THE PAPACY AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, 962-1273 A.D. [1]
159. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE ROMAN CHURCH
A preceding chapter dealt with the Christian Church in the East and West
during the early Middle Ages. We learned something about its organization,
belief, and worship, about the rise and growth of the Papacy, about
monasticism, and about that missionary campaign which won all Europe to
Christianity. Our narrative extended to the middle of the eleventh
century, when the quarrel between pope and patriarch led at length to the
disruption of Christendom. We have now to consider the work and influence
of the Roman Church during later centuries of the Middle Ages.
TERRITORIAL EXTENT OF THE CHURCH
The Church at the height of its power held spiritual sway over all western
Europe. Italy and Sicily, the larger part of Spain, France, Germany,
Hungary, Poland, British Isles, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland
yielded obedience to the pope of Rome.
THE CHURCH AS UNIVERSAL
Membership in the Church was not a matter of free choice. All people,
except Jews, were required to belong to it. A person joined the Church by
baptism, a rite usually performed in infancy, and remained in it as long
as he lived. Every one was expected to conform, at least outwardly, to the
doctrines and practices of the Church, and anyone attacking its authority
was liable to punishment by the state.
THE CHURCH AS INTERNATIONAL
The presence of one Church throughout the western world furnished a bond
of union between European peoples during the age of feudalism. The Church
took no heed of political boundaries, for men of all nationalities entered
the ranks of the priesthood and joined the monastic orders. Priests and
monks were subjects of no country, but were "citizens of heaven," as they
sometimes called themselves. Even difference of language counted for
little in the Church, since Latin was the universal speech of the educated
classes. One must think, then, of the Church as a great international
state, in form a monarchy, presided over by the pope, and with its capital
at Rome.
TWOFOLD DUTIES OF THE CHURCH
The Church in the Middle Ages performed a double task. On the one hand it
gave the people religious instruction and watched over their morals; on
the other hand it played an important part in European politics and
provided a means of government. Because the Church thus combined
ecclesiastical and civil functions, it was quite unlike all modern
churches, whether Greek, Roman, or Protestant. Both sides of its
activities deserve, therefore, to be considered.
160. CHURCH DOCTRINE AND WORSHIP
"THE GATE OF HEAVEN."
In medieval times every loyal member of the Church accepted without
question its authority in religious matters. The Church taught a belief in
a personal God, all-wise, all-good, all-powerful, to know whom was the
highest goal of life. The avenue to this knowledge lay through faith in
the revelation of God, as found in the Scriptures. Since the unaided human
reason could not properly interpret the Scriptures, it was necessary for
the Church, through her officers, to declare their meaning and set forth
what doctrines were essential to salvation. The Church thus appeared as
the sole repository of religious knowledge, as "the gate of heaven."
THE SACRAMENTAL SYSTEM
Salvation did not depend only on the acceptance of certain beliefs. There
were also certain acts, called "sacraments," in which the faithful
Christian must participate, if he was not to be cut off eternally from
God. These acts formed channels of heavenly grace; they saved man from the
consequences of his sinful nature and filled him with "the fullness of
divine life." Since priests alone could administer the sacraments, [2] the
Church presented itself as the necessary mediator between God and man.
BAPTISM, CONFIRMATION, MATRIMONY, AND EXTREME UNCTION
By the thirteenth century seven sacraments were generally recognized. Four
of these marked critical stages in human life, from the cradle to the
grave. Baptism cleansed the child from the taint of original sin and
admitted him into the Christian community. Confirmation gave him full
Church fellowship. Matrimony united husband and wife in holy bonds which
might never be broken. Extreme Unction, the anointing with oil of one
mortally ill, purified the soul and endowed it with strength to meet
death.
PENANCE
Penance held an especially important place in the sacramental system. At
least once a year the Christian must confess his sins to a priest. If he
seemed to be truly repentant, the priest pronounced the solemn words of
absolution and then required him to accept some punishment, which varied
according to the nature of the offense. There was a regular code of
penalties for such sins as drunkenness, avarice, perjury, murder, and
heresy. Penances often consisted in fasting, reciting prayers, abstaining
from one's ordinary amusements, or beating oneself with bundles of rods. A
man who had sinned grievously might be ordered to engage in charitable
work, to make a contribution in money for the support of the Church, or to
go on a pilgrimage to a sacred shrine. The more distant and difficult a
pilgrimage, the more meritorious it was, especially if it led to some very
holy place, such as Rome or Jerusalem. People might also become monks in
order to atone for evil-doing. This system of penitential punishment
referred only to the earthly life; it was not supposed to cleanse the soul
for eternity.
HOLY EUCHARIST
The sacrament of the Holy Eucharist, generally known as the Mass, formed
the central feature of worship. It was more than a common meal in
commemoration of the Last Supper of Christ with the Apostles. It was a
solemn ceremony, by which the Christian believed himself to receive the
body and blood of Christ, under the form of bread and wine. [3] The right
of the priest to withhold the Eucharist from any person, for good cause,
gave the Church great power, because the failure to partake of this
sacrament imperiled one's chances of future salvation. It was also
supposed that the benefits of the ceremony in purifying from sin might be
enjoyed by the dead in Purgatory; hence masses were often said for the
repose of their souls.
ORDINATION
The seventh and last sacrament, that of Ordination, or "Holy Orders,"
admitted persons to the priesthood. According to the view of the Church
the rite had been instituted by Christ, when He chose the Apostles and
sent them forth to preach the Gospel. From the Apostles, who ordained
their successors, the clergy in all later times received their exalted
authority. [4] Ordination conferred spiritual power and set such an
indelible mark on the character that one who had been ordained could never
become a simple layman again.
