This last sentence reminds us that there are two breeds of Sheep in

Palestine. One much resembles our ordinary English Sheep, while the

other is a very different animal, being to the ordinary Sheep what the

greyhound is to the rough terrier. It is much taller on its legs,

larger-boned, and long-nosed. Only the rams have horns, and they are

not twisted spirally like those of our own Sheep, but come backwards,

and then curl round so that the point comes under the ear. The great

peculiarity of this Sheep is the tail, which is simply prodigious in

point of size, and is an enormous mass of fat. Indeed, the long-legged

and otherwise lean animal seems to concentrate all its fat in the

tail, which, as has been well observed, appears to abstract both flesh

and fat from the rest of the body. So great is this strange

development, that the tail alone will sometimes weigh one-fifth as

much as the entire animal. A similar breed of Sheep is found in

Southern Africa and other parts of the world. In some places, the tail

grows to such an enormous size that, in order to keep so valuable a

part of the animal from injury, it is fastened to a small board,

supported by a couple of wheels, so that the Sheep literally wheels

its own tail in a cart. It has been thought by some systematic

naturalists that this variety is a distinct species, and the

broad-tailed breeds of Sheep have, in consequence, been distinguished

by several names. For example, the present variety is called _Ovis

laticaudatus_ by several authors, _Ovis laticauda platyceros_ by

another, and _Ovis cauda obesa_ by another. The broad-tailed Sheep of

Tartary is called _Ovis steatopyga_. Another author calls it _Ovis

macrocercus_; and the broad-tailed Sheep of Southern Africa is called

_Ovis Capensis_. Yet they are in reality one and the same variety of

the common domesticated Sheep, differing in some particulars according

to the conditions in which they are placed, but having really no

specific distinction. It is, by the way, from the wool of the unborn

broad-tailed Sheep that the much-prized Astrachan fur is made.

The various Scriptural writers seem never to have noticed the

difference between the breeds of Sheep; the names that are employed

denoting the different ages and sexes of the Sheep, but having no

reference to the breed.

For example, the word "Tâleh" signifies a very young sucking lamb,

such as is mentioned in 1 Sam. vii. 9: "And Samuel took a sucking lamb

(Tâleh), and offered it for a burnt offering wholly unto the Lord."

The same word is used in Isa. lxv. 25:

"The wolf and the lamb (tâleh) shall feed together;" the force of this

well-known passage being much increased by the correct rendering of

the word "tâleh." The Jewish Bible renders the word as "a lamb of

milk."

The word "kebes," or "keves," (the e being pronounced like the same

letter in the word "seven") signifies a male lamb of a year or so old,

the feminine being "kebesah." When the young lamb was weaned, and was

sent to pasture, it was called by another name, _i.e._ "kar," this

word being evidently derived from the Hebrew verb which signifies to

skip. The adult ram is signified by the word "ayil," or "ail," and the

ewe by "rakal."

Frequent reference to the fat of the tail is made in the Authorized

Version of the Scriptures, though in terms which would not be

understood did we not know that the Sheep which is mentioned in those

passages is the long-tailed Sheep of Syria. See, for example, the

history narrated in Exod. xxix. 22, where special details are given as

to the ceremony by which Aaron and his sons were consecrated to the

priesthood. "Thou shalt take of the ram the fat and the rump, and the

fat that covereth the inwards, and the caul above the liver, and the

two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them." In the Jewish Bible the

passage is given with much more precision, "Thou shalt take of the ram

the fat, _and the fat tail_," &c. The same rendering is used in Lev.

iii. 9: "And he shall offer of the sacrifice of the feast offering a

fire offering unto the Eternal; the fat thereof, and the whole fat

tail shall he take off hard by the backbone; and the fat that covereth

the inwards, and all the fat that is upon the inwards."

But though this particular breed is not very distinctly mentioned in

the Bible, the Talmudical writers have many allusions to it. In the

Mischna these broad-tailed Sheep are not allowed to leave their folds

on the Sabbath-day, because by wheeling their little tail-waggons

behind them they would break the Sabbath. The writers describe the

tail very graphically, comparing its shape to that of a saddle, and

saying that it is fat, without bones, heavy and long, and looks as if

the whole body were continued beyond the hind-legs, and thence hung

down in place of a tail.

