[Illustration: Interior of a French Chateau Shewing Furniture of the Time.
Period: Late XIV. or Early XV. Century.]
Illustrated History Of Furniture:
_From the Earliest to the Present Time._
by
Frederick Litchfield.
With numerous Illustrations
1893.
Preface.
In the following pages the Author has placed before the reader an account
of the changes in the design of Decorative Furniture and Woodwork, from
the earliest period of which we have any reliable or certain record until
the present time.
A careful selection of illustrations has been made from examples of
established authenticity, the majority of which are to be seen, either in
the Museums to which reference is made, or by permission of the owners;
and the representations of the different "interiors" will convey an idea
of the character and disposition of the furniture of the periods to which
they refer. These illustrations are arranged, so far as is possible, in
chronological order, and the descriptions which accompany them are
explanatory of the historical and social changes which have influenced the
manners and customs, and directly or indirectly affected the Furniture of
different nations. An endeavour is made to produce a "panorama" which may
prove acceptable to many, who, without wishing to study the subject
deeply, may desire to gain some information with reference to it
generally, or with regard to some part of it, in which they may feel a
particular interest.
It will be obvious that within the limits of a single volume of moderate
dimensions it is impossible to give more than an outline sketch of many
periods of design and taste which deserve far more consideration than is
here bestowed upon them; the reader is, therefore, asked to accept the
first chapter, which refers to "Ancient Furniture" and covers a period of
several centuries, as introductory to that which follows, rather than as a
serious attempt to examine the history of the furniture during that space
of time. The fourth chapter, which deals with a period of some hundred and
fifty years, from the time of King James the First until that of
Chippendale and his contemporaries, and the last three chapters, are more
fully descriptive than some others, partly because trustworthy information
as to these times is more accessible, and partly because it is probable
that English readers will feel greater interest in the furniture of which
they are the subject. The French _meubles de luxe_, from the latter half
of the seventeenth century until the Revolution, are also treated more
fully than the furniture of other periods and countries, on account of the
interest which has been manifested in this description of the cabinet
maker's and metal mounter's work during the past ten or fifteen years.
There is evidence of this appreciation in the enormous prices realised at
notable auction sales, when such furniture has been offered for
competition to wealthy connoisseurs.
In order to gain a more correct idea of the design of Furniture of
different periods, it has been necessary to notice the alterations in
architectural styles which influenced, and were accompanied by,
corresponding changes in the fashion of interior woodwork. Such comments
are made with some diffidence, as it is felt that this branch of the
subject would have received more fitting treatment by an architect, who
was also an antiquarian, than by an antiquarian with only a limited
knowledge of architecture.
Some works on "Furniture" have taken the word in its French
interpretation, to include everything that is "movable" in a house; other
writers have combined with historical notes, critical remarks and
suggestions as to the selection of Furniture. The author has not presumed
to offer any such advice, and has confined his attention to a description
of that which, in its more restricted sense, is understood as "Decorative
Furniture and Woodwork." For his own information, and in the pursuit of
his business, he has been led to investigate the causes and the
approximate dates of the several changes in taste which have taken place,
and has recorded them in as simple and readable a story as the
difficulties of the subject permit.
Numerous acts of kindness and co-operation, received while preparing the
work for the press, have rendered the task very pleasant; and while the
author has endeavoured to acknowledge, in a great many instances, the
courtesies received, when noticing the particular occasion on which such
assistance was rendered, he would desire generally to record his thanks to
the owners of historic mansions, the officials of our Museums, the Clerks
of City Companies, Librarians, and others, to whom he is indebted. The
views of many able writers who have trodden the same field of enquiry have
been adopted where they have been confirmed by the writer's experience or
research, and in these cases he hopes he has not omitted to express his
acknowledgments for the use he has made of them.
The large number of copies subscribed for, accompanied, as many of the
applications have been, by expressions of goodwill and confidence
beforehand, have been very gratifying, and have afforded great
encouragement during the preparation of the work.
If the present venture is received in such a way as to encourage a larger
effort, the writer hopes both to multiply examples and extend the area of
his observations.
F. L. Hanway Street, London, _July_, 1892.
Contents.
Chapter I.
BIBLICAL REFERENCES: Solomon's House and Temple--Palace of Ahashuerus.
ASSYRIAN FURNITURE: Nimrod's Palace--Mr. George Smith quoted. EGYPTIAN
FURNITURE: Specimens in the British Museum--The Workman's
Stool--Various articles of Domestic Furniture--Dr. Birch quoted. GREEK
FURNITURE: The Bas Reliefs in the British Museum--The Chest of
Cypselus--Laws and Customs of the Greeks--House of Alcibiades--Plutarch
quoted. ROMAN FURNITURE: Position of Rome--The Roman House--Cicero's
Table--Thyine Wood--Customs of wealthy Romans--Downfall of the Empire.
Chapter II.
Period of 1000 years from Fall of Rome, A.D. 476, to Capture of
Constantinople, 1453--The Crusades--Influence of Christianity--Chairs
of St. Peter and Maximian at Rome, Ravenna and Venice--Edict of Leo
III. prohibiting Image worship--The Rise of Venice--Charlemagne and his
successors--The Chair of Dagobert--Byzantine character of
Furniture--Norwegian carving--Russian and Scandinavian--The
Anglo-Saxons--Sir Walter Scott quoted--Descriptions of Anglo-Saxon
Houses and Customs--Art in Flemish Cities--Gothic Architecture--The
Coronation Chair in Westminster Abbey--Penshurst--French Furniture in
the 14th Century--Description of rooms--The South Kensington
Museum--Transition from Gothic to Renaissance--German carved work: the
Credence, the Buffet, and Dressoir.
Chapter III.
THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY: Leonardo da Vinci and Raffaele--Church of St.
