ORIGIN, SPREAD, AND ORGANISATION OF THE CHURCH DURING THE APOSTOLIC AGE
OUTLINE: I.--Origin of the Christian Church. II.--Spread of
the Apostolic Church. III.--Organisation of the Early Church.
IV.--Conclusions. V.--Sources.
The Christian Church has both an internal and an external side--a soul
and a body. Thoughts, feelings, and beliefs constitute the inner Church,
the creed. These, in turn, aided by physical conditions, determine the
outward organisation of the Church. In a broad sense the Church was a
product of certain forces already in the world at the opening of the
Christian era, which were utilised by the believers in the teachings of
Jesus. From pagan and Jewish sources contributions were made to both the
form and content of the Christian Church in the following ways:
1. The Jews[52:1] gave in ideas: (a) a belief in Jehovah as God, (b) the
conception of sin, (c) a consciousness of the need of repentance and
reconciliation, (d) the doctrine of immortality, (e) the conception of
Heaven and Hell, (f) angels and the devil, (g) miracles, (h) the Old
Testament as God's word, and (i) the Sabbath. To the form of the
Christian Church they suggested: (a) the synagogue, (b) officials like
the elders, (c) ceremonies, (d) feasts,[53:1] and (e) organisation.[53:2]
2. The pagans contributed in ideas: (a) Greek philosophy and
culture,[53:3] (b) concepts of morality,[53:4] (c) the idea of absolute
sovereignty, and (d) universality.[53:5] In form they gave: (a)
local organisations like the democratic Hellenistic guild or
municipality,[53:6] or the numerous Roman social or religious
associations known as _collegia_ and _sodalitia_ (especially the
_collegia funeraticia_), and the general organisation of the
Empire[53:7]; (b) rites and ceremonies; (c) the evening meal,[53:8] (d)
festivals like Easter and Christmas; (e) the use of images, and (f)
architecture, painting, and ornamentation.
3. The real founder of the Church, however, was Jesus Christ. He
supplied the fundamental ideas of: (a) the universal fatherhood of God,
(b) the divine sonship of the Saviour of the world, (c) the brotherhood
of man, and (d) the ethical law of self-sacrifice. He created the
Church: (a) by choosing twelve Apostles, by teaching them and by
commissioning them to continue the work; (b) by winning a number of
converts to His doctrines; (c) by leaving certain sacraments for His
followers--Catholics say seven; most Protestants, two. But He left no
written Church constitution giving the details of organisation. The
work of Jesus and His immediate followers in founding the Church is
described in the New Testament. Broadly, then, the Church of Jesus
Christ is composed of all the believers in the teachings of Jesus,
although differing greatly in interpretation and in organisation.[54:1]
From Jerusalem the Apostles and disciples of Jesus spread his teachings
to Syria, Asia Minor, Africa, Greece, and Rome. From these fields the
propagation was continued until by the time of Constantine every point
within and some places without the Empire were reached. "Throughout
every city and village," enthusiastically exclaimed Eusebius, "churches
were quickly established and filled with members from every
people."[54:2] The fruitful labours of Paul and Timothy were explained
thus: "And so were the churches established in the faith, and increased
in numbers daily."[54:3] Other Apostles were, no doubt, equally active
in various parts of the Empire. The "Christians"--a term of derision
first used by the heathen of Antioch,[54:4]--numbering 500 in 30
A.D.,[54:5] grew to 500,000 by 100 A.D.,[54:6] and increased to
30,000,000 by 311 A.D.[54:7]--a growth almost unparalleled in the
world's religious history. They included all the social classes in the
Empire from slave to Emperor, though the great middle class was in all
probability most numerously represented.[55:1]
The causes for this marvellous growth[55:2] are found in: (a) the
revolutionary teachings of Jesus, particularly the idea of immortality,
which was very vague in heathen minds, and the law of love and
self-sacrifice; (b) the miraculous powers attributed to the first
Christians; (c) the purer and austerer morality of the early Christians;
(d) the unity and discipline of the Church, making it a powerful
organisation within the Empire; (e) the preparation and ripeness of the
Empire for Christianity, and (f) the subjective vividness of the
constant presence of Jesus with the early Christians, as explained by
Paul, and their zealous propagandism.