The Rabbinical writers treat rather fully of the Sheep, and give some

very amusing advice respecting their management. If the ewes cannot be

fattened in the ordinary manner, that end may be achieved by tying up

the udder so that the milk cannot flow, and the elements which would

have furnished milk are forced to produce fat. If the weather should

be chilly at the shearing time, and there is danger of taking cold

after the wool is removed, the shepherd should dip a sponge in oil and

tie it on the forehead of the newly-shorn animal. Or, if he should not

have a sponge by him, a woollen rag will do as well. The same potent

remedy is also efficacious if the Sheep should be ill in lambing time.

That the Sheep is liable to the attack of the gadfly, which deposits

its eggs in the nostrils of the unfortunate animal, was as well known

in the ancient as in modern times. It is scarcely necessary to mention

that the insect in question is the _Æstrus ovis_. Instinctively aware

of the presence of this insidious and dreaded enemy, which, though so

apparently insignificant, is as formidable a foe as any of the beasts

of prey, the Sheep display the greatest terror at the sharp, menacing

sound produced by the gadfly's wings as the insect sweeps through the

air towards its destination. They congregate together, placing their

heads almost in contact with each other, snort and paw the ground in

their terror, and use all means in their power to prevent the fly from

accomplishing its purpose.

When a gadfly succeeds in attaining its aim, it rapidly deposits an

egg or two in the nostril, and then leaves them. The tiny eggs are

soon hatched by the natural heat of the animal, and the young larvæ

crawl up the nostril towards the frontal sinus. There they remain

until they are full-grown, when they crawl through the nostrils, fall

on the ground, burrow therein, and in the earth undergo their changes

into the pupal and perfect stages.

It need hardly be said that an intelligent shepherd would devote

himself to the task of killing every gadfly which he could find, and,

as these insects are fond of basking on sunny rocks or tree-trunks,

this is no very difficult matter.

The Rabbinical writers, however, being totally ignorant of practical

entomology, do not seem to have recognised the insect until it had

reached its full larval growth. They say that the rams manage to shake

the grubs out of their nostrils by butting at one another in mimic

warfare, and that the ewes, which are hornless, and are therefore

incapable of relieving themselves by such means, ought to be supplied

with plants which will make them sneeze, so that they may shake out

the grubs by the convulsive jerkings of the head caused by inhaling

the irritating substance.

The same writers also recommend that the rams should be furnished with

strong leathern collars.

When the flock is on the march, the rams always go in the van, and,

being instinctively afraid of their ancient enemy the wolf, they

continually raise their heads and look about them. This line of

conduct irritates the wolves, who attack the foremost rams and seize

them by the throat. If, therefore, a piece of stout leather be

fastened round the ram's neck, the wolf is baffled, and runs off in

sullen despair.

Generally, the oldest ram is distinguished by a bell, and, when the

flock moves over the hilly slopes, the Sheep walk in file after the

leader, making narrow paths, which are very distinct from a distance,

but are scarcely perceptible when the foot of the traveller is

actually upon them. From this habit has arisen an ancient proverb, "As

the sheep after the sheep, so the daughter after the mother," a saying

which is another form of our own familiar proverb, "What is bred in

the bone will not come out of the flesh."

We now come to the Sheep considered with reference to its uses. First

and foremost the Sheep was, and still is, one of the chief means of

subsistence, being to the pastoral inhabitants of Palestine what the

oxen are to the pastoral inhabitants of Southern Africa.

To ordinary persons the flesh of the Sheep was a seldom-tasted luxury;

great men might eat it habitually, "faring sumptuously every day," and

we find that, among the glories of Solomon's reign, the sacred

chronicler has thought it worth while to mention that part of the

daily provision for his household included one hundred Sheep. No

particular pains seem to have been taken about the cooking of the

animal, which seems generally to have been boiled. As, however, in

such a climate the flesh could not be kept for the purpose of making

it tender, as is the case in this part of the world, it was cooked as

soon as the animal was killed, the fibres not having time to settle

into the rigidity of death.