Peter, contemporary great artists--The Italian Palazzo--Methods of
gilding, inlaying and mounting Furniture--Pietra-dura and other
enrichments--Ruskin's criticism. THE RENAISSANCE IN FRANCE: Francois I.
and the Chateau of Fontainebleau--Influence on Courtiers-Chairs of the
time--Design of Cabinets--M.E. Bonnaffe on The Renaissance--Bedstead of
Jeanne d'Albret--Deterioration of taste in time of Henry IV.--Louis
XIII. Furniture--Brittany woodwork. THE RENAISSANCE IN THE NETHERLANDS:
Influence of the House of Burgundy on Art--The Chimney-piece at Bruges,
and other casts of specimens in South Kensington Museum. THE
RENAISSANCE IN SPAIN: The resources of Spain in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries--Influence of Saracenic Art--High-backed leather
chairs--The Carthusian Convent at Granada. THE RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY:
Albrecht Dürer--Famous Steel Chair of Augsburg--German seventeenth
century carving in St. Saviour's Hospital. THE RENAISSANCE IN ENGLAND:
Influence of Foreign Artists in the time of Henry VIII.--End of
Feudalism--Hampton Court Palace--Linen pattern Panels--Woodwork in the
Henry VII. Chapel at Westminster Abbey--Livery Cupboards at
Hengrave--Harrison quoted--The "parler"--Alteration in English
customs--Chairs of the sixteenth century--Coverings and Cushions of the
time, extract from old Inventory--South Kensington
Cabinet--Elizabethan Mirror at Goodrich Court--Shaw's "Ancient
Furniture"--The Glastonbury Chair--Introduction of Frames into
England--Characteristics of Native Woodwork--Famous Country
Mansions--Alteration in design of Woodwork and Furniture--Panelled
Rooms in South Kensington--The Charterhouse--Gray's Inn Hall and Middle
Temple--The Hall of the Carpenters' Company--The Great Bed of
Ware--Shakespeare's Chair--Penshurst Place.
Chapter IV.
English Home Life in the Reign of James I.--Sir Henry Wootton
quoted--Inigo Jones and his work--Ford Castle--Chimney Pieces in South
Kensington Museum--Table in the Carpenters' Hall--Hall of the Barbers'
Company--The Charterhouse--Time of Charles I.--Furniture at
Knole--Eagle House, Wimbledon--Mr. Charles Eastlake--Monuments at
Canterbury and Westminster--Settles, Couches, and Chairs of the Stuart
period--Sir Paul Pindar's House--Cromwellian Furniture--The
Restoration--Indo-Portuguese Furniture--Hampton Court Palace--Evelyn's
description--The Great Fire of London--Hall of the Brewers'
Company--Oak Panelling of the time--Grinling Gibbons and his work--The
Edict of Nantes--Silver Furniture at Knole--William III. and Dutch
influence--Queen Anne--Sideboards, Bureaus, and Grandfather's
Clocks--Furniture at Hampton Court.
Chapter V.
CHINESE FURNITURE: Probable source of artistic taste--Sir William
Chambers quoted--Racinet's "Le Costume Historique"--Dutch
influence--The South Kensington and the Duke of Edinburgh
Collections--Processes of making Lacquer--Screens in the Kensington
Museum. JAPANESE FURNITURE: Early History--Sir Rutherford Alcock and
Lord Elgin--The Collection of the Shogun--Famous Collections--Action of
the present Government of Japan--Special characteristics. INDIAN
FURNITURE: Early European influence--Furniture of the Moguls--Racinet's
Work--Bombay Furniture--Ivory Chairs and Table--Specimens in the India
Museum. PERSIAN WOODWORK: Collection of Objets d'Art formed by Gen.
Murdoch Smith, R.E.---Industrial Arts of the Persians--Arab
influence--South Kensington specimens. SARACENIC WOODWORK: Oriental
customs--Specimens in the South Kensington Museum of Arab Work--M.
d'Aveune's Work.
Chapter VI.
PALACE OF VERSAILLES: "Grand" and "Petit Trianon"--The three Styles of
Louis XIV., XV., and XVI.--Colbert and Lebrun--André Charles Boule and
his Work--Carved and Gilt Furniture--The Regency and its
Influence--Alteration in Condition of French Society--Watteau, Lancret,
and Boucher. Louis XV. FURNITURE: Famous Ébenistes--Vernis Martin
Furniture--Caffieri and Gouthière Mountings--Sêvres Porcelain
introduced into Cabinets--Gobelins Tapestry--The "Bureau du Roi." LOUIS
XVI. AND MARIE ANTOINETTE: The Queen's Influence--The Painters Chardin
and Greuze--More simple Designs--Characteristic Ornaments of Louis XVI.
Furniture--Riesener's Work--Gouthière's Mountings--Specimens in the
Louvre--The Hamilton Palace Sale--French influence upon the design of
Furniture in other countries--The Jones Collection--Extract from "The
Times".
Chapter VII.
Chinese style--Sir William Chambers--The Brothers Adams'
work--Pergolesi, Cipriani, and Angelica Kauffmann--Architects of the
time--Wedgwood and Flaxman--Chippendale's Work and his
Contemporaries--Chair in the Barbers' Hall--Lock, Shearer, Hepplewhite;
Ince, Mayhew, Sheraton--Introduction of Satinwood and
Mahogany--Gillows, of Lancaster and London--History of the
Sideboard--The Dining Room--Furniture of the time.
Chapter VIII.