The results of this new life, brought into the world so dramatically,
must be measured in terms of all subsequent history.[55:3] Every
institution in the Empire was modified by this new spiritual force[55:4]
so that as old pagan imperial Rome gradually fell, new Christian Rome
took its place to rule all western Europe for more than a thousand years
in every sphere of human activity and endeavour.
The exact form of the organisation of the early Christian Church is
extremely difficult to determine, because of the lack of sufficient
positive authority in the New Testament and in patristic literature. The
Acts of the Apostles and the letters of Paul and others to the first
Christian communities tell nearly all any one can know about the origin
and organisation of the Apostolic Church. From these sources it is clear
that Jesus left certain great teachings, and many devoted believers in
those truths. After His departure, the Apostles, not limited to
twelve,[56:1] receiving authority directly from the Master,[56:2] like
the prophets of old, spread the new pregnant faith over the world,
organised their converts according to individual ideas and local
needs,[56:3] and practically monopolised all direction of the
Church.[56:4] With the increase of these Christian societies in size and
numbers, came the necessity of appointing local officers, or of having
them elected by the "brethren." In this way, at an early date, began the
outward organisation of the Church. The development of the Jewish
Kingdom of God into the Ecclesia of the Christians was a comparatively
easy transition, especially for the Jewish converts.
Next to the Apostles in point of time, but not authority, in the
Biblical account, came the deacons. At Jerusalem the Apostles had the
"brethren" select "seven men of honest report" to minister to the poor
and unfortunate, and to wait on the table in the daily love-feasts.[56:5]
They were installed by "laying on of hands." This democratic example
apparently was followed elsewhere.[56:6] Both sexes were eligible.[56:7]
The high qualifications for the office suggest its importance.[56:8]
St. Paul tells us that the earliest Christian communities found
it necessary to have some organisation, hence they chose bishops,
or overseers, and presbyters, or elders. But throughout the New
Testament the words elder, presbyter, and bishop seem to be used
interchangeably.[57:1] The qualifications for the offices were the same.
Bishops and elders are never joined together like bishops and deacons as
if they were two distinct classes of officers. Timothy, for example,
appoints bishops and deacons; Titus, elders and deacons. Paul sends
greetings to bishops and deacons at Philippi, but omits all mention of
elders and presbyters because, presumably, they were included in the
conception of bishops.[57:2] In his pastoral epistles he describes all
Church officers, but mentions only two classes, bishops or elders, and
deacons.[57:3] Peter, who calls himself "also an elder," urges the
elders to "tend the flock of God" and to "fulfil the office of
bishop."[57:4] Even Clement of Rome uses bishop and presbyter
interchangeably as late as 95 A.D.[57:5] Irenæus (d. 190) and Tertullian
(d. 220), however, were conscious of a distinct division and
differentiation.
That the official titles, bishop and presbyter or elder, were used from
early apostolic days, all must admit, for the New Testament evidence is
unmistakable. But perplexity and doubt arise at once when an attempt is
made to determine the resemblances and differences in their duties and
powers. The term elder, or presbyter, may have been used merely to
designate the personal relation of the most highly respected members to
the congregation, while the name bishop, or overseer, may have been the
official designation of leadership. Indeed some scholars, like Hatch and
Harnack, believe that the functions of presbyters and bishops were
distinct and different from the beginning. They assert that the college
of presbyters assumed the leadership, or government proper, of the
Christian community, with jurisdiction and disciplinary power, while the
bishops had charge of the administration of the Church, including
worship and finance, and were also largely occupied with charitable
work, in co-operation with the deacons, such as care for the sick, the
poor, and strangers. According to this view each congregation was
organised with three sets of officers, namely, deacons, presbyters, and
bishops, from the very outset. Gradually, however, an amalgamation took
place. The bishops, with their practical information, received seats and
votes in the presbytery and finally came to fill the office of
presidency.