Generally, when ordinary people had the opportunity of tasting the

flesh of the Sheep, it was on the occasion of some rejoicing,--such,

for example, as a marriage feast, or the advent of a guest, for whom a

lamb or a kid was slain and cooked on the spot, a young male lamb

being almost invariably chosen as less injurious than the ewe to the

future prospects of the flock. Roasting over a fire was sometimes

adopted, as was baking in an oven sunk in the ground, a remarkable

instance of which we shall see when we come to the Jewish sacrifices.

Boiling, however, was the principal mode; so much so, indeed, that the

Hebrew word which signifies boiling is used to signify any kind of

cooking, even when the meat was roasted.

The process of cooking and eating the Sheep was as follows.

The animal having been killed according to the legal form, the skin

was stripped off, and the body separated joint from joint, the right

shoulder being first removed. This, it will be remembered, was the

priest's portion; see Lev. vii. 32: "The right shoulder shall ye give

unto the priest for an heave offering of the sacrifices of your peace

offerings." The whole of the flesh was then separated from the bones,

and chopped small, and even the bones themselves broken up, so that

the marrow might not be lost.

A reference to this custom is found in Micah iii. 2, 3, "Who pluck off

their skin from off them, and their flesh from off their bones; who

also eat the flesh of my people ... and they break their bones, and

chop them in pieces, as for the pot, and as flesh within the caldron."

The reader will now understand more fully the force of the prophecy,

"He keepeth all His bones: not one of them is broken" (Psa. xxxiv.

20).

The mixed mass of bones and flesh was then put into the caldron, which

was generally filled with water, but sometimes with milk, as is the

custom with the Bedouins of the present day, whose manners are in many

respects identical with those of the early Jews. It has been thought

by some commentators that the injunction not to "seethe a kid in his

mother's milk" (Deut. xiv. 21) referred to this custom. I believe,

however, that the expression "in his mother's milk" does not signify

that the flesh of the kid might not be boiled in its mother's milk,

but that a kid might not be taken which was still in its mother's

milk, _i.e._ unweaned.

Salt and spices were generally added to it; see Ezek. xxiv. 10: "Heap

on wood, kindle the fire, consume the flesh, and spice it well." The

surface was carefully skimmed, and, when the meat was thoroughly

cooked, it and the broth were served up separately. The latter was

used as a sort of sauce, into which unleavened bread was dipped. So in

Judges vi. 19 we read that when Gideon was visited by the angel,

according to the hospitable custom of the land, he "made ready a kid,

and unleavened cakes of an ephah of flour: the flesh he put in a

basket, and he put the broth in a pot, and brought it out unto him

under the oak, and presented it to him."

Valuable, however, as was the Sheep for this purpose, there has always

existed a great reluctance to kill the animal, the very sight of the

flocks being an intense gratification to a pastoral Oriental. The

principal part of the food supplied by the Sheep was, and is still,

the milk; which afforded abundant food without thinning the number of

the flock. As all know who have tasted it, the milk of the Sheep is

peculiarly rich, and in the East is valued much more highly than that

of cattle. The milk was seldom drunk in a fresh state, as is usually

the case with ourselves, but was suffered to become sour, curdled, and

semi-solid.

This custom exists at the present day, the curdled milk being known by

the name of "leben." It is worthy of notice that all the Kaffir tribes

of Southern Africa, who live almost entirely on milk, also use it

curdled, under the name of "amasi," and utterly refuse to drink it in

its fresh state, looking upon new milk much as we should look upon

unfermented ale. It is curdled by being placed in a vessel together

with some of the already curdled milk, and the usual plan is to

preserve for this special purpose a vessel which is never wholly

emptied, and which is found to curdle the milk with great rapidity.

"Leben" is exceedingly nutritious, and especially adapted for

children, who, when accustomed to it, will very much prefer it to the

milk in a fresh state. Two separate words are used in the Old

Testament to distinguish fresh from curdled milk, the former being

called Châlâb, and the latter Chemhah.