[Illustration: PILGRIMS TO CANTERBURY
From a medieval manuscript. Canterbury with its cathedral appears in the
background. The shrine of Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, formed
a celebrated resort for medieval pilgrims. The archbishop had been
murdered in the church (1180 A.D.), if not at the instigation, at any rate
without the opposition of King Henry II, whose policies he opposed.
Becket, who was regarded as a martyr, soon received canonization. Miracles
were said to be worked at his grave and at the well in which his bloody
garments had been washed. He remained the most popular saint in England
until the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century, when his shrine
was destroyed.]
REVERENCE FOR SAINTS
The Church did not rely solely on the sacramental system as a means to
salvation. It was believed that holy persons, called saints, [5] who had
died and gone to Heaven, offered to God their prayers for men. Hence the
practice arose of invoking the aid of the saints in all the concerns of
life. The earliest saints were Christian martyrs, [6] who had sealed their
faith with their blood. In course of time many other persons, renowned for
pious deeds, were exalted to sainthood. The making of a new saint, after a
rigid inquiry into the merits of the person whom it is proposed to honor,
is now a privilege reserved to the pope.
DEVOTION TO THE VIRGIN
High above all the saints stood the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God.
Devotion to her as the "Queen of Heaven" increased rapidly in the Church
after the time of Gregory the Great. The popularity of her cult owed not a
little to the influence of chivalry, [7] for the knight, who vowed to
cherish womanhood, saw in the Virgin the ideal woman. Everywhere churches
arose in her honor, and no cathedral or abbey lacked a chapel dedicated to
Our Lady.
RELICS
The growing reverence for saints led to an increased interest in relics.
These included the bones of a saint and shreds of his garments, besides
such objects as the wood or nails of the cross on which Christ suffered.
Relics were not simply mementos; they were supposed to possess miraculous
power which passed into them through contact with holy persons. This
belief explains the use of relics to heal diseases, to ward off danger,
and, in general, to bring good fortune. An oath taken upon relics was
especially sacred. [8] Every church building contained a collection of
relics, sometimes amounting to thousands in number, and even private
persons often owned them.
PURGATORY
The Church also taught a belief in Purgatory as a state or place of
probation. [9] Here dwelt the souls of those who were guilty of no mortal
sins which would condemn them to Hell, but yet were burdened with
imperfections which prevented them from entering Heaven. Such
imperfections, it was held, might be removed by the prayers of the living,
and hence the practice arose of praying for the dead.
161. CHURCH JURISDICTION
CHURCH COURTS
The Church had regular courts and a special system of law [10] for the
trial of offenders against its regulations. Many cases, which to-day would
be decided according to the civil or criminal law of the state, in the
Middle Ages came before the ecclesiastical courts. Since marriage was
considered a sacrament, the Church took upon itself to decide what
marriages were lawful. It forbade the union of first cousins, of second
cousins, and of godparents and godchildren. It refused to sanction
divorce, for whatever cause, if both parties at the time of marriage had
been baptized Christians. The Church dealt with inheritance under wills,
for a man could not make a legal will until he had confessed, and
confession formed part of the sacrament of Penance. All contracts made
binding by oaths came under Church jurisdiction, because an oath was an
appeal to God. [11] The Church tried those who were charged with any sin
against religion, including heresy, blasphemy, the taking of interest
(usury), and the practice of witchcraft. Widows, orphans, and the families
of pilgrims or crusaders also enjoyed the special protection of Church
courts.
"BENEFIT OF CLERGY"
The Church claimed the privilege of judging all cases which involved
clergymen. No layman, it was declared, ought to interfere with one who, by
the sacrament of Ordination, had been dedicated to God. This demand of the
Church to try its own officers, according to its own mild and intelligent
laws, seems not unreasonable, when we remember how rude were the methods
of feudal justice. But "benefit of clergy," as the privilege was called,
might be abused. Many persons who had no intention of acting as priests or
monks became clergymen, in order to shield themselves behind the Church in
case their misdeeds were exposed.
RIGHT OF "SANCTUARY."
An interesting illustration of the power of the Church is afforded by the
right of "sanctuary." Any lawbreaker who fled to a church building
enjoyed, for a limited time, the privilege of safe refuge. It was
considered a sin against God to drag even the most wicked criminal from
the altar. The most that could be done was to deny the refugee food, so
that he might come forth voluntarily. This privilege of seeking sanctuary
was not without social usefulness, for it gave time for angry passions to
cool, thus permitting an investigation of the charges against an offender.
EXCOMMUNICATION
Disobedience to the regulations of the Church might be followed by
excommunication. It was a punishment which cut off the offender from all
Christian fellowship. He could not attend religious services nor enjoy the
sacraments so necessary to salvation. If he died excommunicate, his body
could not be buried in consecrated ground. By the law of the state he lost
all civil rights and forfeited all his property. No one might speak to
him, feed him, or shelter him. This terrible penalty, it is well to point
out, was usually imposed only after the sinner had received a fair trial
and had spurned all entreaties to repent. [12]
INTERDICT
The interdict, another form of punishment, was directed against a
particular locality, for the fault of some of the inhabitants who could
not be reached directly. In time of interdict the priests closed the
churches and neither married the living nor buried the dead. Of the
sacraments only Baptism, Confirmation, and Penance were permitted. All the
inhabitants of the afflicted district were ordered to fast, as in Lent,
and to let their hair grow long in sign of mourning. The interdict also
stopped the wheels of government, for courts of justice were shut, wills
could not be made, and public officials were forbidden to perform their
duties. In some cases the Church went so far as to lay an interdict upon
an entire kingdom, whose ruler had refused to obey her mandate. [13] The
interdict has now passed out of use, but excommunication still retains its
place among the spiritual weapons of the Church.