It seems more probable, on the contrary, that these two titles simply
signify the twofold origin of the early Christians, namely, from the
Jews and the pagans. The word presbyter is of Hebraic derivation, while
bishop is a pure Greek term. Consequently the tendency developed to use
presbyter wherever the Hebrew element predominated, and, on the other
hand, to employ bishop for Greek communities. It was but natural, too,
that these two terms should come to signify the same thing and should
come to be used interchangeably.
The derivation of these terms is not clear.[59:1] Both presbyter and
bishop appear to have been in use in Syria and Asia Minor to designate
officers of municipal and private corporations. In Grecian civic
organisations, the word bishop or superintendent was likewise commonly
used. Then there were the well-known elders of the Jewish
synagogue,[59:2] and the senators of Roman municipalities--in fact a
universal respect for seniority existed in the old world. It was very
natural, therefore, that the Christians should adopt the known forms,
names, and offices of those organisations with which they were
familiar.[59:3] This method of procedure is precisely the one followed
over the world to-day in propagating any idea through organised effort.
These elders were apparently organised into boards, or councils, for the
purpose of better furthering the interests of the Church. They were not
teachers at first so much as the administrators, or business managers,
of the general concerns of the Church.[59:4] They helped to enact
ordinances[59:5]; discussed important questions with the Apostles and
assisted them in every possible way; enforced discipline[59:6]; settled
disputes between Christians; and prayed for the sick and anointed
them.[59:7]
The first Christians, eagerly awaiting the literal second coming of
Christ, and imbued with great enthusiasm for the Gospel, did not feel
the need of an elaborate constitution. But in time, as numbers
increased, as severe persecution fell upon the Christians, and as the
original fervour and spirituality decreased with the conversion of so
many pagans, it became necessary to develop a regular system of Church
government, which would more effectively meet the new conditions. The
fact of differentiation in organisation is easily established, because
the earliest and later forms may be determined with reasonable accuracy,
but the transitional process is much more difficult of comprehension.
This evolution, however, appears to have taken this course:
1. The board of presbyters, at least in the larger congregations,
naturally and logically developed a head with a priority in rank. The
office of president was universal in contemporary Jewish associations,
and in Roman and Greek organisations. The creation of a chairman of the
administrative body became a political necessity to expedite business,
and to enforce discipline in the Christian societies. Moreover there was
the example of the Apostles, who actually designated officers to
continue their work (a) of teaching the true doctrines,[60:1] (b) of
organising new churches, (c) of ordaining deacons and elders, and (d) in
acting as head of the whole congregation.[60:2] Hence this change was
natural, imperative, and easy; but the transition must have been gradual
and must have lacked uniformity.
2. The president of the board of presbyters came, in course of time, to
have a recognised supremacy in power as well as in rank, and the title
of bishop was gradually restricted to his high office. After the death
of the Apostles more duties devolved upon the president of the council,
and it was in the course of things that the special word bishop, _i.
e._, overseer or superintendent, should be applied to him. By the second
century, at least, if not indeed before, the differentiation had begun
and from that time on it can be plainly traced in the Church Fathers.
Jerome states that at Alexandria until the middle of the third century
the presbyters elected one of their number as president and called him
bishop.[61:1] Hilarius says: "Every bishop is a presbyter, but not every
presbyter a bishop; for he only is bishop who is the primate among the
presbyters."[61:2] Examples, secular and ecclesiastical, were not
lacking to warrant the change: (a) the Old Testament priesthood, (b)
Christ and his Apostles, (c) the Apostles and their appointees, (d) the
Emperor and his officials. The bishop soon professed to occupy the place
of an Apostle instead of Christ as earlier, hence arose the idea of an
"Apostolic seat" and "Apostolic succession."[61:3] He represented
Christian unity of doctrine and discipline, and ruled over a recognised
territory--first a single church, then a city, then a province. From the
bishop it was only another step to the archbishop, the metropolitan, the
patriarch, and the Pope.