For butter (if we may accept the rendering of the word) the milk of

the cow or the goat seems to have been preferred, although that of the

Sheep also furnishes it. This distinction is drawn even in the

earliest days of Jewish history, and in the Song of Moses (Deut.

xxxii. 13, 14) we find this passage, "He made him to suck honey out of

the rock, and oil out of the flinty rock; butter of kine and milk of

sheep, with fat of lambs."

There is, however, a little uncertainty about the word which is

translated as butter, and as this word is only used in a very few

passages, we will refer briefly to them. The first mention of butter

occurs in Gen. xviii. 8, where we are told that Abraham "took butter,

and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them."

In this passage we find the words "chemhah" and "châlâh" are used, the

former being translated in the Jewish Bible as "clotted cream."

Abraham therefore gave his angelic guests their choice of milk, both

fresh and curdled. In the passage from Deut. xxxii. 14, which has

already been mentioned, the same words are used, as they are in the

well-known passage in the history of Jael and Sisera (Judges v. 25):

"He asked water, and she gave him milk (châlâb); she brought forth

butter (chemhah) in a lordly dish."

Again, the butter which Shobi, Machir, and Barzillai brought to David,

together with honey, was the chemhah (2 Sam. xvii. 29). In the

familiar passage, "Butter and honey shall He eat" (Isa. vii. 15), the

same word is used; and so it is in Job xx. 17, "He shall not see the

rivers, the floods, the brooks of honey and butter."

But in Prov. xxx. 33, "Surely the churning (mitz) of milk (châlâb)

bringeth forth butter" (chemhah), we have a proof that the chemhah,

whatever it may be, is produced by the churning or pressure of the

fresh milk. As to the exact force of the word "mitz" there is a little

doubt, some persons translating it as pressure, and others as

agitating or shaking, a movement which, when applied to milk, would be

rightly translated as churning. This latter interpretation is

strengthened by the context, "Surely the churning (mitz) of milk

bringeth forth butter, and the wringing (mitz) of the nose bringeth

forth blood."

It is most probable that the chemhah may signify both clotted cream

and butter, just as many words in our language have two or more

significations. Some commentators have thought that the ancient Jews

were not acquainted with butter. This theory, however, is scarcely

tenable. Butter is used largely at the present day, and is made after

the simple fashion of the East, by shaking the cream in a vessel,

exactly as it is made among the black tribes of Southern Africa and

other parts of the world. And, considering the unchanging character of

institutions in the East, we may assume as certain that the ancient

inhabitants of Palestine were, like their modern successors,

acquainted both with the clotted cream and true butter.

Moreover, two substances, butter and honey, which are mentioned in

Samuel, in Job, and in Isaiah, as connected with each other, are still

eaten together in the East.

A reference to the milk of Sheep is to be found in the New Testament:

"Who planteth a vineyard, and eateth not of the fruit thereof? or who

feedeth a flock, and eateth not of the milk of the flock?" (1 Cor. ix.

7).

In this country the milk of the Sheep is scarcely ever used, but in

Scotland, especially in the great Sheep-feeding districts, its milk is

valued as it deserves, and is specially employed for the manufacture

of cheese.

The mention of cheese brings us to another branch of the subject.

Gesenius thinks that the chemhah mentioned in Prov. xxx. must be a

kind of cheese, on account of the word "mitz," _i.e._ pressure. Thus

the word "cheese" occurs three times in the Authorized Version of the

Bible, and in all these passages a different word is used. We will

take them in their order. The first mention occurs in 1 Sam. xvii. 17,

18, "And Jesse said unto David his son, Take now for thy brethren an

ephah of this parched corn, and these ten loaves, and run to the camp

to thy brethren; and carry these ten cheeses unto the captain of their

thousand." In this passage the word which is rendered "cheeses" in the

Authorized Version is "charitz," a term which is translated in the

Jewish Bible as "slices of cheeses," on account of the etymology of

the word, which is derived from a root signifying slicing or cutting.

Another word is used in 2 Sam. xvii. 29, where, among the provisions

that Barzillai brought to David, is mentioned "cheese of kine." The

Hebrew word "shaphôth," which is translated as cheese, derives its

origin from a root signifying to scrape.

