by the union of two

words or by prefixes.