3. The position of the presbyter changes, likewise, from that of the
highest officer in the Church to one subordinate (a) to the board of
elders and then (b) to the bishop. This distinction once made between
bishop and presbyter, there was a tendency for the bishops to usurp
more and more power, while the presbyters opposed it. The third century
is full of these quarrels.[62:1] Here began the conflict between the
principles of monarchy and aristocracy in the Church. Soon, from acting
as a member of a council, the presbyter came to act alone under the
bishop--_i. e._, the presbyter became a priest, just as the president
became a bishop. Presbyters also assumed new functions: (a) "ministry of
the word" and (b) "ministry of the sacraments." New detached communities
were ruled not infrequently by single presbyters under the city bishop.
Indeed it seems that from the outset the smaller and weaker Christian
communities were ruled by single elders.
4. The status and functions of the deacon likewise were altered. At
first he visited the sick and unfortunate, collected and disbursed alms,
and reported on discipline. Stephen taught; Philip baptised. With the
growth of Christian civilisation, however, institutions of
relief--hospitals, orphanages, infant asylums, almshouses, poorhouses,
guest-houses, etc.--took the place of the earlier personal ministrations
of the deacons. Each institution had its own head, not necessarily a
deacon. From being distributors of alms, therefore, the deacon first
became an assistant of the bishop,[62:2] and later the chief helper of
the priest in the administration of the sacraments. With the
multiplication of the duties of this office came the archdeacons and
subdeacons.
5. The many duties incident to a complex organisation gradually produced
a new set of subordinate officials--the minor orders: (a) lectors to
read the Scriptures in public and to keep the books, (b) acolytes to
assist the bishops, (c) exorcists to pray for those possessed of evil
spirits, (d) janitors to care for the buildings and preserve order, (e)
precentors to conduct public praise service, (f) catechists to instruct
the catechumens, (g) interpreters to translate the Scripture
lesson.[63:1]
6. The clergy came to be distinct from the laity--a sacerdotal class was
developed. In the early Church the priesthood was universal, _i. e._,
laymen as well as Church officers could preach, baptise, administer the
sacraments, and exercise discipline. The relation of clergy to laity was
merely that of leadership as in non-Christian organisations.
"Ordination" simply meant appointment, and was used in civic
installations, while "laying on of hands" was only a symbol of prayer
and even used by the Jews for secular affairs.
Gradually, however, the tendency to put the Church officials above the
laity grew stronger until something akin to the Old Testament idea of
the priesthood was revived. By the fourth century the Church officers
had lost their primitive character and had become a separate class
mediating between God and man. The causes of this separation are not
difficult to see, namely: (a) the peculiar duties of the Church
officials tended to give them a distinct character; (b) the persecutions
to which the Roman government subjected them threw them into conspicuous
relief; (c) the legalisation of Christianity bestowed upon them a
distinct civil status, made them immune from public burdens like taxes
and military service, exempted them from civil courts, and permitted
them to acquire property; and (d) the rise of asceticism forced the
clergy to observe a code of morals different from that of the laity,
demanded celibacy, originated the badge of the tonsure, and created
clergy-houses.
The laity were early organised in congregations. Membership in the
Church was open to all believers in Jesus. The election of officers was,
for the most part, democratic. The life of each congregation was
socialistic and communistic. All possessions were sold for the common
good and to create a common fund for the needy.[64:1] The members
enjoyed a common evening meal and their common love-feast which was to
them the highest act of worship.[64:2] Disobedience, or infidelity,
might be punished by private admonition, public correction, and in
stubborn cases excommunication.[64:3] But after the first century these
communistic-democratic societies were gradually replaced by a
hierarchical organisation with new or modified institutions. The
monarchio-episcopal principle of church government was gradually evolved
but, nevertheless, much of the primitive democracy remained. This
evolution in the government of the Church may be clearly seen by the end
of the second century.
From this discussion these conclusions may be drawn:
1. The New Testament does not furnish a satisfactory model for any one
distinct organisation of the Christian Church.
2. In the New Testament, however, are found the germs from which sprang
deacons, priests, bishops, metropolitans, patriarchs, and popes.
3. The elements from which the Church was organised already existed in
large measure in human society. Hence the Church, in its outward form,
had a natural historical growth and was influenced by (a) the Jewish
synagogue, (b) Greek municipalities, (c) the Roman government, (d) local
needs, and (e) the conditions of the times. The animating principle and
causal inspiration was Christianity.
