CHAPTER VII._Colouration in Animals and Plants

COLOURATION IN THE INVERTEBRATA.

If the principle of the dependence of colour-pattern upon structure,

enunciated in the preceding pages be sound, we ought to find certain

great schemes of colouration corresponding to the great structural

subdivisions of the animal kingdom. This is just what we do find; and

before tracing the details, it will be as well to group the great

colour-schemes together, so that a general view of the question can be

obtained at a glance.

The animal kingdom falls naturally into two divisions, but the dividing

line can be drawn in two ways. If we take the most simple

classification, we have:--

1. _Protozoa_, animals with no special organs.

2. _Organozoa_, animals possessing organs.

Practically this classification is not used, but we shall see that from

our point of view it is a useful one. In the most general scheme the

divisions are:--

1. _Invertebrata_, animals without backbones.

2. _Vertebrata_, animals with backbones.

The invertebrata are divided into sub-kingdoms, of which the protozoa

form one. These protozoa possess, as it were, only negative properties.

In their simplest form they are mere masses of protoplasm, even lacking

an investing membrane or coat, and never, even in the highest forms,

possessing distinct organs. It is this simplicity which at once

separates them entirely from all other animals.

The other sub-kingdoms are:--

_Coelenterata_, of which the jelly-fishes are a type; animals

possessing an alimentary canal, fully communicating with the

general cavity of the body, but without distinct circulatory or

nervous systems.

_Annuloida_, of which the star-fishes are a type; animals having

the alimentary canal shut off from the body-cavity, and possessing

a nervous system, and in some a true circulatory system.

_Annulosa_, of which worms, lobsters, and insects are types;

animals composed of definite segments, arranged serially, always

possessing true circulatory and nervous systems.

_Mollusca_, of which oysters and whelks are types; animals which

are soft-bodied, often bearing a shell, always possessing a

distinct nervous system and mostly with a distinct heart.

In old systems of classification, the _Coelenterata_ and _Annuloida_ were

united into one sub-kingdom, the _Radiata_, in consequence of their

radiate or star-like structures.

As colouration, according to the views here set forth, depends upon

structure, we may classify the Invertebrata thus:--

Protozoa Structureless.

Coelenterata } Radiata. Radiate structure.

Annuloida }

Annulosa Segmented "

Mollusca Marginate "

The mollusca are said to be marginate in structure because, in those

possessing shells--the mollusca proper--the shell is formed by

successive additions to the margin or edge of the shell, by means of the

margin of the mantle, or shell-secreting organ.

Now we shall proceed to show that the schemes of colouration follow out

these structure-plans, and thus give additional force to the truth of

the classification, as well as showing that, viewed on a broad scale,

the present theory is a true one.

We can, in fact, throw the whole scheme into a table, as follows:--

SYSTEMS OF COLOURATION.

+--+-------------------------+------------------------+------------------+

+--+-------------------------+------------------------+------------------+

| | | | |

+--+-------------------------+------------------------+------------------+

_Protozoa._ The protozoa are generally very minute, and always composed

of structureless protoplasm. Their peculiarities are rather negative

than positive, there being neither body segments, muscular, circulatory,

nor nervous systems. Even the denser exterior portion (_ectosarc_)

possessed by some of them seems to be rather a temporary coagulation of

the protoplasm than a real differentiation of that material.

Here, then, we have to deal with the simplest forms of life, and if

colouration depends upon structure, these structureless transparent

creatures should lack all colour-pattern, and such is really the case.

Possessing no organs, they have no colouration, and are generally either

colourless or a faint uniform brown colour, and through their colourless

bodies the food particles show, often giving a fictitious appearance of

colouring.

To this general statement there is a curious and most telling exception.

In a great many protozoa there exists a curious pulsating cell-like

body, called the contractile vesicle, which seems to be a rudimentary

organ, whose function is unknown. Here, then, if anywhere, traces of

colouring should be found, and here it is accordingly found, for, though

generally clear and colourless, it sometimes assumes a pale roseate hue.

