THE RISE OF ROME TO 264 B.C. [1]
47. ITALY AND SICILY
THE APENNINES
The shape of Italy is determined by the course of the Apennines. Branching
off from the Alps at the gulf of Genoa, these mountains cross the
peninsula in an easterly direction, almost to the Adriatic. Here they turn
sharply to the southeast and follow the coast for a considerable distance.
The plains of central Italy, in consequence, are all on the western slope
of the Apennines. In the lower part of the peninsula the range swerves
suddenly to the southwest, so that the level land is there on the eastern
side of the mountains. Near the southern extremity of Italy the Apennines
separate into two branches, which penetrate the "heel and toe" of the
peninsula.
DIVISIONS OF ITALY
Italy may be conveniently divided into a northern, a central, and a
southern section. These divisions, however, are determined by the
direction of the mountains and not, as in Greece, chiefly by inlets of the
sea. Northern Italy contains the important region known in ancient times
as Cisalpine Gaul. This is a perfectly level plain two hundred miles in
length, watered by the Po (_Padus_), which the Romans called the "king of
rivers," because of its length and many tributary streams. Central Italy,
lying south of the Apennines, includes seven districts, of which the three
on the western coast--Etruria, Latium, and Campania--were most conspicuous
in ancient history. Southern Italy, because of its warm climate and deeply
indented coast, early attracted many Greek colonists. Their colonies here
came to be known as Magna Graecia, or Great Greece.
[Illustration: Map, ANCIENT ITALY AND SICILY.]
SICILY
The triangular-shaped island of Sicily is separated from Italy by the
strait of Messina, a channel which, at the narrowest part, is only two
miles wide. At one time Sicily must have been joined to the mainland. Its
mountains, which rise at their highest point in the majestic volcano of
Aetna, nearly eleven thousand feet above sea level, are a continuation of
those of Italy. The greater part of Sicily is remarkably productive,
containing rich grainfields and hillsides green with the olive and the
vine. Lying in the center of the Mediterranean and in the direct route of
merchants and colonists from every direction, Sicily has always been a
meeting place of nations. In antiquity Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans
contended for the possession of this beautiful island.
INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS
On Italian history, as on that of Greece, [2] we are able to trace the
profound influence of geographical conditions. In the first place, the
peninsula of Italy is not cut up by a tangle of mountains into many small
districts. Hence it was easier for the Italians, than for the Greeks, to
establish one large and united state. In the second place, Italy, which
has few good harbors but possesses fine mountain pastures and rich lowland
plains, was better adapted to cattle raising and agriculture than was
Greece. The Italian peoples, in consequence, instead of putting to sea,
remained a conservative, home-staying folk, who were slow to adopt the
customs of other nations. Finally, the location of Italy, with its best
harbors and most numerous islands on the western coast, brought that
country into closer touch with Gaul, Spain, and northwestern Africa than
with Greece and the Orient. Italy fronted the barbarous West.
48. THE PEOPLES OF ITALY
NEIGHBORS OF THE ROMANS
Long before the Romans built their city by the Tiber every part of Italy
had become the home of wandering peoples, attracted by the mild climate
and rich soil of this favored land. Two of these peoples were neighbors of
the Romans--Etruscans on the north and Greeks on the south.
THE ETRUSCANS
The ancestors of the historic Etruscans were probably Aegean sea-rovers
who settled in the Italian peninsula before the beginning of the eighth
century B.C. The immigrants mingled with the natives and by conquest and
colonization founded a strong power in the country to which they gave
their name--Etruria. At one time the Etruscans appear to have ruled over
Campania and also in the Po Valley as far as the Alps. Their colonies
occupied the shores of Sardinia and Corsica. Their fleets swept the
Tyrrhenian Sea. The Etruscans for several centuries were the leading
nation in Italy.
[Illustration: A GRAECO-ETRUSCAN CHARIOT (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York)
The chariot was discovered in 1903 A.D. in an Etruscan cemetery near Rome.
It dates from perhaps 600 B.C. Almost every part of the vehicle is covered
with thin plates of bronze, elaborately decorated. The wheels are only two
feet in diameter. Since the chariot is too small and delicate for use in
warfare, we may believe it to have been intended for ceremonial purposes
only.]
ETRUSCAN CIVILIZATION
These Etruscans, like the Hittites of Asia Minor, [3] are a mysterious
race. No one as yet has been able to read their language, which is quite
unlike any Indo-European tongue. The words, however, are written in an
alphabet borrowed from Greek settlers in Italy. Many other civilizing arts
besides the alphabet came to the Etruscans from abroad. Babylonia gave to
them the principle of the round arch and the practice of divination. [4]
Etruscan graves contain Egyptian seals adorned with hieroglyphics and
beautiful vases bearing designs from Greek mythology. The Etruscans were
skillful workers in iron, bronze, and gold. They built their cities with
massive walls, arched gates, paved streets, and underground drains. In the
course of time a great part of this Etruscan civilization was absorbed in
that of Rome.
[Illustration: AN ETRUSCAN ARCH
The Italian city of Volterra still preserves in the Porta dell' Arco an
interesting relic of Etruscan times. The archway, one of the original
gates of the ancient town, is about twenty feet in height and twelve feet
in width. On the keystone and imposts are three curious heads, probably
representing the guardian deities of the place.]