The French Revolution and First Empire--Influence on design of
Napoleon's Campaigns--The Cabinet presented to Marie Louise--Dutch
Furniture of the time--English Furniture--Sheraton's later work--Thomas
Hope, architect--George Smith's designs--Fashion during the
Regency--Gothic revival--Seddon's Furniture--Other Makers--Influence on
design of the Restoration in France--Furniture of William IV. and early
part of Queen Victoria's reign--Baroque and Rococo styles--The
panelling of rooms, dado, and skirting--The Art Union--The Society of
Arts--Sir Charles Barry and the new Palace of Westminster--Pugin's
designs--Auction Prices of Furniture--Christie's--The London Club
Houses--Steam--Different Trade Customs--Exhibitions in France and
England--Harry Rogers' work--The Queen's cradle--State of Art in
England during first part of present reign--Continental
designs--Italian carving--Cabinet work--General remarks.
Chapter IX.
THE GREAT EXHIBITION: Exhibitors and contemporary Cabinet
Makers--Exhibition of 1862, London; 1867, Paris; and
subsequently--Description of Illustrations--Fourdinois, Wright and
Mansfield--The South Kensington Museum--Revival of
Marquetry--Comparison of Present Day with that of a Hundred Years
ago--Æstheticism--Traditions--Trades-Unionism--The Arts and Crafts
Exhibition Society--Independence of Furniture--Present
Fashions--Writers on Design--Modern Furniture in other
Countries--Concluding Remarks.
APPENDIX.
List of Artists and Manufacturers of Furniture--Woods--Tapestry used
for French Furniture--The processes of Gilding and Polishing--The
Pianoforte.
Index.
List of Subscribers.
List of Illustrations.
Frontispiece--Dwelling Room of a French Chateau
Chapter I.
Vignette of Bas-relief--egyptian Seated, as Ornament to Initial Letter.
Assyrian Bronze Throne and Footstool
Chairs From Khorsabad and Xanthus and Assyrian Throne
Repose of King Asshurbanipal
Examples of Egyptian Furniture in the British Museum: Stool; Stand
for a Vase; Head-rest or Pillow; Workman's Stool; Vase on a Stand;
Folding Stool; Ebony Seat inlaid with ivory
An Egyptian of High Rank Seated
An Egyptian Banquet
Chair with Captives as Supports, and an Ivory Box
Bacchus and Attendants Visiting Icarus
Greek Bedstead with a Table
Greek Furniture
Interior of an Ancient Roman House
Roman State Chair
Bronze Lamp and Stand
Roman Scamnum or Bench
Bisellium, or Seat for Two Persons
Roman Couch, Generally of Bronze
A Roman Study
Roman Triclinium or Dining Room
Chapter II.
Vignette of Gothic Oak Armoire, as Ornament to Initial Letter
Chair of St. Peter, Rome
Dagobert Chair
A Carved Norwegian Doorway
Scandinavian Chair
Cover of a Casket Carved in Whalebone
Saxon House (IX. Century)
Anglo-saxon Furniture of About the X. Century
The Seat on the Daïs
Saxon State Bed
English Folding Chair (XIV. Century)
Cradle of Henry V
Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey
Chair in York Minster
Two Chairs of the XV. Century
Table at Penshurst
Bedroom (XIV. Century)
Carved Oak Bedstead and Chair
The New Born Infant
Portrait of Christine De Pisan
State Banquet with Attendant Musicians (Two Woodcuts)
A High-backed Chair (XV. Century)
Medieval Bed and Bedroom
A Scribe or Copyist
Two German Chairs
Carved Oak Buffet (French Gothic)
Carved Oak Table
Flemish Buffet
A Tapestried Room
A Carved Oak Seat
Interior of Apothecary's Shop
Court of the Ladies of Queen Anne of Brittany
Chapter III.
Vignette of the Caryatides Cabinet, as Ornament to Initial Letter
Reproduction of Decoration by Raffaele
Salon of M. Bonnaffé
A Sixteenth Century Room
Chair in Carved Walnut
Venetian Centre Table
Marriage Coffer in Carved Walnut
Marriage Coffer
Pair of Italian Carved Bellows
Carved Italian Mirror Frame, XVI. Century
A Sixteenth Century Coffre-fort
Italian Coffer
Italian Chairs
Ebony Cabinet
Venetian State Chair
Ornamental Panelling in St. Vincent's Church, Rouen
Chimney Piece (Fontainebleau)
Carved Oak Panel (1577)
Fac-Similes of Engraving On Wood
Carved Oak Bedstead of Jeanne D'albret
Carved Oak Cabinet (Lyons)
Louis XIII. and His Court
Decoration of a Salon in Louis XIII. Style
An Ebony Armoire (Flemish Renaissance)
A Barber's Shop (XVI. Century)
A Flemish Citizen at Meals
Sedan Chair of Charles V.
Silver Table (Windsor Castle)
Chair of Walnut or Chesnut Wood, Spanish, with Embossed Leather
Wooden Coffer (XVI. Century)
The Steel Chair (Longford Castle)
German Carved Oak Buffet
Carved Oak Chest
Chair of Anna Boleyn
Tudor Cabinet
The Glastonbury Chair
Carved Oak Elizabethan Bedstead
Oak Wainscoting
Dining Hall in the Charterhouse
Screen in the Hall of Gray's Inn
Carved Oak Panels (Carpenters' Hall)
Part of an Elizabethan Staircase
The Entrance Hall, Hardwick Hall
Shakespeare's Chair
The "Great Bed of Ware"
The "Queen's Room," Penshurst Place
Carved Oak Chimney Piece in Speke Hall
Chapter IV.
A Chair of XVII. Century, as Ornament to Initial Letter
Oak Chimney Piece in Sir W. Raleigh's House
Chimney Piece in Byfleet House
"The King's Chamber," Ford Castle
Centre Table (Carpenters' Hall)
Carved Oak Chairs
Oak Chimney Piece From Lime Street, City
Oak Sideboard
Seats at Knole
Arm Chair, Knole
The "Spangle" Bedroom, Knole
Couch, Chair, and Single Chair (Penshurst Place)
"Folding" and "Drawinge" Table
Chairs, Stuart Period
Chair Used by Charles I. During His Trial
Two Carved Oak Chairs
Settle of Carved Oak
Staircase in General Treton's House
Settee and Chair (Penshurst Place)
Carved Ebony Chair
Sedes Busbiana
The Master's Chair in the Brewers' Hall
Carved Oak "Livery" Cupboard
Carved Oak Napkin Press
Three Chairs From Hampton Court, Hardwick, and Knole
Carved Oak Screen in Stationers' Hall
Silver Furniture at Knole
Three Chimney Pieces by James Gibbs
Chapter V.