162. THE SECULAR CLERGY
THE SECULAR AND REGULAR CLERGY
Some one has said that in the Middle Ages there were just three classes of
society: the nobles who fought; the peasants who worked; and the clergy
who prayed. The latter class was divided into the secular [14] clergy,
including deacons, priests, and bishops, who lived active lives in the
world, and the regular [15] clergy, or monks, who passed their days in
seclusion behind monastery walls.
POSITION OF THE CLERGY
It has been already pointed out how early both secular and regular clergy
came to be distinguished from the laity by abstention from money-making
activities, differences in dress, and the obligation of celibacy. [16]
Being unmarried, the clergy had no family cares; being free from the
necessity of earning their own living, they could devote all their time
and energy to the service of the Church. The sacrament of Ordination,
which was believed to endow the clergy with divine power, also helped to
strengthen their influence. They appeared as a distinct order, in whose
charge was the care of souls and in whose hands were the keys of heaven.
PARISH PRIESTS
An account of the secular clergy naturally begins with the parish priest,
who had charge of a parish, the smallest division of Christendom. No one
could act as a priest without the approval of the bishop, but the nobleman
who supported the parish had the privilege of nominating candidates for
the position. The priest derived his income from lands belonging to the
parish, from tithes, [17] and from voluntary contributions, but as a rule
he received little more than a bare living. The parish priest was the only
Church officer who came continually into touch with the common people. He
baptized, married, and buried his parishioners. For them he celebrated
Mass at least once a week, heard confessions, and granted absolution. He
watched over all their deeds on earth and prepared them for the life to
come. And if he preached little, he seldom failed to set in his own person
an example of right living.
THE PARISH CHURCH
The church, with its spire which could be seen afar off and its bells
which called the faithful to worship, formed the social center of the
parish. Here on Sundays and holy days the people assembled for the morning
and evening services. During the interval between religious exercises they
often enjoyed games and other amusements in the adjoining churchyard. As a
place of public gathering the parish church held an important place in the
life of the Middle Ages.
BISHOPS
A group of parishes formed a diocese, over which a bishop presided. It was
his business to look after the property belonging to the diocese, to hold
the ecclesiastical courts, to visit the clergy, and to see that they did
their duty. The bishop alone could administer the sacraments of
Confirmation and Ordination. He also performed the ceremonies at the
consecration of a new church edifice or shrine. Since the Church held vast
estates on feudal tenure, the bishop was usually a territorial lord, owing
a vassal's obligations to the king or to some powerful noble for his land
and himself ruling over vassals in different parts of the country. As
symbols of his power and dignity the bishop wore on his head the miter and
carried the pastoral staff, or crosier. [18]
[Illustration: A BISHOP ORDAINING A PRIEST
From an English manuscript of the twelfth century. The bishop wears a
miter and holds in his left hand the pastoral staff, or crosier. His right
hand is extended in blessing over the priest's head.]
ARCHBISHOPS
Above the bishop in rank stood the archbishop. In England, for example,
there were two archbishops, one residing at York and the other at
Canterbury. The latter, as "primate of all England," was the highest
ecclesiastical dignitary in the land. An archbishop's distinctive vestment
consisted of the _pallium_, a narrow band of white wool, worn around the
neck. The pope alone could confer the right to wear the _pallium_.
THE CATHEDRAL
The church which contained the official seat or throne [19] of a bishop or
archbishop was called a cathedral. It was ordinarily the largest and most
magnificent church in the diocese. [20]
163. THE REGULAR CLERGY
DECLINE OF MONASTICISM
The regular clergy, or monks, during the early Middle Ages belonged to the
Benedictine order. By the tenth century, however, St. Benedict's Rule had
lost much of its force. As the monasteries increased in wealth through
gifts of land and goods, they sometimes became centers of idleness,
luxury, and corruption. The monks forgot their vows of poverty; and,
instead of themselves laboring as farmers, craftsmen, and students, they
employed laymen to work for them. At the same time powerful feudal lords
frequently obtained control of the monastic estates by appointing as
abbots their children or their retainers. Grave danger existed that the
monasteries would pass out of Church control and decline into mere fiefs
ruled by worldly men.
THE CLUNIAC REVIVAL
A great revival of monasticism began in 910 A.D., with the foundation of
the monastery of Cluny in eastern France. The monks of Cluny led lives of
the utmost self-denial and followed the Benedictine Rule in all its
strictness. Their enthusiasm and devotion were contagious; before long
Cluny became a center from which a reformatory movement spread over France
and then over all western Europe. By the middle of the twelfth century
more than three hundred monasteries looked to Cluny for inspiration and
guidance.
THE "CONGREGATION OF CLUNY"
Each of the earlier Benedictine monasteries had been an isolated
community, independent and self-governing. Consequently, when discipline
grew lax or when the abbot proved to be an incapable ruler, it was
difficult to correct the evils which arose. In the Cluniac system,
however, all the monasteries formed parts of one organization, the
"Congregation of Cluny." The abbot of Cluny appointed their "priors," or
heads, and required every monk to pass several years of his monastic life
at Cluny itself. This monarchical arrangement helps to explain why for two
hundred years the abbot of Cluny was, next to the pope, the most important
churchman in western Europe.
THE CISTERCIAN ORDER
Other monastic orders arose in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Of
these, the most important was the Cistercian, founded in 1098 A.D. at
Citeaux, not far from Cluny. The keynote of Cistercian life was the return
to a literal obedience of St. Benedict's Rule. Hence the members of the
order lived in the utmost simplicity, cooking their own meager repasts and
wearing coarse woolen garments woven from the fleeces of their own sheep.
The Cistercians especially emphasized the need for manual labor. They were
the best farmers and cattle breeders of the Middle Ages. Western Europe
owes even more to them than to the Benedictines for their work as pioneers
in the wilderness. "The Cistercians," declared a medieval writer, "are a
model to all monks, a mirror for the diligent, a spur to the indolent."