[Illustration: CHARACTERS OF THE ETRUSCAN ALPHABET
About eight thousand Etruscan inscriptions are known, almost all being
short epitaphs on gravestones. In 1892 A.D. an Etruscan manuscript which
had been used to pack an Egyptian mummy, was published, but the language
could not be deciphered.]
THE GREEKS
As teachers of the Romans the Etruscans were followed by the Greeks. About
the middle of the eighth century B.C. Hellenic colonies began to occupy
the coasts of Sicily and southern Italy. The earliest Greek settlement was
Cumae, near the bay of Naples. [5] It was a city as old as Rome itself,
and a center from which Greek culture, including the Greek alphabet,
spread to Latium. A glance at the map [6] shows that the chief Greek
Colonies were all on or near the Sea, from Campania to the gulf of
Tarentum. North of the "heel" of Italy extends an almost harborless coast,
where nothing tempted the Greeks to settle. North of Campania, again, they
found the good harbors already occupied by the Etruscans. The Greeks, in
consequence, were never able to make Italy a completely Hellenic land.
Room was left for the native Italian peoples, under the leadership of
Rome, to build up their own power in the peninsula.
THE ITALIAN HIGHLANDERS
The Italians were an Indo-European people who spoke a language closely
related, on the one side, to Greek and, on the other side, to the Celtic
tongues of western Europe. They entered Italy through the Alpine passes,
long before the dawn of history, and gradually pushed southward until they
occupied the interior of the peninsula. At the beginning of historic times
they had separated into two main branches. The eastern and central parts
of Italy formed the home of the highlanders, grouped in various tribes.
Among them were the Umbrians in the northeast, the Sabines in the upper
valley of the Tiber, and the Samnites in the south. Still other Italian
peoples occupied the peninsula as far as Magna Graecia.
THE LATINS
The western Italians were known as Latins. They dwelt in Latium, the "flat
land" extending south of the Tiber between the Apennines and the
Tyrrhenian Sea. Residence in the lowlands, where they bordered on the
Etruscans, helped to make the Latins a civilized people. Their village
communities grew into larger settlements, until the whole of Latium became
filled with a number of independent city-states. The ties of kinship and
the necessity of defense against Etruscan and Sabine foes bound them
together. At a very early period they had united in the Latin League,
under the headship of Alba Longa. Another city in this league was Rome.
49. THE ROMANS
FOUNDING OF ROME
Rome sprang from a settlement of Latin shepherds, farmers, and traders on
the Palatine Mount. [7] This was the central eminence in a group of low
hills south of the Tiber, about fifteen miles by water from the river's
mouth. Opposite the Palatine community there arose on the Quirinal Hill
another settlement, which seems to have been an outpost of the Sabines.
After much hard fighting the rival hill towns united on equal terms into
one state. The low marshy land between the Palatine and Quirinal became
the Forum, or common market place, and the steep rock, known as the
Capitoline, formed the common citadel. [8]
[Illustration: Map, VICINITY OF ROME.]
UNION OF THE SEVEN HILLS
The union of the Palatine and Quirinal settlements greatly increased the
area and population of the Roman city. In course of time settlements were
made on the neighboring hills and these, too, cast in their lot with Rome.
Then a fortification, the so-called "Wall of Servius," was built to bring
them all within the boundaries of the enlarged community. Rome came into
existence as the City of the Seven Hills.
MYTHS OF EARLY ROME
Long after the foundation of Rome, when that city had grown rich and
powerful, her poets and historians delighted to relate the many myths
which clustered about the earlier stages of her career. According to these
myths Rome began as a colony of Alba Longa, the capital of Latium. The
founder of this city was Ascanius, son of the Trojan prince Aeneas, who
had escaped from Troy on its capture by the Greeks and after long
wanderings had reached the coast of Italy. Many generations afterwards,
when Numitor sat on the throne of Alba Longa, his younger brother,
Amulius, plotted against him and drove him into exile. He had Numitor's
son put to death, and forced the daughter, Rhea Silvia, to take the vows
of a Vestal Virgin. [9]
[Illustration: AN EARLY ROMAN COIN
Shows the twins, Romulus and Remus as infants suckled by a wolf.]
ROMULUS AND REMUS
But Rhea Silvia, beloved by Mars, the god of war, gave birth to twin boys
of more than human size and beauty. The wicked Amulius ordered the
children to be set adrift in a basket on the Tiber. Heaven, however,
guarded these offspring of a god; the river cast them ashore near Mount
Palatine, and a she-wolf came and nursed them. There they were discovered
by a shepherd, who reared them in his own household. When the twins,
Romulus and Remus, reached manhood, they killed Amulius and restored their
grandfather to his kingdom. With other young men from Alba Longa, they
then set forth to build a new city on the Palatine, where they had been
rescued. As they scanned the sky to learn the will of the gods, six
vultures, birds of Jupiter, appeared to Remus; but twelve were seen by
Romulus. So Romulus marked out the boundary of the city on the Palatine,
and Remus, who in derision leaped over the half-finished wall, he slew in
anger. Romulus thus became the sole founder of Rome and its first king.