The third term translated as cheese is to be found in Job x. 10, "Hast

thou not poured me out as milk, and curdled me like cheese?" The word

"gebînah," which is here translated as "cheese" both in the Authorized

Version and the Jewish Bible, is derived from a root signifying to

curdle.

Here, then, we have three passages, in each of which a different word

is mentioned, and yet these words have been translated in a precisely

similar manner, both in our own version and in the Jewish Bible. The

subject is so well summed up by the Rev. W. L. Bevan, in Smith's

"Dictionary of the Bible," that we may insert here the passage:--

"It is difficult to decide how far these terms correspond with our

notion of _cheese_, for they simply imply various degrees of

coagulation. It may be observed that cheese is not at the present day

common among the Bedouin Arabs, butter being decidedly preferred. But

there is a substance closely corresponding to those mentioned in 1

Sam. xvii., 2 Sam. xvii., consisting of coagulated buttermilk, which

is dried until it becomes quite hard, and is then ground. The Arabs

eat it with butter. (Burckhardt, 'Notes on the Bedouins,' i. 60.)

"In reference to this subject, it is noticeable that the ancients seem

generally to have used either butter or cheese, but not both. Thus the

Greeks had in reality but one expression for the two; for [Greek:

boúteron] = [Greek: boûs-turós] ('cheese of kine'). The Romans used

cheese extensively, while all nomad tribes preferred butter. The

distinction between cheese proper and coagulated milk seems to be

referred to in Pliny xi. 96."

The reader will observe that this opinion exactly coincides with that

which was expressed a few lines above, namely, that the Hebrews used

one word to express both butter and cheese. The coagulated and dried

buttermilk--_i.e._ the "leben" of the Bedouins, and the "amasi" of the

Kaffir tribe--may well be the "shaphôth bâkâr," or "scrapings of the

kine," as being necessarily scraped off the stone or metal plate on

which it was dried.

We now come to a portion of the Sheep scarcely less important than the

flesh and the milk, _i.e._ the fleece, or wool.

In the ancient times nearly the whole of the clothing was made of

wool, especially the most valuable part of it, namely the large

mantle, or "haick," in which the whole person could be folded, and

which was the usual covering during sleep. The wool, therefore, would

be an article of great national value; and so we find that when the

king of Moab paid his tribute in kind to the king of Israel, it was

carefully specified that the Sheep should not be shorn. "And Mesha

king of Moab was a sheep-master, and rendered unto the king of Israel

an hundred thousand lambs, and an hundred thousand rams, with the

wool."

The wool of the Sheep of Palestine differed extremely in value; some

kinds being course and rough, while others were long, fine, and soft.

The wool was dressed in those times much as it is at present, being

carded and then spun with the spindle, the distaff being apparently

unused, and the wool simply drawn out by the hand. The shape of the

spindle was much like that of the well-known flat spinning-tops that

come from Japan--namely, a disc through which passes an axle. A smart

twirl given by the fingers to the axle makes the disc revolve very

rapidly, and its weight causes the rotation to continue for a

considerable time. Spinning the wool was exclusively the task of the

women, a custom which prevailed in this country up to a very recent

time, and which still traditionally survives in the term "spinster,"

and in the metaphorical use of the word "distaff" as synonymous with a

woman's proper work.

Only a few passages occur in the Scriptures in which spinning is

mentioned. In Exod. xxxv. 25 we are told that, when the people were

preparing the materials for the Tabernacle, "all the women that were

wise-hearted did spin with their hands, and brought that which they

had spun, both of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, and of fine

linen." It is true that in Prov. xxxi. 19 there is mention both of the

distaff and spindle: "She layeth her hands to the spindle, and her

hand holds the distaff;" but the word which is translated as "distaff"

is more probably the flat disc which gave to the spindle its whirling

movement. Buxtorf's "Hebrew Lexicon" favours this interpretation,

translating the word as "verticulum, quasi fusi directorium," the word

being derived from a root signifying straight, or to keep something

else straight.

The only other reference to spinning is the well-known passage,

"Consider the lilies, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they

spin: and yet I say unto you, That Solomon in all his glory was not

arrayed like one of these."