Pattern of a Chinese Lac Screen
An Eastern (Saracenic) Table, as Ornament to Initial Letter
Japanese Cabinet of Red Chased Lacquer Ware
Casket of Indian Lacquer-work
Door of Carved Sandal Wood From Travancore
Persian Incense Burner of Engraved Brass
Governor's Palace, Manfulut
Specimen of Saracenic Panelling
A Carved Door of Syrian Work
Shaped Panel of Saracenic Work
Chapter VI.
Boule Armoire (Hamilton Palace)
Vignette of a Louis Quatorze Commode, as Ornament to Initial Letter.
Boule Armoire (Jones Collection)
Pedestal Cabinet by Boule (Jones Collection)
A Concert in the Reign of Louis XIV.
A Screen Panel by Watteau
Decoration of a Salon in the Louis XIV. Style
A Boule Commode
French Sedan Chair
Part of a Salon (Louis XV.)
Carved and Gilt Console Table
Louis XV. Fauteuil (Carved and Gilt)
Louis XV. Commode (Jones Collection)
A Parqueterie Commode
"Bureau Du Roi"
A Boudoir (Louis XVI. Period)
Part of a Salon in Louis XVI. Style
A Marqueterie Cabinet (Jones Collection)
Writing Table (Riesener)
The "Marie Antoinette" Writing Table
Bedstead of Marie Antoinette
A Cylinder Secretaire (Rothschild Collection)
An Arm Chair (Louis XVI.)
Carved and Gilt Settee and Arm Chair
A Sofa En Suite
A Marqueterie Escritoire (Jones Collection)
A Norse Interior, Shewing French Influence
A Secretaire with Sêvres Plaques
A Clock by Robin (Jones Collection)
Harpsichord, About 1750
Italian Sedan Chair
Chapter VII.
Vignette of a Chippendale Girandole, as Ornament to Initial Letter
Fac-simile of Drawings by Robert Adam
English Satinwood Dressing Table
Chimney-piece and Overmantel, Designed by W. Thomas
Two Chippendale Chairs in the "Chinese" Style
Fac-simile of Title Page of Chippendale's "Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's
Director"
Two Book Cases From Chippendale's "Director"
Tea Caddy Carved in the French Style (Chippendale)
A Bureau From Chippendale's "Director"
A Design for a State Bed From Chippendale's "Director"
"French" Commode and Lamp Stands
Bed Pillars
Chimney-piece and Mirror
Parlour Chairs by Chippendale
Clock Case by Chippendale
China Shelves, Designed by W. Ince
Girandoles and Pier Table, Designed by W. Thomas
Toilet Glass and Urn Stand, From Hepplewhite's Guide
Parlour Chairs, Designed by W. Ince
Ladies' Secretaires, Designed by W. Ince
Desk and Bookcase, Designed by W. Ince
China Cabinet, Designed by J. Mayhew
Dressing Chairs, Designed by J. Mayhew
Designs of Furniture From Hepplewhite's "Guide"
Plan of a Room. (Hepplewhite)
Inlaid Tea Caddy and Tops of Pier Tables, From Hepplewhite's "Guide"
Kneehole Table by Sheraton
Chairs by Sheraton
Chair Backs, From Sheraton's "Cabinet Maker"
Urn Stand
A Sideboard in the Style of Robert Adam
Carved Jardiniere by Chippendale
Cabinet and Bookcase with Secretaire, by Sheraton
Chapter VIII.
Vignette of an Empire Tripod, as Ornament to Initial Letter
Cabinet Presented to Marie Louise
Stool and Arm Chair (Napoleon I. Period)
Nelson's Chairs by Sheraton
Drawing Room Chair, Designed by Sheraton
Drawing Room Chair, Designed by Sheraton
"Canopy Bed" by Sheraton
"Sisters' Cylinder Bookcase" by Sheraton
Sideboard and Sofa Table (Sheraton)
Design of a Room, by T. Hope
Library Fauteuil, From Smith's "Book of Designs"
Parlor Chairs
Bookcase by Sheraton
Drawing Room Chairs, From Smith's Book
Prie-dieu in Carved Oak, Designed by Mr. Pugin
Secretaire and Bookcase (German Gothic Style)
Cradle for H.M. the Queen by H. Rogers
Design for a Tea Caddy by J. Strudwick
Design for One of the Wings of a Sideboard by W. Holmes
Design for a Work Table. H. Fitzcook
Venetian Stool of Carved Walnut
Chapter IX.