SUCCESSORS OF ROMULUS
Romulus was followed by a Sabine, Numa Pompilius, who taught the Romans
the arts of peace and the worship of the gods. Another king destroyed Alba
Longa and brought the inhabitants to Rome. The last of Rome's seven kings
was an Etruscan named Tarquin the Proud. His tyranny finally provoked an
uprising, and Rome became a republic.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MYTHS
These famous tales have become a part of the world's literature and still
possess value to the student. They show us what the Romans themselves
believed about the foundation and early fortunes of their city. Sometimes
they refer to what seem to be facts, such as the first settlement on the
Palatine, the union with the Sabines on the Quirinal, the conquest of Alba
Longa, and Etruscan rule at Rome. The myths also contain so many
references to customs and beliefs that they are a great help in
understanding the social life and religion of the early Romans.
50. EARLY ROMAN SOCIETY
THE ROMANS AN AGRICULTURAL PEOPLE
Agriculture was the chief occupation of the Roman people. "When our
forefathers," said an ancient writer, "would praise a worthy man, they
praised him as a good farmer and a good landlord; and they believed that
an praise could go no further." [10] Roman farmers raised large crops of
grain--the staple product of ancient Italy. Cattle-breeding, also, must
have been an important pursuit, since in early times prices were estimated
in oxen and sheep. [11]
[Illustration: A ROMAN FARMER'S CALENDAR
A marble cube, two feet high, of about 31-29 B.C.
The month of May,
XXXI days,
The nones fall on the 7th day.
The day has 19-1/2 hours.
The night has 9-1/2 hours
The sun is in the sign of Taurus
The month is under the protection of Apollo.
The corn is weeded
The sheep are shorn
The wool is washed
Young steers are put under the yoke.
The vetch of the meadows is cut.
The lustration of the crops is made.
Sacrifices to Mercury and Flora.]
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
In such a community of peasants no great inequalities of wealth existed.
Few citizens were very rich; few were very poor. The members of each
household made their own clothing from flax or wool, and fashioned out of
wood and clay what utensils were needed for their simple life. For a long
time the Romans had no coined money whatever. When copper came into use as
currency, it passed from hand to hand in shapeless lumps that required
frequent weighing. It was not until the fourth century that a regular
coinage began. [12] This use of copper as money indicates that gold and
silver were rare among the Romans, and luxury almost unknown.
MORAL CHARACTER OF THE EARLY ROMANS
Hard-working, god-fearing peasants are likely to lead clean and sober
lives. This was certainly true of the early Romans. They were a manly
breed, abstemious in food and drink, iron-willed, vigorous, and strong.
Deep down in the Roman's heart was the proud conviction that Rome should
rule over all her neighbors. For this he freely shed his blood; for this
he bore hardship, however severe, without complaint. Before everything
else, he was a dutiful citizen and a true patriot. Such were the sturdy
men who on their farms in Latium formed the backbone of the Roman state.
Their character has set its mark on history for all time.
THE ROMAN FAMILY
The family formed the unit of Roman society. Its most marked feature was
the unlimited authority of the father. In his house he reigned an absolute
king. His wife had no legal rights: he could sell her into slavery or
divorce her at will. Nevertheless, no ancient people honored women more
highly than the Romans. A Roman wife was the mistress of the home, as her
husband was its master. Though her education was not carried far, we often
find the Roman matron taking a lively interest in affairs of state, and
aiding her husband both in politics and business. It was the women, as
well as the men, who helped to make Rome great among the nations. Over his
unmarried daughters and his sons, the Roman father ruled as supreme as
over his wife. He brought up his children to be sober, silent, modest in
their bearing, and, above all, obedient. Their misdeeds he might punish
with penalties as severe as banishment, slavery, or death. As head of the
family he could claim all their earnings; everything they had was his. The
father's great authority ceased only with his death. Then his sons, in
turn, became lords over their families.
[Illustration: CINERARY URNS IN TERRA COTTA (Vatican Museum, Rome)
These receptacles for the ashes of the dead were found in an old cemetery
at Alba Longa They show two forms of the primitive Roman hut.]
51. ROMAN RELIGION
WORSHIP OF ANCESTORS
The Romans, like the ancient Greeks and the modern Chinese, paid special
veneration to the souls of the dead. These were known by the flattering
name of _manes_, the "pure" or "good ones." The Romans always regarded the
_manes_ as members of the household to which they had belonged on earth.
The living and the dead were thus bound together by the closest ties. The
idea of the family triumphed even over the grave.
THE HOUSEHOLD DEITIES
The ancient Roman house had only one large room, the _atrium_, where all
members of the family lived together. It was entered by a single door,
which was sacred to the god Janus. On the hearth, opposite the doorway,
the housewife prepared the meals. The fire that ever blazed upon it gave
warmth and nourishment to the inmates. Here dwelt Vesta, the spirit of the
kindling flame. The cupboard where the food was kept came under the charge
of the Penates, who blessed the family store. The house as a whole had its
protecting spirits, called Lares.
WORSHIP OF THE HOUSEHOLD DEITIES
The daily worship of these deities took place at the family meal. The
table would be placed at the side of the hearth, and when the father and
his family sat down to it, a little food would be thrown into the flames
and a portion of wine poured out, as an offering to the gods. The images
of the Lares and Penates would also be fetched from the shrine and placed
on the table in token of their presence at the meal. This religion of the
family lasted with little change throughout the entire period of Roman
history.