4. Christian society, like human society, was subject to constant change
which is easily detected. The form of organisation, originally
democratic, was gradually changed by the force of circumstances until it
became monarchial and at the same time the officers underwent a similar
transformation.
SOURCES
A.--PRIMARY:
I.--JEWISH:
1.--Josephus, _Jewish War_, _Against Apion_, _Autobiography_,
Whiston ed.
2.--Philo Judæus. _Works._ 4 vols. Bohn Lib., 1854-55.
3--_Talmud._ Transl. by Rodkinson; rev. by Wise, N. Y., 1896.
II.--HEATHEN:
1.--Lucan, Pliny, Tacitus, Suetonius. See Chap. III. of this
work.
2.--Celsus (c. 178 A.D.), _Against the Christians_. Transl. by
Lardner, Lond., 1830.
3.--Porphyry (d. 306), _Against the Christians_. _Ib._
4.--Julian (d. 363), _Against the Christians_. _Ib._ Also
Transl. by Nevins, Lond., 1873. _Works._ Bohn Lib., 1888.
Transl. by Duncombe, Lond., 1784. _Public Letters._
Transl. by Chinnock, Lond., 1901.
III.--CHRISTIAN:
=1.--New Testament= (27 canonical books).
=2.--New Testament Apocrypha.= Schaff, i., 188. Transl. in
_Ante-Nic. Christ. Lib._, vol. xvi.
1.--_Acts._ Transl. by Phillips, Lond., 1876.
2.--_Epistles_--6 by Paul and 8 by Seneca.
3.--_Apocalypses_--of the Apostles.
=3.--Apostolic Fathers:=
1.--Clement of Rome (97?), _Epist. to the Ch. of Corinth_.
Best ed. by Lightfoot, _Apost. Fathers_, N. Y. 1891.
2.--Ignatius (d. 70-115), _Epistles_ (7). _Ib._ See Killen.
3.--Barnabas(?), _Epistle_. Lightfoot; Cunningham.
4.--Polycarp (d. 156), _Epistle_. Lightfoot; Jackson.
5.--Papias (d. 153?), _Fragments_. Lightfoot; Hall.
6.--Shepherd of Hermas(?). Lightfoot; Hoole.
7.--_Didache_(?). Hoole; Hitchcock.
=4.--Post-Apostolic Fathers:=
1.--Justin Martyr (d. 164?), _Works_. _Ante-Nic. Christ.
Lib._, ii.; Am. ed., i.
2.--Irenæus (d. 202?), _Works_. _Ib._, v., ix.; Am. ed., i.;
_Fathers of the Holy Cath. Ch._, ch. 42.
3.--Hippolytus(?), _Works_. _Ante-Nic. Christ. Lib._, ii.,
130; vi., 15-403.
4.--Victor (d. 200?), _Works_. _Ib._, xviii., 388-434.
5.--Tertullian (d. 230?), _Works_. _Ib._, i., 408; ii., 25;
iii., 118; xi., 53-140; xviii.; Am. ed., iii.-iv.
6.--Origen (d. 254?), _Works_. _Ib._, ii., 1-3; x.; Am. ed.,
iv.
7.--Cyprian (d. 258?), _Works_. _Ib._, viii.; xiii., 1-264;
Am. ed., v.
8.--Dionysius of Alexandria (d. 264?), _Works_. _Ib._, xx.,
157-265.
9.--Tatian (d. 166?), _Works_. _Ib._, iii., 1-46; Am. ed.,
ii.
10.--Eusebius, _Eccl. Hist._ in _Nic. and Post-Nic.
Fathers_. 1. Other translations.
=5.--Collections:=
1.--_Apostolic Constitutions._ _Ante-Nic. Christ. Lib._,
xvii. Am. ed., vii.
2.--O'Leary, L. E., _Apostol. Const. and Cognate Documents_,
N. Y., 1906.
3.--_Apostolical Canons._ Tr. by R. C. Jenkins. Lond., 1856.
See Harnack, _Sources of the Apostolic Canons_. Lond.,
1895.
4.--Conybeare, F. C., _The Apology and Acts of Apollonius
and other Monuments of early Christianity_. N. Y., 1894.