When spun into threads, the wool was woven in the simple loom which

has existed up to our own day, and which is identical in its general

principles throughout a very large portion of the world. It consisted

of a framework of wood, at one end of which was placed the "beam" to

which the warp was attached; and at the other end was the "pin" on

which the cloth was rolled as it was finished.

The reader may remember that when Delilah was cajoling Samson to tell

her the secret of his strength, he said, "If thou weavest the seven

locks of my head with the web." So, as he slept, she interwove his

long hair with the fabric which was on her loom, and, to make sure,

"fastened it with the pin," _i.e._ wove it completely into the cloth

which was rolled round the pin. So firmly had she done so, that when

he awoke he could not disentangle his hair, but left the house with

the whole of the loom, the beam and the pin, and the web hanging to

his head.

The threads of the warp were separated by slight rods, and the woof

was passed between them with a shuttle shaped something like a sword,

which answered the double purpose of conducting the thread, and of

striking it with the edge so as to make it lie regularly in its place.

The loom may either have been upright or horizontal, but was probably

the former, the weaver standing at his work, beginning at the top, and

so weaving down. The seamless coat or tunic of our Lord was thus made,

being "woven from the top throughout," like the Roman garments of a

similar character, called _rectæ_, signifying that they were woven in

an upright loom. According to the Jewish traditions, the sacerdotal

garments were thus made in one piece.

Allusion is made to the speed with which the weaver throws his shuttle

in Job vii. 6, "My days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle, and are

passed without hope." When the fabric was finished, the weaver cut it

away from the thrum, an operation which is noticed in the following

passage of Isa. xxxviii. 12, "Mine age is departed, and is removed

from me like a shepherd's tent: I have cut off like a weaver my life:

He will cut me off with pining sickness." The latter sentence is

translated in the Jewish Bible "He will cut me off from the thrum,"

and the same rendering is in the marginal note of the Authorized

Version.

The reader may remember a remarkable prohibition in Deut. xxii. 11,

"Thou shalt not wear a garment of divers sorts, as woollen and linen

together," a prohibition which was sufficiently important to be

repeated in Lev. xix. 19. Now the word which is rendered as "divers

sorts" in one passage and as "mingled" in the other has been variously

interpreted, some persons rendering it as motley, some as spurious or

counterfeit, and some as spotted like a leopard. It is probable,

however, that our Authorized Version is the correct one, and that we

may accept the exposition of Josephus on the subject. He states that

such garments, _i.e._ of linen warp and woollen woof, were intended

wholly for sacerdotal use, and were in consequence prohibited to the

laity.

Wool when taken from the Sheep was of various colours, according to

the animal from which it was shorn; but the most valuable was

necessarily the white variety, which might either be used without

dyeing, or stained of any favourite hue. Several allusions to the

whiteness of such wool are made in the Scriptures. See for example Ps.

cxlvii. 16, "He giveth snow like wool, and scattereth the hoarfrost

like ashes." Also Isa. i. 18, "Though your sins be as scarlet, they

shall be as white as snow; though they be red like crimson, they shall

be as wool." In the prophet Daniel the Ancient of Days is described as

having "His garments as white as snow, and the hair of His head like

the pure wool." And in Rev. i. 14 the same image is repeated, "His

head and His hairs were white like wool, as white as snow."

The reader will not fail to observe that in all these passages wool

and snow are mentioned as of equal whiteness. The reference is

probably made to the newly-carded wool, which is peculiarly white and

soft.

Wool was often dyed of various colours; blue, purple, and scarlet

being those which were generally employed. The rams' skins which

formed part of the covering of the Tabernacle were ordered to be dyed

scarlet, partly on account of the significance of the colour, and

partly because none but the best and purest fleeces would be chosen

for so rare and costly a dye. How the colour was produced we shall

learn towards the end of the volume.

As with us, sheep-shearing was always a time of great rejoicing and

revelry, which seem often to have been carried beyond the bounds of

sobriety. Thus when Nabal had gathered together his three thousand

Sheep in Carmel, and held a shearing festival, David sent to ask for

some provisions for his band, and was refused in accordance with the

disposition of the man, who had inflamed his naturally churlish nature

with wine. "He held a feast in his house, like the feast of a king:

and Nabal's heart was merry within him, for he was very drunken" (1

Sam. xxv. 36).