[Illustration: A VESTAL VIRGIN
Portrait from a statue discovered in the ruins of the temple of Vesta in
the Roman Forum.]
JANUS AND VESTA
The early Roman state was only an enlarged family, and hence the religion
of the state was modeled after that of the family. Some of the divinities,
such as Janus and Vesta, were taken over with little change from the
domestic worship. The entrance to the Forum formed a shrine of Janus, [13]
which Numa himself was said to have built. The door, or gateway, stood
open in time of war, but shut when Rome was at peace. At the south end of
the Forum stood the round temple of Vesta, containing the sacred hearth of
the city. Here Vesta was served by six virgins of free birth, whose duty
it was to keep the fire always blazing on the altar. If by accident the
fire went out, it must be relighted from a "pure flame," either by
striking a spark with flint or by rubbing together two dry sticks. Such
methods of kindling fire were those familiar to the prehistoric Romans.
[Illustration: SUOVETAURILIA (Louvre, Paris)
The relief pictures an ancient Italian sacrifice of a bull, a ram and a
boar offered to Mars to secure purification from sin. Note the sacred
laurel trees, the two altars, and the officiating magistrate whose head is
covered with the toga. He is sprinkling incense from a box held by an
attendant. Another attendant carries a ewer with the libation. In the rear
is the sacrificer with his ax.]
JUPITER AND MARS
The Romans worshiped various gods connected with their lives as shepherds,
farmers, and warriors. The chief divinity was Jupiter, who ruled the
heavens and sent rain and sunshine to nourish the crops. The war god Mars
reflected the military character of the Romans. His sacred animal was the
fierce, cruel wolf, his symbols were spears and shields; his altar was the
Campus Martius (Field of Mars) outside the city walls, where the army
assembled in battle array. March, the first month of the old Roman year,
was named in his honor. Some other gods were borrowed from the Greeks,
together with many of the beautiful Greek myths.
DIVINATION
The Romans took many precautions, before beginning any enterprise, to find
out what was the will of the gods and how their favor might first be
gained. They did not have oracles, but they paid much attention to omens
of all sorts. A sudden flash of lightning, an eclipse of the sun, a
blazing comet, or an earthquake shock was an omen which awakened
superstitious fear. It indicated the disapproval of the gods. From the
Etruscans the Romans learned to divine the future by examining the
entrails of animal victims. They also borrowed from their northern
neighbors the practice of looking for signs in the number, flight, and
action of birds. To consult such signs was called "taking the auspices."
[14]
[Illustration: AN ETRUSCAN AUGUR
Wall painting from a tomb at Tarquinii in Etruria.]
[Illustration: COOP WITH SACRED CHICKENS
The relief represents the chickens in the act of feeding. The most
favorable omen was secured when the fowls greedily picked up more of the
corn than they could swallow at one time. Their refusal to eat at all was
an omen of disaster.]
PRIESTHOODS
Roman priests, who conducted the state religion, did not form a separate
class, as in some Oriental countries. They were chosen, like other
magistrates, from the general body of citizens. A board, or "college," of
six priests had charge of the public auspices. Another board, that of the
pontiffs, regulated the calendar, kept the public annals, and regulated
weights and measures. They were experts in all matters of religious
ceremonial and hence were very important officials. [15]
IMPORTANCE OF THE STATE RELIGION
This old Roman faith was something very different from what we understand
by religion. It had little direct influence on morality. It did not
promise rewards or threaten punishments in a future world. Roman religion
busied itself with the everyday life of man. Just as the household was
bound together by the tie of common worship, so all the citizens were
united in a common reverence for the deities which guarded the state. The
religion of Rome made and held together a nation.
52. THE ROMAN CITY-STATE
EARLY ROMAN GOVERNMENT
We find in early Rome, as in Homeric Greece, [16] a city-state with its
king, council, and assembly. The king was the father of his people, having
over them the same absolute authority that the house-father held within
the family. The king was assisted by a council of elders, or Senate (Latin
_senes_, "old men"). Its members were chosen by the king and held office
for life. The most influential heads of families belonged to the Senate.
The common people at first took little part in the government, for it was
only on rare occasions that the king summoned them to deliberate with him
in an assembly.
THE REPUBLICAN CONSULS
Toward the close of the sixth century, as we have already learned, [17]
the ancient monarchy disappeared from Rome. In place of the lifelong king
two magistrates, named consuls, were elected every year. Each consul had
to share his honor and authority with a colleague who enjoyed the same
power as himself. Unless both agreed, there could be no action. Like the
Spartan kings, [18] the consuls served as checks, the one on the other.
Neither could safely use his position to aim at unlawful rule.
THE DICTATOR
This divided power of the consuls might work very well in times of peace.
During dangerous wars or insurrections it was likely to prove disastrous.
A remedy was found in the temporary revival of the old kingship under a
new name. When occasion required, one of the consuls, on the advice of the
Senate, appointed a dictator. The consuls then gave up their authority and
the people put their property and lives entirely at the dictator's
disposal. During his term of office, which could not exceed six months,
the state was under martial law. Throughout Roman history there were many
occasions when a dictatorship was created to meet a sudden emergency.
PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS
The Roman state, during the regal age, seems to have been divided between
an aristocracy and a commons. The nobles were called patricians, [19] and
the common people were known as plebeians. [20] The patricians occupied a
privileged position, since they alone sat in the Senate and served as
priests, judges, and magistrates. In fact, they controlled society, and
the common people found themselves excluded from much of the religious,
legal, and political life of the Roman city. Under these circumstances it
was natural for the plebeians to agitate against the patrician monopoly of
government. The struggle between the two orders of society lasted about
two centuries.
THE TRIBUNES
A few years after the establishment of the republic the plebeians
compelled the patricians to allow them to have officers of their own,
called tribunes, as a means of protection. There were ten tribunes,
elected annually by the plebeians. Any tribune could veto, that is,
forbid, the act of a magistrate which seemed to bear harshly on a citizen.
To make sure that a tribune's orders would be respected, his person was
made sacred and a solemn curse was pronounced upon the man who injured him
or interrupted him in the performance of his duties. The tribune's
authority, however, extended only within the city and a mile beyond its
walls. He was quite powerless against the consul in the field.
THE TWELVE TABLES, 449 B.C.
We next find the plebeians struggling for equality before the law. Just as
in ancient Athens, [21] the early Roman laws had never been written down
or published. About half a century after the plebeians had obtained the
tribunes, they forced the patricians to give them written laws. A board of
ten men, known as decemvirs, was appointed to frame a legal code, binding
equally on both patricians and plebeians. The story goes that this
commission studied the legislation of the Greek states of southern Italy,
and even went to Athens to examine some of Solon's laws which were still
in force. The laws framed by the decemvirs were engraved on twelve bronze
tablets and set up in the Forum. A few sentences from this famous code
have come down to us in rude, unpolished Latin. They mark the beginning of
what was to be Rome's greatest gift to civilization--her legal system.
[Illustration: CURULE CHAIR AND FASCES
A consul sat on the curule chair. The _fasces_ (axes in a bundle of rods)
symbolized his power to flog and behead offenders.]
FINAL TRIUMPH OF THE PLEBEIANS
The hardest task of the plebeians was to secure the right of holding the
great offices of state. Eventually, however, they gained entrance to
Senate and became eligible to the consulship and other magistracies and to
the priesthoods. By the middle of the third century the plebeians and
patricians, equal before the law and with equal privileges, formed one
compact body of citizens in the Roman state.
ROME AS A REPUBLIC
The Roman state called itself a republic--_respublica_--"a thing of the
people." Roman citizens made the laws and elected public officers. Though
the people in their gatherings had now become supreme, their power was
really much limited by the fact that very little discussion of a proposed
measure was allowed. This formed a striking contrast to the vigorous
debating which went on in the Athenian Assembly. [22] Roman citizens could
not frame, criticize, or amend public measures; they could only vote "yes"
or "no" to proposals made to them by a magistrate.
MAGISTRATES
Rome had many magistrates. Besides the two consuls and an occasional
dictator there were the ten tribunes, the praetors, who served as judges,
and the quaestors, or keepers of the treasury. The two censors were also
very important officers. It was their business to make an enumeration or
census of the citizens and to assess property for taxation. The censors
almost always were reverend seniors who had held the consulship and
enjoyed a reputation for justice and wisdom. Their office grew steadily in
importance, especially after the censors began to exercise an oversight of
the private life of the Romans. They could expel a senator from his seat
for immorality and could deprive any citizen of his vote. The word
"censorious," meaning faultfinding, is derived from the name of these
ancient officials.
MEMBERSHIP OF THE SENATE
The authority of the magistrates was much limited by the Senate. This body
contained about three hundred members, who held their seats generally for
life. When vacancies occurred, they were filled, as a rule, by those who
had previously held one or more of the higher magistracies. There sat in
the Senate every man who, as statesman, general, or diplomatist, had
served his country well.
POWERS EXERCISED BY THE SENATE
The Senate furnished an admirable school for debate. Any senator could
speak as long and as often as he chose. The opportunities for discussion
were numerous, for all weighty matters came before this august assemblage.
It managed finances and public works. It looked after the state religion.
It declared and conducted war, received ambassadors from foreign
countries, made alliances, and administered conquered territories. The
Senate formed the real governing body of the republic.
"AN ASSEMBLY OF KINGS"
The Senate proved not unworthy of its high position. For two centuries,
while Rome was winning dominion over Italy and the Mediterranean, that
body held the wisest and noblest Romans of the time. To these men office
meant a public trust--an opportunity to serve their country with
distinction and honor. The Senate, in its best days, was a splendid
example of the foresight, energy, and wisdom of republican Rome. An
admiring foreigner called it "an assembly of kings." [23]
[Illustration: A SCENE IN SICILY
Taormina, on the Sicilian coast, thirty one miles southwest of Messina.
The ruins are those of a theater, founded by the Greeks, but much altered
in Roman times. The view of Aetna from this site is especially fine.]
[Illustration: BAY OF NAPLES AND VESUVIUS]
53. EXPANSION OF ROME OVER ITALY, 509(?)-264 B.C.
ROME SUPREME IN LATIUM, 338 B.C.