ST. BERNARD, 1090-1153 A.D.
The whole spirit of medieval monasticism found expression in St. Bernard,
a Burgundian of noble birth. While still a young man he resolved to leave
the world and seek the repose of the monastic life. He entered Citeaux,
carrying with him thirty companions. Mothers are said to have hid their
sons from him, and wives their husbands, lest they should be converted to
monasticism by his persuasive words. After a few years at Citeaux St.
Bernard established the monastery of Clairvaux, over which he ruled as
abbot till his death. His ascetic life, piety, eloquence, and ability as
an executive soon brought him into prominence. People visited Clairvaux
from far and near to listen to his preaching and to receive his counsels.
The monastery flourished under his direction and became the parent of no
less than sixty-five Cistercian houses which were planted in the
wilderness. St. Bernard's activities widened, till he came to be the most
influential man in western Christendom. It was St. Bernard who acted as an
adviser of the popes, at one time deciding between two rival candidates
for the Papacy, who combated most vigorously the heresies of the day, and
who by his fiery appeals set in motion one of the crusades. [21] The charm
of his character is revealed to us in his sermons and letters, while some
of the Latin hymns commonly attributed to him are still sung in many
churches, both Roman Catholic and Protestant.
164. THE FRIARS
COMING OF THE FRIARS
The history of Christian monasticism exhibits an ever-widening social
outlook. The early hermits [22] had devoted themselves, as they believed,
to the service of God by retiring desert for prayer, meditation, and
bodily mortification. St. Benedict's wise Rule, as followed by the
medieval monastic orders, marked a change for the better. It did away with
extreme forms of self-denial, brought the monks together in a common
house, and required them to engage in daily manual labor. Yet even the
Benedictine system had its limitations. The monks lived apart from the
world and sought chiefly the salvation of their own souls. A new
conception of the monastic life arose early in the thirteenth century,
with the coming of the friars. [23] The aim of the friars was social
service. They lived active lives in the world and devoted themselves
entirely to the salvation of others. The foundation of the orders of
friars was the work of two men, St. Francis in Italy and St. Dominic in
Spain.
ST. FRANCIS, 1181(?)-1226 A.D.
Twenty-eight years after the death of St. Bernard, St. Francis was born at
Assisi. As the son of a rich and prominent merchant St. Francis had before
him the prospect of a fine career in the world. But he put away all
thoughts of fame and wealth, deserted his gay companions, and, choosing
"Lady Poverty" as his bride, started out to minister to lepers and social
outcasts. One day, while attending Mass, the call came to him to preach
the Gospel, as Christ had preached it, among the poor and lowly. The man's
earnestness and charm of manner soon drew about him devoted followers.
After some years St. Francis went to Rome and obtained Pope Innocent III's
sanction of his work. The Franciscan order spread so rapidly that even in
the founder's lifetime there were several thousand members in Italy and
other European countries.
[Illustration: ST. FRANCIS BLESSING THE BIRDS
From a painting by the Italian artist Giotto.]
ST. FRANCIS, THE MAN
St. Francis is one of the most attractive figures in all history. Perhaps
no other man has ever tried so seriously to imitate in his own life the
life of Christ. St. Francis went about doing good. He resembled, in some
respects, the social workers and revivalist preachers of to-day. In other
respects he was a true child of the Middle Ages. An ascetic, he fasted,
wore a hair-cloth shirt, mixed ashes with his food to make it
disagreeable, wept daily, so that his eyesight was nearly destroyed, and
every night flogged himself with iron chains. A mystic, he lived so close
to God and nature that he could include within the bonds of his love not
only men and women, but also animals, trees, and flowers. He preached a
sermon to the birds and once wrote a hymn to praise God for his
"brothers," sun, wind, and fire, and for his "sisters," moon, water, and
earth. When told that he had but a short time to live, he exclaimed,
"Welcome, Sister Death!" He died at the age of forty-five, worn out by his
exertions and self-denial. Two years later the pope made him a saint.
ST. DOMINIC, 1170-1221 A.D.
St. Dominic, unlike St. Francis, was a clergyman and a student of
theology. After being ordained he went to southern France and labored
there for ten years among a heretical sect known as the Albigenses. The
order of Dominicans grew out of the little band of volunteers who assisted
him in the mission. St. Dominic sent his followers--at first only sixteen
in number--out into the world to combat heresy. They met with great
success, and at the founder's death the Dominicans had as many as sixty
friaries in various European cities.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FRIARS
The Franciscans and Dominicans resembled each other in many ways. They
were "itinerant," going on foot from place to place, and wearing coarse
robes tied round the waist with a rope. They were "mendicants," [24] who
possessed no property but lived on the alms of the charitable. They were
also preachers, who spoke to the people, not in Latin, but in the common
language of each country which they visited. The Franciscans worked
especially in the "slums" of the cities; the Dominicans addressed
themselves rather to educated people and the upper classes. As time went
on, both orders relaxed the rule of poverty and became very wealthy. They
still survive, scattered all over the world and employed in teaching and
missionary activity. [25]
THE FRIARS AND THE PAPACY
The friars by their preaching and ministrations did a great deal to call
forth a religious revival in Europe during the thirteenth century. In
particular they helped to strengthen the papal authority. Both orders
received the sanction of the pope; both enjoyed many privileges at his
hands; and both looked to him for direction. The pope employed them to
raise money, to preach crusades, and to impose excommunications and
interdicts. The Franciscans and Dominicans formed, in fact, the agents of
the Papacy.