Examples of Design in Furniture in the 1851 Exhibition:--
Sideboard, in Carved Oak, by Gillow
Chimney-piece and Bookcase by Holland and Sons
Cabinet by Grace
Bookcase by Jackson and Graham
Grand Pianoforte by Broadwood
Vignette of a Cabinet, Modern Jacobean Style, as Ornament to Initial
Letter
Lady's Escritoire by Wettli, Berne
Lady's Work Table and Screen in Papier Maché
Sideboard (Sir Walter Scott) by Cookes, Warwick
A State Chair by Jancowski, York
Sideboard, in Carved Oak, by Dorand, Paris
Bedstead, in Carved Ebony, by Roulé, Antwerp
Pianoforte by Leistler, Vienna
Bookcase, in Lime Tree, by Leistler, Vienna
Cabinet, with Bronze and Porcelain, by Games, St. Petersburg
Casket of Ivory, with Ormolu Mountings, by Matifat, Paris
Table and Chair, in the Classic Style, by Capello, Turin
Cabinet of Ebony, with Carnelions, by Litchfield & Radclyffe (1862
Exhibition, London)
Cabinet of Ebony, with Boxwood Carvings, by Fourdinois, Paris (1867
Exhibition, Paris)
Cabinet of Satinwood, with Wedgwood Plaques, by Wright and Mansfield (1867
Exhibition, Paris)
Cabinet of Ebony and Ivory by Andrea Picchi, Florence (1867 Exhibition,
Paris)
The Ellesmere Cabinet
The Saloon at Sandringham House
The Drawing Room at Sandringham House
Carved Frame by Radspieler, Munich
Carved Oak Flemish Armoire, as Tail Piece
A Sixteenth Century Workshop
Chapter I.
Ancient Furniture.
BIBLICAL REFERENCES: Solomon's House and Temple--Palace of Ahashuerus.
ASSYRIAN FURNITURE: Nimrod's Palace--Mr. George Smith quoted. EGYPTIAN
FURNITURE: Specimens in the British Museum--the Workman's
Stool--various articles of Domestic Furniture--Dr. Birch quoted. GREEK
FURNITURE: The Bas Reliefs in the British Museum--the Chest of
Cypselus--Laws and Customs of the Greeks--House of Alcibiades--Plutarch
quoted. ROMAN FURNITURE: Position of Rome--the Roman House--Cicero's
Table--Thyine Wood--Customs of wealthy Romans--Downfall of the Empire.
Biblical References.
The first reference to woodwork is to be found in the Book of Genesis, in
the instructions given to Noah to make an Ark of[1] gopher wood, "to make
a window," to "pitch it within and without with pitch," and to observe
definite measurements. From the specific directions thus handed down to
us, we may gather that mankind had acquired at a very early period of the
world's history a knowledge of the different kinds of wood, and of the use
of tools.
We know, too, from the bas reliefs and papyri in the British Museum, how
advanced were the Ancient Egyptians in the arts of civilization, and that
the manufacture of comfortable and even luxurious furniture was not
neglected. In them, the Hebrews must have had excellent workmen for
teachers and taskmasters, to have enabled them to acquire sufficient skill
and experience to carry out such precise instructions as were given for
the erection of the Tabernacle, some 1,500 years before Christ--as to the
kinds of wood, measurements, ornaments, fastenings ("loops and taches"),
curtains of linen, and coverings of dried skins. We have only to turn for
a moment to the 25th chapter of Exodus to be convinced that all the
directions there mentioned were given to a people who had considerable
experience in the methods of carrying out work, which must have resulted
from some generations of carpenters, joiners, weavers, dyers, goldsmiths,
and other craftsmen.
A thousand years before Christ, we have those descriptions of the building
and fitting by Solomon of the glorious work of his reign, the great
Temple, and of his own, "the King's house," which gathered from different
countries the most skilful artificers of the time, an event which marks an
era of advance in the knowledge and skill of those who were thus brought
together to do their best work towards carrying out the grand scheme. It
is worth while, too, when we are referring to Old Testament information
bearing upon the subject, to notice some details of furniture which are
given, with their approximate dates as generally accepted, not because
there is any particular importance attached to the precise chronology of
the events concerned, but because, speaking generally, they form landmarks
in a history of furniture. One of these is the verse (Kings ii. chap. 4)
which tells us the contents of the "little chamber in the wall," when
Elisha visited the Shunamite, about B.C. 895; and we are told of the
preparations for the reception of the prophet: "And let us set for him
there a bed and a table and a stool and a candlestick." The other incident
is some 420 years later, when, in the allusion to the grandeur of the
palace of Ahashuerus, we catch a glimpse of Eastern magnificence in the
description of the drapery which furnished the apartment: "Where were
white, green, and blue hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and
purple, to silver rings and pillars of marble; the beds were of gold and
silver, upon a pavement of red and blue and white and black marble."
(Esther i. 6.)
There are, unfortunately, no trustworthy descriptions of ancient Hebrew
furniture. The illustrations in Kitto's Bible. Mr. Henry Soltan's "The
Tabernacle, the Priesthood, and the Offerings," and other similar books,
are apparently drawn from imagination, founded on descriptions in the Old
Testament. In these, the "table for shew-bread" is generally represented
as having legs partly turned, with the upper portions square, to which
rings were attached for the poles by which it was carried. As a nomadic
people, their furniture would be but primitive, and we may take it that as
the Jews and Assyrians came from the same stock, and spoke the same
language, such ornamental furniture as there was would, with the exception
of the representations of figures of men or animals, be of a similar
character.
Assyrian Furniture.
[Illustration: Part of Assyrian Bronze Throne and Footstool, about B.C.
880, Reign of Asshurnazirpat. (_From a photo by Mansell & Co. of the
original in the British Museum._)]
The discoveries which have been made in the oldest seat of monarchical
government in the world, by such enterprising travellers as Sir Austin
Layard, Mr. George Smith, and others, who have thrown so much light upon
domestic life in Nineveh, are full of interest in connection with this
branch of the subject. We learn from these authorities that the furniture
was ornamented with the heads of lions, bulls, and rams; tables, thrones,
and couches were made of metal and wood, and probably inlaid with ivory;
the earliest chair, according to Sir Austin Layard, having been made
without a back, and the legs terminating in lion's feet or bull's hoofs.
Some were of gold, others of silver and bronze. On the monuments of
Khorsabad, representations have been discovered of chairs supported by
animals, and by human figures, probably those of prisoners. In the
British Museum is a bronze throne found by Sir A. Layard amidst the rains
of Nirnrod's palace, which shews ability of high order for skilled metal
work.