The first centuries of the republic were filled with constant warfare. The
Romans needed all their skill, bravery, and patriotism to keep back the
Etruscans on the north, and the wild tribes of the Apennines. About 390
B.C. the state was brought near to destruction by an invasion of the
Gauls. [24] These barbarians, whose huge bulk and enormous weapons struck
terror to the hearts of their adversaries, poured through the Alpine
passes and ravaged far and wide. At the river Allia, only a few miles from
Rome, they annihilated a Roman army and then captured and burned the city
itself. But the Gallic tide receded as swiftly as it had come, and Rome
rose from her ashes mightier than ever. Half a century after the Gallic
invasion she was able to subdue her former allies, the Latins, and to
destroy their league. The Latin War, as it is called, ended in 338 B.C.,
the year of the fateful battle of Chaeronea in Greece. [25] By this time
Rome ruled in Latium and southern Etruria and had begun to extend her sway
over Campania. There remained only one Italian people to contest with her
the supremacy of the peninsula--the Samnites.
ROME SUPREME IN CENTRAL ITLAY, 290 B.C.
The Samnites were the most vigorous and warlike race of central Italy.
While the Romans were winning their way in Latium, the Samnites were also
entering on a career of conquest. They coveted the fertile Campanian plain
with its luxurious cities, Cumae and Neapolis, which the Greeks had
founded. The Romans had also fixed their eyes on the same region, and so a
contest between the two peoples became inevitable. In numbers, courage,
and military skill Romans and Samnites were well matched. Nearly half a
century of hard fighting was required before Rome gained the upper hand.
The close of the Samnite wars found Rome supreme in central Italy. Her
authority was now recognized from the upper Apennines to the foot of the
peninsula.
ROME SUPREME IN SOUTHERN ITALY, 264 B.C.
The wealthy cities of southern Italy offered a tempting prize to Roman
greed. Before long many of them received Roman garrisons and accepted the
rule of the great Latin republic. Tarentum, [26] however, the most
important of the Greek colonies, held jealously to her independence.
Unable single-handed to face the Romans, Tarentum turned to Greece for
aid. She called on Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, the finest soldier of his age.
Pyrrhus led twenty-five thousand mercenary soldiers into Italy, an army
almost as large as Alexander's. The Romans could not break the bristling
ranks of the Greek phalanx, and they shrank back in terror before the huge
war elephants which Pyrrhus had brought with him. The invader won the
first battle, but lost many of his best troops. He then offered peace on
condition that the Romans should give up their possessions in southern
Italy. The Senate returned the proud reply that Rome would not treat with
the enemy while he stood on Italian soil. A second battle was so bitterly
contested that Pyrrhus declared, "Another such victory, and I am lost."
[27] Weary of the struggle, Pyrrhus now crossed over to Sicily to aid his
countrymen against the Carthaginians. The rapid progress of the Roman arms
called him back, only to meet a severe defeat. Pyrrhus then withdrew in
disgust to Greece; Tarentum fell; and Rome established her rule over
southern Italy.
POLITICAL SITUATION IN 264 B.C.
The triumph over Pyrrhus and the conquest of Magna Graecia mark a decisive
moment in the history of Rome. Had Pyrrhus won Italy, as well as Asia and
Egypt, might have become a Greek land, ruled by Hellenistic kings. Now it
was clear that Rome, having met the invader so bravely, was to remain
supreme in the Italian peninsula. She was the undisputed mistress of Italy
from the strait of Messina northward to the Arnus and the Rubicon.
Etruscans, Latins, Samnites, and Greeks acknowledged her sway. The central
city of the peninsula had become the center of a united Italy. [28]
[Illustration: Map, THE EXPANSION of ROMAN DOMINIONS in ITALY, 500-264
B.C.]
54. ITALY UNDER ROMAN RULE
THE ROMAN CITIZENS
Italy did not form a single state under Roman rule. About one-third of
Italy composed the strictly Roman territory occupied by Roman citizens.
Since ancient Rome knew nothing of the great principle of representative
government, [29] it was necessary that citizens who wished to vote or to
stand for office should visit in person the capital city. Few men, of
course, would journey many miles to Rome in order to exercise their
political rights. The elections, moreover, were not all held on one day,
as with us, but consuls, praetors, and other magistrates were chosen on
different days, while meetings of the assemblies might be held at any time
of the year. A country peasant who really tried to fulfill his duties as a
citizen would have had little time for anything else. In practice,
therefore, the city populace at Rome had the controlling voice in ordinary
legislation. The Romans were never able to remedy this grave defect in
their political system. We shall see later what evils government without
representation brought in its train.
THE ITALIANS
Over against this body of Roman citizens were the Italian peoples. Rome
was not yet ready to grant them citizenship, but she did not treat them as
complete subjects. The Italians were called the "allies and friends" of
the Roman people. They lost the right of declaring war on one another, of
making treaties, and of coining money. Rome otherwise allowed them to
govern themselves, never calling on them for tribute and only requiring
that they should furnish soldiers for the Roman army in time of war. These
allies occupied a large part of the Italian peninsula.