165. POWER OF THE PAPACY
THE POPE'S EXALTED POSITION
The name "pope" [26] seems at first to have been applied to all priests as
a title of respect and affection. The Greek Church still continues this
use of the word. In the West it gradually came to be reserved to the
bishop of Rome as his official title. The pope was addressed in speaking
as "Your Holiness." His exalted position was further indicated by the
tiara, or headdress with triple crowns, worn by him in processions. [27]
He went to solemn ceremonies sitting in a chair supported on the shoulders
of his guard. He gave audience from an elevated throne, and all who
approached him kissed his feet in reverence. As "Christ's Vicar" he
claimed to be the representative on earth of the Almighty.
THE POPE AS THE HEAD OF WESTERN CHRISTENDOM
The pope was the supreme lawgiver of the Church. His decrees might not be
set aside by any other person. He made new laws in the form of "bulls"
[28] and by his "dispensations" could in particular cases set aside old
laws, such as those forbidding cousins to marry or monks to obtain release
from their vows. The pope was also the supreme judge of the Church, for
all appeals from the lower ecclesiastical courts came before him for
decision. Finally, the pope was the supreme administrator of the Church.
He confirmed the election of bishops, deposed them, when necessary, or
transferred them from one diocese to another. No archbishop might perform
the functions of his office until he had received the _pallium_ from the
pope's hands. The pope also exercised control over the monastic orders and
called general councils of the Church.
THE PAPAL LEGATES
The authority of the pope was commonly exercised by the "legates," [29]
whom he sent out as his representatives at the various European courts.
These officers kept the pope in close touch with the condition of the
Church in every part of western Europe. A similar function is performed in
modern times by the papal ambassadors known as "nuncios."
THE CARDINALS
For assistance in government the pope made use of the cardinals, [30] who
formed a board, or "college." At first they were chosen only from the
clergy of Rome and the vicinity, but in course of time the pope opened the
cardinalate to prominent churchmen in all countries. The number of
cardinals is now fixed at seventy, but the college is never full, and
there are always ten or more "vacant hats," as the saying goes. The
cardinals, in the eleventh century, received the right of choosing a new
pope. A cardinal ranks above all other church officers. His dignity is
indicated by the red hat and scarlet robe which he wears and by the title
of "Eminence" applied to him.
INCOME OF THE PAPACY
To support the business of the Papacy and to maintain the splendor of the
papal court required a large annual income. This came partly from the
States of the Church in Italy, partly from the gifts of the faithful, and
partly from the payments made by abbots, bishops, and archbishops when the
pope confirmed their election to office. Still another source of revenue
consisted of "Peter's Pence," a tax of a penny on each hearth. It was
collected every year in England and in some Continental countries until
the Reformation. The modern "Peter's Pence" is a voluntary contribution
made by Roman Catholics in all countries.
THE CAPITAL OF THE PAPACY
The Eternal City, from which in ancient times the known world had been
ruled, formed in the Middle Ages the capital of the Papacy. Hither every
year came tens of thousands of pilgrims to worship at the shrine of the
Prince of the Apostles. Few traces now remain of the medieval city. Old
St. Peter's Church, where Charlemagne was crowned emperor, [31] gave way
in the sixteenth century to the world-famous structure that now occupies
its site. [32] The Lateran Palace, which for more than a thousand years
served as the residence of the popes, has also disappeared, its place
being taken by a new and smaller building. The popes now live in the
splendid palace of the Vatican, adjoining St. Peter's.
THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE
The powers exercised by the popes during the later Middle Ages were not
secured without a struggle. As a matter of fact the concentration of
authority in papal hands was a gradual development covering several
hundred years. The pope reached his exalted position only after a long
contest with the Holy Roman Emperor. This contest forms one of the most
noteworthy episodes in medieval history.
166. POPES AND EMPERORS, 962-1122 A.D.
RELATIONS BETWEEN POPE AND EMPEROR IN THEORY
One might suppose that there could be no interference between pope and
emperor, since they seemed to have separate spheres of action. It was said
that God had made the pope, as the successor of St. Peter, supreme in
spiritual matters and the emperor, as heir of the Roman Caesars, supreme
in temporal matters. The former ruled men's souls, the latter, men's
bodies. The two sovereigns thus divided on equal terms the government of
the world.
THEIR RELATIONS IN PRACTICE
The difficulty with this theory was that it did not work. No one could
decide in advance where the authority the pope ended and where that of the
emperor began. When the pope claimed certain powers which were also
claimed by the emperor, a conflict between the two rulers became
inevitable.
[Illustration: THE SPIRITUAL AND TEMPORAL POWER
A tenth-century mosaic in the church of St. John, Rome. It represents
Christ giving to St. Peter the keys of heaven, and to Constantine the
banner symbolic of earthly dominion.]
OTTO THE GREAT AND THE PAPACY
In 962 A.D. Otto the Great, as we have learned, [33] restored imperial
rule in the West, thus founding what in later centuries the came to be
known as the Holy Roman Empire. Otto as emperor possessed the rights of
making the city of Rome the imperial capital, of approving the election of
the pope, and, in general, of exerting much influence in papal affairs.
All these rights had been exercised by Charlemagne. But Otto did what
Charlemagne had never done when he deposed a pope who proved disobedient
to his wishes and on his own authority appointed a successor. At the same
time Otto exacted from the people of Rome an oath that they would never
recognize any pope to whose election the emperor had not consented.
THE PAPACY AND OTTO'S SUCCESSORS
The emperors who followed Otto repeatedly interfered in elections to the
Papacy. One strong ruler, Henry III (1039-1056 A.D.), has been called the
"pope-maker." Early in his reign he set aside three rival claimants to the
Papacy, creating a German bishop pope, and on three subsequent occasions
filled the papal throne by fresh appointments. It was clear that if this
situation continued much longer the Papacy would become simply an imperial
office; it would be merged in the Empire.