The same was probably the case when Laban was shearing his Sheep (Gen.

xxxi. 19). Otherwise it would scarcely have been possible for Jacob to

have gone away unknown to Laban, taking with him his wives and

children, his servants, his camels, and his flocks, the rapid increase

of which had excited the jealousy of his uncle, and which were so

numerous that, in fear of his brother Esau, he divided them into two

bands, and yet was able to select from them a present to his brother,

consisting in all of nearly six hundred sheep, camels, oxen, goats,

and asses.

Sometimes the shepherds and others who lived in pastoral districts

made themselves coats of the skins of the Sheep, with the wool still

adhering to it. The custom extends to the present day, and even in

many parts of Europe the sheep-skin dress of the shepherds is a

familiar sight to the traveller. The skin was sometimes tanned and

used as leather, but was considered as inferior to that of the goat.

Mr. Tristram conjectures that the leathern "girdle" worn by St. John

the Baptist was probably the untanned sheep-skin coat which has been

just mentioned. So it is said of the early Christians, that "they

wandered about in sheep-skins and goat-skins, being destitute,

afflicted, tormented," the sheep-skins in question being evidently the

rude shepherd's coats.

Next to the wool come the horns.

In our country we have done our best to produce a hornless breed of

Sheep, thinking the nutriment which produces the horns can be better

expended on the body and fleece, but in the East the horns form an

important commodity, and are valued in proportion to their size.

The chief use of the ram's horn was as a vessel in which to carry

liquids, especially those which, like oil, were poured out in small

quantities. For this purpose a wooden plug was driven tightly into

the larger end, so as to close it completely, and frequently covered,

in addition, with raw hide, in order to hold it firmly in its place,

while the small part of the pointed end was cut off, and the aperture

closed with a small stopper. The old powder-horns which were formerly

much used in England, and which even now are employed in Palestine and

many other countries, were good examples of this form of vessel.

That the horn was the favourite vessel for carrying oil is seen in

many passages of the Scriptures. For example, when Saul was to be

superseded by David, Samuel was ordered to fill his horn with oil and

go to Jesse's house, 1 Sam. i. 39. The allusion was evidently to a

vessel whose ordinary use was the holding of oil. Again, when David

named Solomon his son (see 1 Kings i. 39), "Zadok the priest took an

horn of oil out of the Tabernacle, and anointed Solomon," the oil

being that which was kept in the Tabernacle for sacred purposes, and

the ingredients of which were so carefully chosen, for it was to be an

"oil of holy ointment, an ointment compounded after the art of the

apothecary (or perfumer), which shall be an holy anointing oil" (Ex.

xxx. 25).

The horn of the ram had also a national value, as from it were made

the sacred trumpets which played so important a part in the history of

the Jewish nation. There is no doubt that the primitive trumpets were

originally formed either from the horn of an animal, such as the ox,

the large-horned antelopes, the sheep, and the goat, and that in

process of time they were made of metal, generally copper or silver.

References are frequently made in the Bible to these trumpets, for

which there were different names, probably on account of their

different forms. These names are, however, very loosely rendered in

our version, the same word being sometimes translated the "cornet" and

sometimes the "trumpet." Putting aside, however, these points of

difference, we have chiefly to remark the fact that trumpets made of

rams' horns were ordered by the Mosaic law to be sounded at certain

times, and that their notes formed an important part of the ritual.

Each jubilee year, for example, was ushered in by the blasts of the

sacred trumpets. "Then shalt thou cause the trumpet of the jubilee to

sound on the tenth day of the seventh month, in the day of atonement

shall ye make the trumpet sound throughout all your land" (Lev. xxv.

9). Then there was the festival known as the Feast of Trumpets. "In

the seventh month, on the first day of the month, ye shall have an

holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work: it is a day of blowing

the trumpets unto you" (Numb. xxix. 1).