Mr. Smith, the famous Assyrian excavator and translator of cuneiform
inscriptions, has told us in his "Assyrian Antiquities" of his finding
close to the site of Nineveh portions of a crystal throne somewhat similar
in design to the bronze one mentioned above, and in another part of this
interesting book we have a description of an interior that is useful in
assisting us to form an idea of the condition of houses of a date which
can be correctly assigned to B.C. 860:--"Altogether in this place I
opened six chambers, all of the same character, the entrances ornamented
by clusters of square pilasters, and recesses in the rooms in the same
style; the walls were coloured in horizontal bands of red, green, and
yellow, and where the lower parts of the chambers were panelled with small
stone slabs, the plaster and colours were continued over these." Then
follows a description of the drainage arrangements, and finally we have
Mr. Smith's conclusion that this was a private dwelling for the wives and
families of kings, together with the interesting fact that on the under
side of the bricks he found the legend of Shalmeneser II. (B.C. 860), who
probably built this palace.
[Illustration: Assyrian Chair from Khorsabad. (_In the British Museum._)]
[Illustration: Assyrian Chair from Xanthus. (_In the British Museum._)]
[Illustration: Assyrian Throne. (_In the British Museum._)]
In the British Museum is an elaborate piece of carved ivory, with
depressions to hold colored glass, etc., from Nineveh, which once formed
part of the inlaid ornament of a throne, shewing how richly such objects
were ornamented. This carving is said by the authorities to be of
Egyptian origin. The treatment of figures by the Assyrians was more
clumsy and more rigid, and their furniture generally was more massive than
that of the Egyptians.
An ornament often introduced into the designs of thrones and chairs is a
conventional treatment of the tree sacred to Asshur, the Assyrian Jupiter;
the pine cone, another sacred emblem, is also found, sometimes as in the
illustration of the Khorsabad chair on page 4, forming an ornamental foot,
and at others being part of the merely decorative design.
The bronze throne, illustrated on page 3, appears to have been of
sufficient height to require a footstool, and in "Nineveh and its Remains"
these footstools are specially alluded to. "The feet were ornamented like
those of the chair with the feet of lions or the hoofs of bulls."
The furniture represented in the following illustration, from a bas relief
in the British Museum, is said to be of a period some two hundred years
later than the bronze throne and footstool.
[Illustration: Repose of King Asshurbanipal. (_From a Bas relief in the
British Museum._)]
Egyptian Furniture.
In the consideration of ancient Egyptian furniture we find valuable
assistance in the examples carefully preserved to us, and accessible to
everyone, in the British Museum, and one or two of these deserve passing
notice.
[Illustration: "Stool", "Stand for a Vase, Head Rest or Pillow",
"Workman's Stool", "Vase on a Stand", "Folding Stool", "Ebony Seat Inlaid
with Ivory" (_From Photos by Mansell & Co. of the originals in the British
Museum._)]
Nothing can be more suitable for its purpose then the "Workman's Stool:"
the seat is precisely like that of a modern kitchen chair (all wood),
slightly concaved to promote the sitter's comfort, and supported by three
legs curving outwards. This is simple, convenient, and admirably adapted
for long service. For a specimen of more ornamental work, the folding
stool in the same glass case should be examined; the supports are
crossed in a similar way to those of a modern camp-stool, and the lower
parts of the legs carved as heads of geese, with inlayings of ivory to
assist the design and give richness to its execution.
[Illustration: An Egyptian of High Rank Seated. (_From a Photo by Mansell
& Co. of the Original Wall Painting in the British Museum._) PERIOD: B.C.
1500-1400.]
Portions of legs and rails, turned as if by a modern lathe, mortice holes
and tenons, fill us with wonder as we look upon work which, at the most
modern computation, must be 3,000 years old, and may be of a date still
more remote.
In the same room, arranged in cases round the wall, is a collection of
several objects which, if scarcely to be classed under the head of
furniture, are articles of luxury and comfort, and demonstrate the
extraordinary state of civilisation enjoyed by the old Egyptians, and help
us to form a picture of their domestic habits.
[Illustration: An Egyptian Banquet. (_From a Wall Painting at Thebes._)]
Amongst these are boxes inlaid with various woods, and also with little
squares of bright turquoise blue pottery let in as a relief; others
veneered with ivory; wooden spoons, carved in most intricate designs, of
which one, representing a girl amongst lotus flowers, is a work of great
artistic skill; boats of wood, head rests, and models of parts of houses
and granaries, together with writing materials, different kinds of tools
and implements, and a quantity of personal ornaments and requisites.
"For furniture, various woods were employed, ebony, acacia or sont,
cedar, sycamore, and others of species not determined. Ivory, both of the
hippopotamus and elephant, was used for inlaying, as also were glass
pastes; and specimens of marquetry are not uncommon. In the paintings in
the tombs, gorgeous pictures and gilded furniture are depicted. For
cushions and mattresses, linen cloth and colored stuffs, filled with
feathers of the waterfowl, appear to have been used, while seats have
plaited bottoms of linen cord or tanned and dyed leather thrown over them,
and sometimes the skins of panthers served this purpose. For carpets they
used mats of palm fibre, on which they often sat. On the whole, an
Egyptian house was lightly furnished, and not encumbered with so many
articles as are in use at the present day."
The above paragraph forms part of the notice with which the late Dr.
Birch, the eminent antiquarian, formerly at the head of this department of
the British Museum, has prefaced a catalogue of the antiquities alluded
to. The visitor to the Museum should be careful to procure one of these
useful and inexpensive guides to this portion of its contents.
Some illustrations taken from ancient statues and bas reliefs in the
British Museum, from copies of wall paintings at Thebes, and other
sources, give us a good idea of the furniture of this interesting people.