THE LATIN COLONIES
The Romans very early began to establish what were called Latin colonies
[30] in various parts of Italy. The colonists were usually veteran
soldiers or poor plebeians colonies who wanted farms of their own. When
the list of colonists was made up, they all marched forth in military
array to lake possession of their new homes and build their city. The
Latin colonies were really offshoots of Rome and hence were always
faithful to her interests. Scattered everywhere in Italy they formed so
many permanent camps or garrisons to keep the conquered peoples in
subjection. At the same time they helped mightily in spreading the Latin
language, law, and civilization throughout the peninsula.
ROMAN ROADS
All the colonies were united with one another and with Rome by an
extensive system of roads. The first great road, called the Appian Way,
was made during the period of the Samnite wars. It united the city of Rome
with Capua and secured the hold of Rome on Campania. The Appian Way was
afterwards carried across the Apennines to Brundisium on the Adriatic,
whence travelers embarked for the coast of Greece. Other trunk lines were
soon built in Italy, and from them a network of smaller highways was
extended to every part of the peninsula.
[Illustration: Map, COLONIES AND MILITARY ROADS IN ITALY]
[Illustration: THE APPIAN WAY
A view in the neighborhood of Rome. The ancient construction of the road
and its massive paving blocks of lava have been laid bare by modern
excavations. The width of the roadway proper was only fifteen feet. The
arches, seen in the background, belong to the aqueduct built by the
emperor Claudius in 52 A.D.]
USES OF ROMAN ROADS
Roman roads had a military origin. Like the old Persian roads [31] they
were intended to facilitate the rapid dispatch of troops, supplies, and
official messages into every corner of Italy. Hence the roads ran, as much
as possible, in straight lines and on easy grades. Nothing was allowed to
obstruct their course. Engineers cut through or tunneled the hills,
bridged rivers and gorges, and spanned low, swampy lands with viaducts of
stone. So carefully were these roads constructed that some stretches of
them are still in good condition. These magnificent highways were free to
the public. They naturally became avenues of trade and travel and so
served to bring the Italian peoples into close touch with Rome.
ROMANIZATION OF ITALY
Rome thus began in Italy that wonderful process of Romanization which she
was to extend later to Spain, Gaul, and Britain. She began to make, the
Italian peoples like herself in blood, speech, customs, and manners. More
and more the Italians, under Rome's leadership, came to look upon
themselves as one people--the people who wore the gown, or _toga_, as
contrasted with the barbarous and trousers-wearing Gauls.
[Illustration: A ROMAN LEGIONARY
From a monument of the imperial age. The soldier wears a metal helmet, a
leather doublet with shoulder-pieces, a metal-plated belt, and a sword
hanging from a strap thrown over the left shoulder. His left hand holds a
large shield, his right, a heavy javelin.]
55. THE ROMAN ARMY
THE LEGION
While the Romans were conquering Italy, they were making many improvements
in their army. All citizens between the ages of seventeen and forty-six
were liable to active service. These men were mainly landowners--hardy,
intelligent peasants--who knew how to fight and how to obey orders. An
army in the field consisted of one or more legions. A legion included
about three thousand heavy-armed footmen, twelve hundred light infantry,
and three hundred horsemen. After the conquest of Italy the states allied
with Rome had to furnish soldiers, chiefly archers and cavalry. These
auxiliaries, as they were called, were at least as numerous as
legionaries. The Romans, in carrying on war, employed not only their
citizens but also their subjects.
METHOD OF FIGHTING
The legion offered a sharp contrast to the unwieldy phalanx. [32] Roman
soldiers usually fought in an open order, with the heavy-armed infantry
arranged in three lines: first, the younger men; next, the more
experienced warriors; and lastly the veterans. A battle began with
skirmishing by the light troops, which moved to the front and discharged
their darts to harass the enemy. The companies of the first line next
flung their javelins at a distance of from ten to twenty paces and then,
wielding their terrible short swords, came at once to close quarters with
the foe. It was like a volley of musketry followed by a fierce bayonet
charge. If the attack proved unsuccessful, the wearied soldiers withdrew
to the rear through the gaps in the line behind. The second line now
marched forward to the attack; if it was repulsed, there was still the
third line of steady veterans for the last and decisive blow.
[Illustration: A ROMAN STANDARD BEARER (Bonn Museum)
From a gravestone of the first century A.D. The standard consists of a
spear crowned with a wreath, below which is a crossbar bearing pendant
acorns Then follow, in order, a metal disk, Jupiter's eagle standing on a
thunderbolt, a crescent moon, an amulet, and a large tassel.]
FORTIFIED CAMPS
A very remarkable part of the Roman military system consisted in the use
of fortified camps. Every time the army halted, if only for a single
night, the legionaries intrenched themselves within a square inclosure. It
was protected by a ditch, an earthen mound, and a palisade of stakes. This
camp formed a little city with its streets, its four gates, a forum, and
the headquarters of the general. Behind the walls of such a fortress an
army was always at liberty to accept or decline a battle. As a proverb
said, the Romans often conquered by "sitting still."