PAPAL ELECTION BY THE CARDINALS
The death of Henry III, which left the Empire in weak hands, gave the
Papacy a chance to escape the control of the secular power. In 1059 A.D. a
church council held at the Lateran Palace decreed that henceforth the
right of choosing the supreme pontiff should belong exclusively to the
cardinals, who represented the clergy of Rome. This arrangement has tended
to prevent any interference with the election of popes, either by the
Roman people or by foreign sovereigns.
FEUDALIZING OF THE CHURCH
Now that the Papacy had become independent, it began to deal with a grave
problem which affected the Church at large. According to ecclesiastical
rule bishops ought to be chosen by the clergy of their diocese and abbots
of by their monks. With the growth of feudalism, however, many of these
high dignitaries had become vassals, holding their lands as fiefs of
princes, kings, and emperors, and owing the usual feudal dues. Their lords
expected them to perform the ceremony of homage, [34] before "investing"
them with the lands attached to the bishopric or monastery. One can
readily see that in practice the lords really chose the bishops and
abbots, since they could always refuse to "invest" those who were
displeasing to them.
LAY INVESTITURE FROM THE CHURCH STANDPOINT
To the reformers in the Church lay investiture appeared intolerable. How
could the Church keep itself unspotted from the world when its highest
officers were chosen by laymen and were compelled to perform unpriestly
duties? In the act of investiture the reformers also saw the sin of simony
[35]--the sale of sacred powers--because there was such a temptation
before the candidate for a bishopric or abbacy to buy the position with
promises or with money.
LAY INVESTITURE AS VIEWED BY THE SECULAR AUTHORITY
The lords, on the other hand, believed that as long as bishops and abbots
held vast estates on feudal tenure they should continue to perform the
obligations of vassalage. To forbid lay investiture was to deprive the
lords of all control over Church dignitaries. The real difficulty of the
situation existed, of course, in the fact that the bishops and abbots were
both spiritual officers and temporal rulers, were servants of both the
Church and the State. They found it very difficult to serve two masters.
PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII, 1073-1085 A.D.
In 1073 A.D. there came to the throne of St. Peter one of the most
remarkable of the popes. This was Hildebrand, who, on becoming pope, took
the name of Gregory VII. Of obscure Italian birth, he received his
education in a Benedictine monastery at Rome and rose rapidly to a
position of great influence in papal affairs. He is described as a small
man, ungainly in appearance and with a weak voice, but energetic,
forceful, and of imperious will.
GREGORY'S AIMS
Gregory devoted all his talents to the advancement of the Papacy. A
contemporary document, [36] which may have been of Gregory's own
composition and at any rate expresses his ideas, contains the following
statements: "The Roman pontiff alone is properly called universal. He
alone may depose bishops and restore them to office. He is the only person
whose feet are kissed by all princes. He may depose emperors. He may be
judged by no one. He may absolve from their allegiance the subjects of the
wicked. The Roman Church never has erred, and never can err, as the
Scriptures testify." Gregory did not originate these doctrines, but he was
the first pope who ventured to make a practical application of them.
DECREE AGAINST LAY INVESTITURE, 1075 A.D.
Two years after Gregory became pope he issued a decree against lay
investiture. It declared that no emperor, king, duke, marquis, count, or
any other lay person should presume to grant investiture, under pain of
excommunication. This decree was a general one, applying to all states of
western Europe, but circumstances were such that it mainly affected
Germany.
HENRY IV AND GREGORY VII
Henry IV, the ruler of Germany at this time, did not refuse the papal
challenge. He wrote a famous letter to Gregory, calling him "no pope but
false monk," telling him Christ had never called him to the priesthood,
and bidding him "come down;" "come down" from St. Peter's throne. Gregory,
in reply, deposed Henry as emperor, excommunicated him, and freed his
subjects from their allegiance.
CANOSSA, 1077 A.D.
This severe sentence made a profound impression in Germany. Henry's
adherents fell away, and it seemed probable that the German nobles would
elect another ruler in his stead. Henry then decided on abject submission.
He hastened across the Alps and found the pope at the castle of Canossa,
on the northern slopes of the Apennines. It was January, and the snow lay
deep on the ground. For three days the emperor stood shivering outside the
castle gate, barefoot and clad in a coarse woolen shirt, the garb of a
penitent. At last, upon the entreaties of the Countess Matilda of Tuscany,
Gregory admitted Henry and granted absolution. It was a strange and moving
spectacle, one which well expressed the tremendous power which the Church
in the Middle Ages exercised over the minds of men.
[Illustration: HENRY IV, COUNTESS MATILDA, AND GREGORY VII
From a manuscript of the twelfth century now in the Vatican Library at
Rome.]
CONCORDAT OF WORMS, 1122 A.D.
The dramatic scene at Canossa did not end the investiture conflict. It
dragged on for half a century, being continued after Gregory's death by
the popes who succeeded him. At last in 1122 A.D. the opposing parties
agreed to what is known as the Concordat of Worms, from the old German
city where it was signed.
TERMS OF THE CONCORDAT
The concordat drew a distinction between spiritual and lay investiture.
The emperor renounced investiture by the ring and crosier--the emblems of
spiritual authority--and permitted bishops and abbots to be elected by the
clergy and confirmed in office by the pope. On the other hand the pope
recognized the emperor's right to be present at all elections and to
invest bishops and abbots by the scepter for whatever lands they held
within his domains. This reasonable compromise worked well for a time. But
it was a truce, not a peace. It did not settle the more fundamental issue,
whether the Papacy or the Holy Roman Empire should be supreme.