In one of these will be seen a representation of the wooden head-rest
which prevented the disarrangement of the coiffure of an Egyptian lady of
rank. A very similiar head-rest, with a cushion attached for comfort to
the neck, is still in common use by the Japanese of the present day.
[Illustration: Chair with Captives As Supports. (_From Papyrus in British
Museum._)]
[Illustration: An Ivory Box.]
[Illustration: Bacchus and Attendants Visiting Icarus. (_Reproduced from
a Bas-relief in the British Museum._) Period: About A.d. 100.]
Greek Furniture.
An early reference to Greek furniture is made by Homer, who describes
coverlids of dyed wool, tapestries, carpets, and other accessories, which
must therefore have formed part of the contents of a great man's residence
centuries before the period which we recognise as the "meridian" of Greek
art.
In the second Vase-room of the British Museum the painting on one of these
vases represents two persons sitting on a couch, upon which is a cushion
of rich material, while for the comfort of the sitters there is a
footstool, probably of ivory. On the opposite leaf there is an
illustration of a has relief in stone, "Bacchus received as a guest by
Icarus," in which the couch has turned legs and the feet are ornamented
with carved leaf work.
[Illustration: GREEK BEDSTEAD WITH A TABLE. (_From an old Wall
Painting._)]
We know, too, from other illustrations of tripods used for sacred
purposes, and as supports for braziers, that tables were made of wood, of
marble, and of metal; also folding chairs, and couches for sleeping and
resting, but not for reclining at meals, as was the fashion at a later
period. In most of the designs for these various articles of furniture
there is a similarity of treatment of the head, legs, and feet of lions,
leopards, and sphinxes to that which we have noticed in the Assyrian
patterns.
[Illustration: Greek Furniture. (_From Antique Bas reliefs._)]
The description of an interesting piece of furniture may be noticed here,
because its date is verified by its historical associations, and it was
seen and described by Pausanias about 800 years afterwards. This is the
famous chest of Cypselus of Corinth, the story of which runs that when his
mother's relations, having been warned by the Oracle of Delphi, that her
son would prove formidable to the ruling party, sought to murder him, his
life was saved by his concealment in this chest, and he became Ruler of
Corinth for some 30 years (B.C. 655-625). It is said to have been made of
cedar, carved and decorated with figures and bas reliefs, some in ivory,
some in gold or ivory part gilt, and inlaid on all four sides and on the
top.
The peculiar laws and customs of the Greeks at the time of their greatest
prosperity were not calculated to encourage display or luxury in private
life, or the collection of sumptuous furniture. Their manners were simple
and their discipline was very severe. Statuary, sculpture of the best
kind, painting of the highest merit--in a word, the best that art could
produce--were all dedicated to the national service in the enrichment of
Temples and other public buildings, the State having indefinite and almost
unlimited power over the property of all wealthy citizens. The public
surroundings of an influential Athenian were therefore in direct contrast
to the simplicity of his home, which contained the most meagre supply of
chairs and tables, while the _chef d'oeuvres_ of Phidias adorned the
Senate House, the Theatre, and the Temple.
There were some exceptions to this rule, and we have records that during
the later years of Greek prosperity such simplicity was not observed.
Alcibiades is said to have been the first to have his house painted and
decorated, and Plutarch tells us that he kept the painter Agatharcus a
prisoner until his task was done, and then dismissed him with an
appropriate reward. Another ancient writer relates that "the guest of a
private house was enjoined to praise the decorations of the ceilings and
the beauty of the curtains suspended from between the columns." This
occurs, according to Mr. Perkins, the American translator of Dr. Falke's
German book "Kunst im Hause," in the "Wasps of Aristophanes," written B.C.
422.
The illustrations, taken from the best authorities in the British Museum,
the National Library of Paris, and other sources, shew the severe style
adopted by the Greeks in their furniture.
Roman Furniture.
As we are accustomed to look to Greek Art of the time of Pericles for
purity of style and perfection of taste, so do we naturally expect the
gradual demoralisation of art in its transfer to the great Roman Empire.
From that little village on the Palatine Hill, founded some 750 years
B.C., Rome had spread and conquered in every direction, until in the time
of Augustus she was mistress of the whole civilised world, herself the
centre of wealth, civilisation, luxury, and power. Antioch in the East and
Alexandria in the South ranked next to her as great cities of the world.
From the excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii we have learned enough to
conceive some general idea of the social life of a wealthy Roman in the
time of Rome's prosperity. The houses had no upper story, but were formed
by the enclosure of two or more quadrangles, each surrounded by courts
opening into rooms, and receiving air and ventilation from the centre open
square or court. The illustration will give an idea of this arrangement.
In Mr. Hungerford Pollen's useful handbook there is a description of each
room in a Roman house, with its proper Latin title and purpose; and we
know from other descriptions of Ancient Rome that the residences in the
Imperial City were divided into two distinct classes--that of _domus_ and
_insula_, the former being the dwellings of the Roman nobles, and
corresponding to the modern _Palazzi_, while the latter were the
habitations of the middle and lower classes. Each _insula _ consisted of
several sets of apartments, generally let out to different families, and
was frequently surrounded by shops. The houses described by Mr. Pollen
appear to have had no upper story, but as ground became more valuable in
Rome, houses were built to such a height as to be a source of danger, and
in the time of Augustus there were not only strict regulations as to
building, but the height was limited to 70 feet. The Roman furniture of
the time was of the most costly kind. [Illustration: Interior of an
Ancient Roman House. Said to have been that of Sallust. Period: B.C. 20 TO
A.D. 20.]