5.--Lardner, N. _Jewish and Heathen Testimonials_. In his
_Works_, vii.-ix.
B.--SECONDARY:
I.--SPECIAL:
1.--Allies, T. W., _The Formation of Christendom_, 4 vols.
Lond., 1895.
2.--Anderdon, W. H., _Fasti Apostolici_. Lond., 1884.
3.--Anson, A. J. R., _The Church: its Organisation in the Time
of the Apostles_. Lond., 1886.
4.--Barnes, A., _Organisation and Government of the Apostolic
Church_. Phila., 1854.
5.--Bartlett, J. V., _The Apostolic Age_. N. Y., 1900.
6.--Baumgarten, M., _The Acts of the Apostles_. 3 vols. N. Y.,
1854.
7.--Capes, J. M., _The Church of the Apostles_. Lond., 1886.
8.--Catterille, H., _The Genesis of the Church_. Edinb., 1872.
9.--Colman, L., _Ancient Christianity_. Phila., 1853.
10.--Cox, H., _The First Century of Christianity_. Lond.,
1892.
11.--Cutts, E. L., _Notes of Lessons on the Church in the New
Testament_. N. Y., 1892.
12.--Davidson, S., _The Ecclesiastical Polity of the New
Testament_. Lond., 1855.
13.--Dobschütz, E. von, _The Early Christian Communities_. N.
Y., 1903. _Christian Life in the Primitive Church._ N.
Y., 1904.
14.--Döllinger, J. J. I., _The First Age of Christianity and
the Church_. 2 vols. Lond., 1877.
15.--Fairbairn, A. M., _Christianity in the First Century_.
Lond., 1883.
16.--Falconer, J. W., _From Apostle to Priest_. Edinb., 1900.
17.--Farrar, F. W., _The Early Days of Christianity_. N. Y.,
1882.
18.--Fisher, G. P., _Beginnings of Christianity_. N. Y., 1888.
19.--Giles, J. A., _Apostolical Records of Early Christianity_.
Lond., 1886.
20.--Harnack, A., _The Expansion of Christianity in the First
Three Centuries_. Lond., 1904-1905. 2 vols.
21.--Hatch, E., _Growth of Church Institutions_. Lond., 1887.
_Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Church._
Lond., 1890. _Organisation of the Early Churches._ Lond.,
1888.
22.--Hausrath, A., _The Time of the Apostles_. 4 vols. Lond.,
1895.
23.--Hinds, S., and Newman, J. H., _History of the Christian
Church in the First Century_. Lond., 1862.
24.--Hort, F. J. A., _The Christian Ecclesia_. Lond., 1897.
25.--Jacob, G. A., _Ecclesiastical Polity of the New
Testament_. N. Y., 1874.
26.--Janes, L. G., _Study of the Primitive Church_. Bost.,
1886.
27.--Lightfoot, J. B., _Apostolic Fathers_. N. Y., 1891.
_Dissertations on the Apostolic Age._ N. Y., 1892.
28.--Maurice, J. F. D., _Lectures on Ecclesiastical History_.
Camb., 1854.
29.--McGiffert, A. C., _History of Christianity in the
Apostolic Age_. N. Y., 1891.
30.--Merivale, L. A., _Christian Records_. Lond., 1857.
31.--Miller, E., _The Priesthood in the Light of the New
Testament_. Lond., 1876.
32.--Neander, A., _Planting and Training of the Christian
Church by the Apostles_. N. Y., 1856.
33.--Orr, J., _Neglected Factors in the Study of the Progress
of Christianity_. N. Y., 1899. _The Early Church: its
History and Literature._ N. Y., 1901.
34.--Palmer, R., _The Catholic and Apostolic Church_. Lond.,
1899.
35.--Pressensé, E. De, _Early Days of Christianity_. 4 vols. N.
Y., 1873-8.
36.--Pryce, J., _Notes on the History of the Early Church_.
Lond., 1892.
37.--Ramsay, W. M., _The Church in the Roman Empire_. N. Y.,
1893.
38.--Reichel, C. P., _The Origins of the Church_. Dub., 1882.