DISCIPLINE: REWARDS AND HONORS
Roman soldiers lived under the strictest discipline. To their general they
owed absolute, unquestioning obedience. He could condemn them to death
without trial. The sentinel who slept on his watch, the legionary who
disobeyed an order or threw away his arms on the field of battle, might be
scourged with rods and then beheaded. The men were encouraged to deeds of
valor by various marks of distinction, which the general presented to them
in the presence of the entire army. The highest reward was the civic crown
of oak leaves, granted to one who had saved the life of a fellow-soldier
on the battle field.
THE TRIUMPH
The state sometimes bestowed on a victorious general the honor of a
triumph. This was a grand parade and procession in the city of Rome. First
came the magistrates and senators, wagons laden with booty, and captives
in chains. Then followed the conqueror himself, clad in a gorgeous robe
and riding in a four-horse chariot. Behind him marched the soldiers, who
sang a triumphal hymn. The long procession passed through the streets to
the Forum and mounted the Capitoline Hill. There the general laid his
laurel crown upon the knees of the statue of Jupiter, as a thank offering
for victory. Meanwhile, the captives who had just appeared in the
procession were strangled in the underground prison of the Capitol. It was
a day of mingled joy and tragedy.
MILITARY GENIUS OF THE ROMANS
The Romans, it has been said, were sometimes vanquished in battle, but
they were always victorious in war. With the short swords of her
disciplined soldiers, her flexible legion, and her fortified camps, Rome
won dominion in Italy and began the conquest of the world.
STUDIES
1. On an outline map indicate the Roman dominions in 509 B.C.; in 338
B.C.; in 264 B.C.
2. Make a list of the Roman magistrates mentioned in this chapter, and of
the powers exercised by each.
3. Give the meaning of our English words "patrician," "plebeian,"
"censor," "dictator," "tribune," "augury," "auspices," and "veto."
4. Connect the proper events with the following dates: 753 B.C.; 509 B.C.;
and 338 B.C.
5. Why have Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica been called the "suburbs of
Italy"?
6. "Italy and Greece may be described as standing back to back to each
other." Explain this statement.
7. What is the origin of our names of the two months, January and March?
8. Compare the early Roman with the early Greek religion as to (a)
likenesses; (b) differences.
9. Why have the consuls been called "joint kings for one year"?
10. What do you understand by "martial law"? Under what circumstances is
it sometimes declared in the United States?
11. Compare the position of the Roman patricians with that of the Athenian
nobles before the legislation of Draco and Solon.
12. What officers in American cities perform some of the duties of the
censors, praetors, and aediles?
13. In the Roman and Spartan constitutions contrast: (a) consuls and
kings; (b) censors and ephors; and (c) the two senates.
14. Compare the Roman Senate and the Senate of the United States as to
size, term of office of members, conditions of membership, procedure,
functions, and importance.
15. How far can the phrase, "government of the people, by the people, for
the people," be applied to the Roman Republic at this period?
16. What conditions made it easy for the Romans to conquer Magna Graecia
and difficult for them to subdue the Samnites?
17. What is a "Pyrrhic victory"?
18. Compare the nature of Roman rule over Italy with that of Athens over
the Delian League.
19. Trace on the map, page 156, the Appian and Flaminian ways, noting some
of the cities along the routes and the terminal points of each road.
20. Explain: "all roads lead to Rome."
21. Contrast the legion and the phalanx as to arrangement, armament, and
method of fighting.
22. "Rome seems greater than her greatest men." Comment on this statement.
FOOTNOTES
[1] Webster, _Readings in Ancient History_, chapter xiv, "Legends of Early
Rome."
[2] See page 67.
[3] See page 28.
[4] See pages 53, 61.
[5] Naples, the ancient Neapolis, was a colony of Cumae. See page 89.
[6] See the map facing page 50.
[7] The Romans believed that their city was founded in 753 B.C., from
which year all Roman dates were reckoned.
[8] See the map, page 293.
[9] See page 146.
[10] Cato, _De agricultura_, I.
[11] See page 6.
[12] See the illustration, page 7.
[13] Since a door (_janua_) had two sides, Janus, the door god, was
represented with the curious double face which appears on Roman coins (See
the plate facing page 134) The month of January in the Julian calendar was
named for him.
[14] Latin _auspicium_, from _auspex_, a bird seer.
[15] The title of the president of the pontiffs, _Pontifex Maximus_
(Supreme Pontiff), is still that of the pope. See page 364.
[16] See page 81.
[17] See page 143.
[18] See page 83.
[19] From the Latin _patres_, "fathers."
[20] Latin _plebs_, "the crowd."
[21] See page 85.
[22] See page 105.
[23] The four letters inscribed on Roman military standards indicate the
important place held by the Senate. They are _S. P. Q. R._, standing for
_Senatus Populusque Romanus_, "The Senate and the People of Rome."
[24] See page 129.
[25] See page 118.
[26] See page 89.
[27] Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 21.
[28] It should be noticed, however, that as yet Rome controlled only the
central and southern parts of what is the modern kingdom of Italy. Two
large divisions of that kingdom, which every Italian now regards as
essential to its unity, were in other hands--the Po valley and the island
of Sicily.
[29] See page 106.
[30] Latin colonists did not have the right of voting in the assemblies at
Rome. This privilege was enjoyed, however, by members of the "Roman"
colonies, which were planted mainly along the coast. See the map, page
156.
[31] See page 40.
[32] See page 116.