Tables were made of marble, gold, silver, and bronze, and were engraved,
damascened, plated, and enriched with precious stones. The chief woods
used were cedar, pine, elm, olive, ash, ilex, beech, and maple. Ivory was
much used, and not only were the arms and legs of couches and chairs
carved to represent the limbs of animals, as has been noted in the
Assyrian, Egyptian, and Greek designs, but other parts of furniture were
ornamented by carvings in bas relief of subjects taken from Greek
mythology and legend. Veneers were cut and applied, not as some have
supposed for the purpose of economy, but because by this means the most
beautifully marked or figured specimens of the woods could be chosen, and
a much richer and more decorative effect produced than would be possible
when only solid timber was used. As a prominent instance of the extent to
which the Romans carried the costliness of some special pieces of
furniture, we have it recorded on good authority (Mr. Pollen) that the
table made for Cicero cost a million sesterces, a sum equal to about
£9,000, and that one belonging to King Juba was sold by auction for the
equivalent of £10,000.
[Illustration: Roman State Chair. (_From the Marble example in the Musée
du Louvre._)]
[Illustration: Roman Bronze Lamp and Stand. (_Found in Pompeii._)]
Cicero's table was made of a wood called Thyine--wood which was brought
from Africa and held in the highest esteem. It was valued not only on
account of its beauty but also from superstitious or religious reasons.
The possession of thyine wood was supposed to bring good luck, and its
sacredness arose from the fact that from it was produced the incense used
by the priests. Dr. Edward Clapton, of St. Thomas' Hospital, who has made
a collection of woods named in the Scriptures, has managed to secure a
specimen of thyine, which a friend of his obtained on the Atlas Mountains.
It resembles the woods which we know as tuyere and amboyna.[2]
Roman, like Greek houses, were divided into two portions--the front for
reception of guests and the duties of society, with the back for household
purposes, and the occupation of the wife and family; for although the
position of the Roman wife was superior to that of her Greek contemporary,
which was little better than that of a slave, still it was very different
to its later development.
The illustration given here of a repast in the house of Sallust,
represents the host and his eight male guests reclining on the seats of
the period, each of which held three persons, and was called a triclinium,
making up the favorite number of a Roman dinner party, and possibly giving
us the proverbial saying--"Not less than the Graces nor more than the
Muses"--which is still held to be a popular regulation for a dinner party.
[Illustration: Roman Scamnum or Bench.]
[Illustration: Roman Bisellium, or Seat for Two Persons. But generally
occupied by one, on occasions of festivals, etc.]
From discoveries at Herculaneum and Pompeii a great deal of information
has been gained of the domestic life of the wealthier Roman citizens, and
there is a useful illustration at the end of this chapter of the furniture
of a library or study in which the designs are very similar to the Greek
ones we have noticed; it is not improbable they were made and executed by
Greek workmen.
It will be seen that the books such as were then used, instead of being
placed on shelves or in a bookcase, were kept in round boxes called
_Scrinia_, which were generally of beech wood, and could be locked or
sealed when required. The books in rolls or sewn together were thus easily
carried about by the owner on his journeys.
Mr. Hungerford Pollen mentions that wearing apparel was kept in
_vestiaria_, or wardrobe rooms, and he quotes Plutarch's anecdote of the
purple cloaks of Lucullus, which were so numerous that they must have been
stored in capacious hanging closets rather than in chests.
In the _atrium_, or public reception room, was probably the best furniture
in the house. According to Moule's "Essay on Roman Villas," "it was here
that numbers assembled daily to pay their respects to their patron, to
consult the legislator, to attract the notice of the statesman, or to
derive importance in the eyes of the public from an apparent intimacy with
a man in power."
The growth of the Roman Empire eastward, the colonisation of Oriental
countries, and subsequently the establishment of an Eastern Empire,
produced gradually an alteration in Greek design, and though, if we were
discussing the merits of design and the canons of taste, this might be
considered a decline, still its influence on furniture was doubtless to
produce more ease and luxury, more warmth and comfort, than would be
possible if the outline of every article of useful furniture were decided
by a rigid adherence to classical principles. We have seen that this was
more consonant with the public life of an Athenian; but the Romans, in the
later period of the Empire, with their wealth, their extravagance, their
slaves, their immorality and gross sensuality, lived in a splendour and
with a prodigality that well accorded with the gorgeous colouring of
Eastern hangings and embroideries, of rich carpets and comfortable
cushions, of the lavish use of gold and silver, and meritricious and
redundant ornament.
[Illustration: Roman Couch, Generally of Bronze. (_From an Antique Bas
relief._)]
This slight sketch, brief and inadequate as it is, of a history of
furniture from the earliest time of which we have any record, until from
the extraordinary growth of the vast Roman Empire, the arts and
manufactures of every country became as it were centralised and focussed
in the palaces of the wealthy Romans, brings us down to the commencement
of what has been deservedly called "the greatest event in history"--the
decline and fall of this enormous empire. For fifteen generations, for
some five hundred years, did this decay, this vast revolution, proceed to
its conclusion. Barbarian hosts settled down in provinces they had overrun
and conquered, the old Pagan world died as it were, and the new Christian
era dawned. From the latter end of the second century until the last of
the Western Caesars, in A.D. 476, it is, with the exception of a short
interval when the strong hand of the great Theodosius stayed the avalanche
of Rome's invaders, one long story of the defeat and humiliation of the
citizens of the greatest power the world has ever known. It is a vast
drama that the genius and patience of a Gibbon has alone been able to deal
with, defying almost by its gigantic catastrophes and ever raging
turbulence the pen of history to chronicle and arrange. When the curtain
rises on a new order of things, the age of Paganism has passed away, and
the period of the Middle Ages will have commenced.
[Illustration: A Roman Study. Shewing Scrolls or Books in a "Scrinium;"
also Lamp, Writing Tablets, etc.]
[Illustration: The Roman Triclinium, or Dining Room.
The plan in the margin shews the position of guests; the place of honor
was that which is indicated by "No. 1," and that of the host by "No. 9."
(_The Illustration is taken from Dr. Jacob von Falke's "Kunst im
Hause."_)]
[Illustration: Plan of a Triclinium.]