39.--Renan, E., _Origins of Christianity_. Lond., 1888.
40.--Ropes, J. H., _The Apostolic Age in the Light of Modern
Criticism_. N. Y., 1906.
41.--Row, C. A., _Apostolical Christianity_. Lond., 1881.
42.--Schaff, P., _History of the Apostolic Church_. N. Y.,
1874.
43.--Simcox, W. H., _The Beginnings of the Christian Church_.
Lond., 1881.
44.--Slater, W. F., _Faith and Life of the Early Church_.
Lond., 1892.
45.--Stanley, A. P., _Apostolic Age_. Oxf., 1874.
46.--Tarrant, W. G., _Beginnings of Christendom_. Lond., 1893.
47.--Taylor, I., _Ancient Christianity_. Lond., 1844.
48.--Thatcher, O. J., _History of the Apostolical Church_. N.
Y., 1893.
49.--Thiersch, H. W. J., _History of the Christian Church in
the Apostolic Age_. Lond., 1852.
50.--Vaughan, C. S., _The Church of the First Days_. 3 vols.
Lond., 1864.
51.--Vedder, H. C., _Dawn of Christianity_. Phila., 1894.
52.--Watson, R. A., _Apostolic Age_. Lond., 1894.
53.--Weizsacker, C., _The Apostolic Age_. 2 vols. N. Y., 1894.
_Antiqua Mater._ Lond., 1887.
54.--Wernle, P., _The Beginnings of Christianity_. N. Y., 1902.
II.--GENERAL:
Alzog, i., 117-160. Backhouse, pt. i., ch. 1, 2. Baur, ii.,
16-61. Blunt, i., ch. 2-5. Bouzique, i., ch. 1, 2. Bright, W.,
ch. 1. Burton, ch. 8. Butler, ch. 2, 4, 5. Chantrel, ch. 1, 2.
Cheetham, ch. 2, 4, 7, 8. Coxe, ch. 2. Crooks, ch. 3, 10, 18.
Cunningham, lect. 1, 2. Dehorbe, ch. 28-32. Döllinger, J. J.
I., i., ch. 1, sec. 4, 5; ch. 3, sec. 1-4. Duff, 79, 105, 108,
110, 120, 139, 157, 226, 260, 304, 396. Fisher, pd. i., ch. 2;
pd. ii., ch. 1, 2. Fitzgerald, i., 63-75, 118-129. Foulkes,
ch. 1, 2. Gieseler, sec. 25-30. Gilmartin, i., ch. 4.
Guericke, 106-139. Hase, 24-41. Hore, ch. 1, 2. Hurst, i.,
61-149. Jackson, ch. 3, 10. Jennings, i., ch. 1, 2. Killen,
sec. 3, ch. 3. Kurtz, i., 22-36, 52-64. Mahan, bk. i., ch. 11;
bk. ii., ch. 48. Milman, bk. i., ch. 1. Moeller, i., 62-68.
Neander, i., sec. 2, 3. Newman, A. H., pd. i., ch. 1-3.
Robertson, bk. i., ch. 8. Schaff, i., 187-217, 432-506. Sikes,
ch. 2.
FOOTNOTES:
[52:1] _Jewish Encyc._; Sorley, _Jewish Christians and Judaism_, London,
1881; Bettany, _History of Judaism and Christianity_, London, 1892; _A
History of Jews in Rome, B.C. 160-A.D. 604_, London, 1882; Toy, C. H.,
_Judaism and Christianity_, Boston, 1891.
[53:1] Moeller, i., 69.
[53:2] Moeller, i., 55, 66.
[53:3] Kurtz, Sec. 7, No. 4.
[53:4] See Cicero, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. Read Baur,
i., 10-17, Kurtz, Sec. 7, No. 2; _cf._ Foucard, _Les associations relig.
chez les Grecs_, Paris, 1873.
[53:5] Kurtz, Sec. 7, No. 5.
[53:6] Hatch, 26-39; Kurtz, Sec. 17, Nos. 2, 3; Moeller, i., 66.