167. POPES AND EMPERORS, 1122-1273 A.D.
FREDERICK I, EMPEROR, 1152-1190
Thirty years after the signing of the Concordat of Worms the emperor
Frederick I, called Barbarossa from his red beard, succeeded to the
throne. Frederick, the second emperor, of the Hohenstaufen dynasty [37]
was capable, imaginative, and ambitious. He took Charlemagne and Otto the
Great as his models and aspired like them to rule Christian Europe and the
Church. His reign is the story of many attempts, ending at length in
failure, to unite all Italy into a single state under German sway.
FREDERICK AND THE PAPACY
Frederick's Italian policy brought him at once into conflict with two
powerful enemies. The popes, who feared that his success would imperil the
independence of the Papacy, opposed him at every step. The great cities of
northern Italy, which were also threatened by Frederick's soaring schemes,
united in the Lombard League to defend their freedom. The popes gave the
league their support, and in 1176 A.D. Frederick was badly beaten at the
battle of Legnano. The haughty emperor confessed himself conquered, and
sought reconciliation with the pope, Alexander III. In the presence of a
vast throng assembled before St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice, Frederick
knelt before the pope and humbly kissed his feet. Just a century had
passed since the humiliation of Henry IV at Canossa.
PONTIFICATE OF INNOCENT III, 1198-1216 A.D.
The Papacy reached the height of its power under Innocent III. The
eighteen years of his pontificate were one long effort, for the most part
successful, to make the pope the arbiter of Europe. Innocent announced the
claims of the Papacy in the most uncompromising manner. "As the moon," he
declared, "receives its light from the sun, and is inferior to the sun, so
do kings receive all their glory and dignity from the Holy See." This
meant, according to Innocent, that the pope has the right to interfere in
all secular matters and in the quarrels of rulers. "God," he continued,
"has set the Prince of the Apostles over kings and kingdoms, with a
mission to tear up, plant, destroy, scatter, and rebuild."
INNOCENT AND KING PHILIP OF FRANCE
That Innocent's claims were not idle boasts is shown by what he
accomplished. When Philip Augustus, king of France, divorced his wife and
made another marriage, Innocent declared the divorce void and ordered him
to take back his discarded queen. Philip refused, and Innocent, through
his legate, put France under an interdict. From that hour all religious
rites ceased. The church doors were barred; the church bells were silent,
the sick died unshriven, the dead lay unburied. Philip, deserted by his
retainers, was compelled to submit.
INNOCENT AND KING JOHN OF ENGLAND
On another occasion Innocent ordered John, the English king, to accept as
archbishop of Canterbury a man of his own choosing. When John declared
that he would never allow the pope's appointee to set foot on English
soil, Innocent replied by excommunicating him and laying his kingdom under
an interdict. John also had to yield and went so far as to surrender
England and Ireland to the pope, receiving them back again as fiefs, for
which he promised to pay a yearly rent. This tribute money was actually
paid, though irregularly, for about a century and a half.
FREDERICK II, EMPEROR, 1212-1250 A.D.
Innocent further exhibited his power by elevating to the imperial throne
Frederick II, grandson of Frederick Barbarossa. The young man, after
Innocent's death, proved to be a most determined opponent of the Papacy.
He passed much of his long reign in Italy, warring vainly against the
popes and the Lombard cities. Frederick died in 1250 A.D., and with him
the Holy Roman Empire really ceased to exist. [38] None of the succeeding
holders of the imperial title exercised any authority outside of Germany.
INTERREGNUM, 1254-1273 A.D.
The death of Frederick II's son in 1254 A.D. ended the Hohenstaufen
dynasty. There now ensued what is called the Interregnum, a period of
nineteen years, during which Germany was without a ruler. At length the
pope sent word to the German electors that if they did not choose an
emperor, he would himself do so. The electors then chose Rudolf of
Hapsburg [39] (1273 A.D.). Rudolf gained papal support by resigning all
claims on Italy, but recompensed himself through the conquest of Austria.
[40] Ever since this time the Hapsburg dynasty has filled the Austrian
throne.
OUTCOME OF THE CONFLICT
The conflict between popes and emperors was now ended. Its results were
momentous. Germany, so long neglected by its rightful rulers, who pursued
the will-o'-the-wisp in Italy, broke up into a mass of duchies, counties,
archbishoprics, and free cities. The map of the country at this time shows
how numerous were these small feudal states. They did not combine into a
strong government till the nineteenth century. [41] Italy likewise
remained disunited and lacked even a common monarch. The real victor was
the Papacy, which had crushed the Empire and had prevented the union of
Italy and Germany.
[Illustration: Map, GERMANY AND ITALY During the Interregnum 1254-1273
A.D.]
168. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE CHURCH AND WARFARE
Medieval society, we have now learned, owed much to the Church, both as a
teacher of religion and morals and as an agency of government. It remains
to ask what was the attitude of the Church toward the great social
problems of the Middle Ages. In regard to warfare, the prevalence of which
formed one of the worst evils of the time, the Church, in general, cast
its influence on the side of peace. It deserves credit for establishing
the Peace and the Truce of God and for many efforts to heal strife between
princes and nobles. Yet, as will be shown, the Church did not carry the
advocacy of peace so far as to condemn warfare against heretics and
infidels. Christians believed that it was a religious duty to exterminate
these enemies of God.
THE CHURCH AND CHARITY
The Church was distinguished for charitable work. The clergy received
large sums for distribution to the needy. From the doors of the
monasteries, the poor, the sick, and the infirm of every sort were never
turned away. Medieval charity, however, was very often injudicious. The
problem of removing the causes of poverty seems never to have been raised;
and the indiscriminate giving multiplied, rather than reduced, the number
of beggars.
THE CHURCH AND SLAVERY AND SERFDOM
Neither slavery nor serfdom, into which slavery gradually passed, [42] was
ever pronounced unlawful by pope or Church council. The Church condemned
slavery only when it was the servitude of a Christian in bondage to a Jew
or an infidel. Abbots, bishops, and popes possessed slaves and serfs. The
serfs of some wealthy monasteries were counted by thousands. The Church,
however, encouraged the freeing of bondmen as a meritorious act and always
preached the duty of kindness and forbearance toward them.