This may be deemed the first attempt at decoration in the animal

kingdom, and it is directly applied to the only part which can be said

to possess structure. Beautiful examples are plentiful in Leidy's

magnificent volume on Freshwater Rhizopods.

_Coelenterata._ These animals fall into two groups, the _Hydrozoa_, of

which the hydra and jelly-fishes are types, and the _Actinozoa_, of

which the sea-anemonies and corals are types. Most of the coelenterata

are transparent animals, but it is amongst them we first come across

opaque colouring.

Of the lowest forms, the hydras, nothing need be said here, as they are

so much like the protozoa in their simplicity of structure.

The _Corynida_, familiar to many of our sea-side visitors by their horny

brown tubes (_Tubularia_), attached to shells and stones, are next in

point of complexity. Within the tube is found a semi-fluid mass of

protoplasm, giving rise at the orifice to the polypite, which possesses

a double series of tentacles. These important organs are generally of a

vivid red colour, thus emphasizing their importance in the strongest

manner. Other members of the order are white, with pink stripes.

In the larval stage many of the animals belonging to the above and

allied orders, are very like the true jelly-fishes. These free swimming

larvæ, or _gonophores_, possess four radiating canals, passing from the

digestive sac to the margins of the bell, and these are often the seat

of colour. In these creatures, too, we find the earliest trace of sense

organs, and consequently, the first highly differentiated organs, and

they appear as richly coloured spots on the margins of the bell. The

true oceanic Hydrozoa again afford us fine examples of structural

colouration. The beautiful translucent blue-purple _Velella_, which is

sometimes driven on to our shores, is a case in point; and its delicate

structure lines are all emphasized in deeper hues. The true jelly-fishes

(_Medusidæ_) with their crystal bells and radiating canals, frequently

show brilliant colour, and it is applied to the canals, and also to the

rudimentary eye-specks, which are frequently richly tinted, and in all

cases strongly marked. In the so-called "hidden-eyed" Medusæ we find the

same arrangement of colour, the same emphasized eye-specks, and the

reproductive organs generally appear as a vivid coloured cross, showing

through the translucent bell.

Turning now to the _Actinozoa_, of which the sea anemonies and corals

are types, we are brought first into contact with general decorative,

more or less opaque colour, applied to the surface of the animal. In the

preceding cases the animals have been almost universally transparent or

translucent, and the colouration is often applied to the internal

organs, and shows through. In the sea-anemonies we find a nearer

approach to opacity, in the dense muscular body, though even this is

often translucent, and the tentacles generally so, often looking like

clouded chalcedony. The wealth of colour to be found in these animals

gives us a very important opportunity of studying decoration, where it

first appears in profusion.

One of the first points that strikes even a casual observer is that

amongst the sea-anemonies the colouration is extremely variable, even in

the same species and in the same locality. This is in strong contrast to

what we generally find amongst the higher organisms, such as insects and

birds; for though considerable variation is found in them, it does not

run riot as in the anemonies. It would almost appear as if the actual

colour itself was of minor importance, and only the pattern essential;

the precise hue is not fixed, is not important, but the necessity of

colour of some sort properly arranged is the object to be attained.

Whether this idea has a germ of truth in it or not, it is hard to say,

but when we take the fact in connection with its occurrence just where

opacity begins, connecting this with the transparency of the lower

organisms, and the application of vivid colour to their internal organs,

one seems to associate the instability of the anemony's colouring with

the transference of colour from the interior to the exterior. Certain it

is, that vivid colour never exists in the interior of opaque animals; it

is always developed under the influence of light. The white bones,

nerves and cartilages, and the uniform red of mammalian muscles, are not

cases of true decorative colouring in our sense of the term, for all

bodies must have some colour. All bone is practically white, all

mammalian muscle red, but for these colours to be truly decorative, it

would be necessary for muscles of apparently the same character often to

be differently tinted, just as the apparently similar hairs on a mammal,

and scales on an insect, are variously painted. This we do not find, for

the shaft-bones and plate-bones, and even such odd bones as the hyoid

are all one colour; and no one would undertake to tell, by its hue, a

piece of striped from a piece of unstriped muscle. Decorative colouring

_must_ be external in an opaque animal; it _may_ be internal in a

transparent one.