[53:7] Tertullian, _Apol._, ch. 38, 39; _cf._ Mommsen, _De collegiis et
sodal. Rom._, Kil., 1843.
[53:8] Xenophon, _Memorabil._, iii., 14; Athenæus, _Deipnos_, vii., 7,
68, p. 365a; Fouard, _St. Peter_, 363.
[54:1] 1 Cor. i., 2. Illustration of this variation is found in the fact
that Calvinists and most Protestants believe the Church to be an
invisible organisation, while Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans, and
oriental Christians hold it to be visible.
[54:2] Euseb., bk. ii., ch. 3.
[54:3] Acts xvi., 5; _cf._ Acts ii., 47.
[54:4] Euseb., bk. ii., ch. 3; _cf._ Acts xi., 26.
[54:5] Gieseler, i., 72.
[54:6] Schaff, i., 196.
[54:7] Orr, _Neglected Factors_, 23-91. Schaff, 197, gives only
12,000,000.
[55:1] Orr, _Neglected Factors_, 95-163.
[55:2] See Gibbon's "famous infamous," ch. 15.
[55:3] Church, R. W., _Civilisation before and after Christianity_, N.
Y., 1872.
[55:4] See the works of Troplong, Schmidt, Uhlhorn, Lecky, Brace,
Milman, Pressensé, etc.
[56:1] 1 Cor. ix., 1, 5; xii., 28, 29; xv., 5, 7; Rom. xvi., 7.
[56:2] 1 Cor. xi., 23; xii., 3-8; 2 Cor. x., 8; xiii., 10; Gal. i., 8,
9, 12; Eph. iv., 11.
[56:3] Acts xiv., 23; Tit. i., 5.
[56:4] Acts ii., 42; iv., 35, 37; v., 2.
[56:5] Acts vi., 1-6.
[56:6] Phil. i., 1; 1 Tim. iii., 8; iv. 14.
[56:7] Rom. xvi., 1.
[56:8] Acts vi., 1-6; 1 Tim. iii., 8-13.
[57:1] Acts xv., 23; xvi., 4; xx., 17, 28; Phil. i., 1; 1 Tim. iii.;
iv., 14; v., 17-19; Tit. i., 5-7; James v., 14; Clement, _To Corinth_,
xlii., 44. _Cf._ Rev. iv., 4; v., 5, 6; vii., 11, 13.
[57:2] Phil. i., 1.
[57:3] 1 Tim. iii., 1-13; v., 17-19; Tit. i., 5-7; Heb. xi., 2.
[57:4] 1 Pet. v., 1-2.
[57:5] _To Corinth_, ch. xliii. The Didache and Shepherd of Hermas offer
additional testimony on this point.
[59:1] See various dictionaries of the Bible.
[59:2] Ex. xxiv., 1; Num. xi., 16; Gen. l., 7-8; Lev. iv., 15; Deut.
xxi., 19; 1 Sam. xvi., 4; Ezra v., 5; Psalm cvii., 32; Ezek. viii., 1;
Acts iv., 8; Matt. xxi., 23; xxvii., 1; Luke xxii., 66.
[59:3] Hatch, 62-66.
[59:4] Hatch, 69-73; Acts xx., 28-31; 1 Pet. v., 1; 1 Tim. v., 17.
[59:5] Acts xvi., 4.
[59:6] Acts xx., 29-31, 35; Tertullian, _Apol._, 39.
[59:7] James v., 14.
[60:1] 1 Tim. i., 3.
[60:2] Tit. i., 5.
[61:1] _Ep._ 146, _Ad Evangelum_; _cf._ _Ep._ 82 and 84. _Apost.
Const._, iii., c. 11.
[61:2] _1 Ep. to Timoth._, c. 3.
[61:3] Hatch, 106-109.
[62:1] Neander, i., 192, 193.
[62:2] Hatch, 54.
[63:1] Euseb., vi., 43; Neander, i., § 2; Kurtz, i., § 34; Alzog, i., §
83; Moeller, i., 234.
[64:1] Acts ii., 44, 45.
[64:2] Acts ii., 42, 46.
[64:3] Mat. xviii., 15-18; Tit. iii., 10; 1 Cor. v., 5.