DEMOCRACY OF THE CHURCH
The Church also helped to promote the cause of human freedom by insisting
on the natural equality of all men in the sight of God. "The Creator,"
wrote one of the popes, "distributes his gifts without regard to social
classes. In his eyes there are neither nobles nor serfs." It was not
necessary to be of noble birth to become a bishop, a cardinal, or a pope.
Even serfs succeeded to the chair of St. Peter. Naturally enough, the
Church attracted the keenest minds of the age, a fact which largely
explains the influence exerted by the clergy.
THE CLERGY AS THE ONLY EDUCATED CLASS
The influence of the clergy in medieval Europe was also due to the fact
that they were almost the only persons of education. Few except churchmen
were able to read or write. So generally was this the case that an
offender could prove himself a clergyman, thus securing "benefit of
clergy," [43] if he showed his ability to read a single line. It is
interesting, also, to note that the word "clerk," which comes from the
Latin _clericus_, was originally limited to churchmen, since they alone
could keep accounts, write letters, and perform other secretarial duties.
IMPORTANCE OF THE CLERGY
It is clear that priests and monks had much importance quite aside from
their religious duties. They controlled the schools, wrote the books,
framed the laws, and, in general, acted as leaders and molders of public
opinion. A most conspicuous instance of the authority wielded by them is
seen in the crusades. These holy wars of Christendom against Islam must
now be considered.
STUDIES
1. Explain the following terms: abbot; prior; archbishop; parish; diocese;
regular clergy; secular clergy; friar; excommunication; simony; interdict;
sacrament; "benefit of clergy"; right of "sanctuary"; crosier; miter;
tiara; papal indulgence; bull; dispensation; tithes; and "Peter's Pence."
2. Mention some respects in which the Roman Church in the Middle Ages
differed from any religious society of the present day.
3. "Medieval Europe was a camp with a church in the background." Comment
on this statement.
4. Explain the statement that "the Church, throughout the Middle Ages, was
a government as well as an ecclesiastical organization."
5. Distinguish between the _faith_ of the Church, the _organization_ of
the Church, and the Church as a _force_ in history.
6. How did the belief in Purgatory strengthen the hold of the Church upon
men's minds?
7. Name several historic characters who have been made saints.
8. Why has the Roman Church always refused to sanction divorce?
9. Compare the social effects of excommunication with those of a modern
"boycott."
10. What reasons have led the Church to insist upon celibacy of the
clergy?
11. Name four famous monks and four famous monasteries.
12. Could monks enter the secular clergy and thus become parish priests
and bishops?
13. Mention two famous popes who had been monks.
14. What justification was found in the New Testament (_Matthew_, x 8-10)
for the organization of the orders of friars?
15. How did the Franciscans and Dominicans supplement each other's work?
16. "The monks and the friars were the militia of the Church." Comment on
this statement.
17. Who is the present Pope? When and by whom was he elected? In what city
does he reside? What is his residence called?
18. Why has the medieval Papacy been called the "ghost" of the Roman
Empire?
19. In what sense is it true that the Holy Roman Empire was "neither holy
nor Roman, nor an empire"?
FOOTNOTES
[1] Webster, _Readings in Medieval and Modern History_, chapter x,
"Monastic Life in the Twelfth Century"; chapter xi, "St. Francis and the
Franciscans."
[2] In case of necessity baptism might be performed by any lay person of
adult years and sound mind.
[3] This doctrine is known as transubstantiation. In the Roman Church, as
has been noted (page 363), wine is not administered to the laity.
[4] Hence the term "Apostolical Succession."
[5] Latin sanctus, "holy."
[6] See page 234.
[7] See page 431.
[8] See pages 407, 418.
[9] The belief in Purgatory is not held by Protestants or by members of
the Greek Church.
[10] The so-called "canon law." See page 568.
[11] See page 420.
[12] For two instances of the use of excommunication see pages 459 and
461.
[13] For two instances of this sort see page 461.
[14] Latin _saeculum_, used in the sense of "the world."
[15] Latin _regula_, a "rule", referring to the rule or constitution of a
monastic order.
[16] See page 343.
[17] The tithe was a tenth part of the yearly income from land, stock, and
personal industry.
[18] See illustration, page 447.
[19] Latin _cathedra_.
[20] For the architecture of a medieval cathedral see pages 562-565.
[21] See page 474.
[22] See page 352.
[23] Latin _frater_, "brother."
[24] Latin _mendicare_, "to beg."
[25] In England the Franciscans, from the color of their robes, were
called Gray Friars, the Dominicans, Black Friars.
[26] Latin _papa_, "father."
[27] See the illustration, page 348.
[28] So called from the lead seal (Latin _bulla_) attached to papal
documents.
[29] Latin _legatus_, "deputy."
[30] Latin _cardinalus_, "principal."
[31] See page 311.
[32] See the plate facing page 591.
[33] See page 317.
[34] See page 418.
[35] A name derived from Simon Magus, who offered money to the Apostle
Peter for the power to confer the Holy Spirit. See _Acts_, viii, 18-20.
[36] The so-called _Dictatus papae_.
[37] The name of this German family comes from that of their castle in
southwestern Swabia.
[38] It survived in name until 1806 A.D., when the Austrian ruler, Francis
II, laid down the imperial crown and the venerable title of "Holy Roman
Emperor."
[39] Hapsburg as the name of a castle in northern Switzerland.
[40] See page 522.
[41] The modern German Empire dates from 1871 A.D.
[42] See pages 436-437.
[43] See page 444.