The connection thus shown between decoration and transparency seems to

suggest that hypodermal colour is the original, and epidermal the newer

scheme: that the latter was derived from the former. This agrees with

Haagen's shrewd hint that all mimetic colour was originally hypodermal.

Certain it is that the protective colour that is still under personal

control, as in the chameleon, &c., is always hypodermal.

The common crass (_Bunodes crassicornis_) is so extremely variable, that

all one can say of it is, that it is coloured red and green. But this

colour is distributed in accordance with structure. The base, or

crawling surface, not being exposed to the light, is uncoloured. The

column, or stem, is irregularly spotted, and striped in accordance with

the somewhat undifferentiated character of its tissue, but the important

organs, the tentacles, are most definitely ornamented, the colour

varying, but the pattern being constant. This pattern is heart-shaped,

with the apex towards the point of the tentacle; that is to say, the

narrow part of the pattern points to the narrow part of the tentacle.

In the common _Actinea mesembryanthemum_, which is often blood red, the

marginal bodies, probably sense-organs, are of the most exquisite

turquoise blue colour, and the ruby disc thus beaded is as perfect an

example of simple structural decoration as could be desired. A zone of

similar blue runs round the base of the body.

Turning now to the corals, which are simply like colonies of single

anemonies with a stony skeleton, we have quite a different arrangement

of hues. No sight is more fascinating than that of a living-coral reef,

as seen through the clear waters of a lagoon. The tropical gardens

ashore cannot excel these sea-gardens in brilliancy or variety of

colour. Reds, yellows, purples, browns of every shade, almost bewilder

the eye with their profusion; and here again we find structural

decoration carried out to perfection. The growing points of white

branching corals (_Madrepores_) are frequently tipped with vivid purple,

and the tiny polyps themselves are glowing gem-stars. In the white

brain-corals, the polyps are vivid red, green, yellow, purple and so on;

but in almost every case vividly contrasting with the surrounding parts,

the colour changing as the function changes.

The _Alcyonariæ_, which include the sea-fans, sea-pens, and the red

coral of commerce, practically bring us to the end of the _Coelenterata_,

and afford us fresh proof of the dependence of colour upon structure and

function. The well-known organ-pipe coral (_Tubipora musica_) is of a

deep crimson colour, and the polyps themselves are of the most vivid

emerald green, a contrast that cannot be excelled. Almost equally

beautiful is the commercial coral (_Corallium rubrum_) whose vivid red

has given a name to a certain tint. In this coral the polyps are of a

milk-white colour.

It must be remembered that in these cases the colour seems actually to

be intentional, so as to form a real and not merely an accidental

contrast between the stony polypidom and the polyp, for the connecting

tissue (_coenosarc_) is itself as colourless as it is structureless.

Gathering together the facts detailed in this chapter we find:--

1. That the Protozoa are practically colourless and structureless.

2. That in those species which possess a rudimentary organ

(contractile vesicle) a slight decoration is applied to that

organ.

3. That in the Coelenterata the colouration is directly dependent

upon the structure.

4. That in transparent animals the colouration is applied directly

to the organ whether it be internal as in the canals or ovaries, or

external, as in the eye-specks.

5. That in opaque animals, as in the sea-anemonies, the colouring

is entirely external.

6. That it is very variable in hue, but not in pattern.

7. That the most highly differentiated parts (tentacles,

eye-specks), are the most strongly coloured.

8. That in the corals an emphatic difference occurs between the

colour of the polypidom (or "coral") and the polyp.

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