Perhaps the most prominent instance of the blowing of the sacred

trumpet may be found in the familiar passage in the book of Joshua

(ch. vi.) in which is described the fall of Jericho. "Ye shall compass

the city, all ye men of war, and go about the city once. This ye shall

do six days. And seven priests shall bear before the ark seven

trumpets of rams' horns (or jubilee cornets); and the seventh day ye

shall compass the city seven times, and the priests shall blow with

the trumpets. And it shall come to pass, when they make a long blast

with the rams' horns, and when ye hear the sound of the trumpet, all

the people shall shout with a great shout; and the wall of the city

shall fall down flat, and the people shall ascend up every man

straight before him."

Trumpets were also used as signals to the people. "Declare ye in

Judah, and publish in Jerusalem, and say, Blow ye the trumpet in the

land: cry, gather together and say, Assemble yourselves, and let us go

into the defenced cities" (Jer. iv. 5). And on that great and solemn

day when the law was given from Mount Sinai the signal to the people

was the sound of the trumpet (or cornet, as the word is translated in

the margin). "And it came to pass on the third day in the morning,

that there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the

mount, and the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud; so that all the

people that was in the camp trembled" (Exod. xix. 16).

The Hebrew word which is here translated as "trumpet" is "shofar,"

which signifies also a horn, and is therefore very rightly translated

in the margin and in the Jewish Bible as "cornet." What may have been

the shape of the shofar is evident from the fact that the same

instrument is used even at the present day in certain parts of the

Jewish ritual. One of these trumpets is now before me, and is shown in

the accompanying illustration.

In length it measures eighteen inches, _i.e._ a cubit, and it is

formed entirely in one piece. As far as I can judge, it is made from

the left horn of the broad-tailed Sheep, which, as has already been

remarked, is not spiral, but flattish, curved backwards, and forming

nearly a circle, the point passing under the ear. This structure,

added to the large size of the horn, adapts it well for its purpose.

In order to bring it to the proper shape, the horn is softened by

heat, and is then modelled into the very form which was used by the

Jewish priests who blew the trumpet before the ark.

[Illustration: RAM'S HORN TRUMPET.]

At the present day one such trumpet, at least, is found in every

Jewish community, and is kept by the man who has the privilege of

blowing it. On the New Year's festival and the Day of Atonement the

trumpet is used in the Jewish ritual, and as the ceremonies connected

with blowing it are extremely interesting, they will be briefly

described.

The trumpeter, who is not necessarily a priest, but may be any pious

man selected from the congregation, prepares himself by bathing, and

at the appointed time puts on the white shirt or shroud in which Jews

are buried. Before the trumpet is blown, a prayer is said, containing

many cabalistic names of angels and _malachim_, or powers. These names

may not be pronounced.

The Rabbi then stands, and gives out the names of the sacred tones in

their succession. By the kindness of Dr. Herman Beigel, I have been

enabled to hear the tones, and to put them into musical notes,--I

believe for the first time since they have been used. The tones are

four in number, and are called as follows: Tekeeah (the blowing),

Shebârim (the repeated notes), Terooah (the note of joy), and

Tekeeah-gedôlah (the lengthened blowing). It is not very easy exactly

to express on paper these ancient tones, but the following notes will

give a good idea of them.

[Illustration: Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah-gedôlah.]

These tones are blown in three partitions, in the following order:--

PARTITION I. PARTITION II.

Tekeeah. Shebârim. Tekeeah. Tekeeah. Terooah. Tekeeah.

Tekeeah. Shebârim. Tekeeah. Tekeeah. Terooah. Tekeeah.

Tekeeah. Shebârim. Tekeeah. Tekeeah. Terooah. Tekeeah.

PARTITION III.

Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah.

Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah.

Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah-gedôlah.

Between each partition a pause is made, during which the congregation

join in a prayer which is full of cabalistic names of the angels who

have charge over the sacred tones. And, according to a beautiful

Hebrew tradition, when the trumpet is blown with the proper rites,

each tone is transformed into an angel, who ascends to join his

heavenly colleagues, and with them forms a crown before the throne of

God. So that, ever since the Jewish ritual was established, every New

Year's festival and Day of Atonement send forth their own angels, as

additional jewels to the heavenly crown.

These tones are the same all over the world, and have been unchanged

for countless generations, so that we may be nearly certain that the

blast before which the walls of Jericho fell were the four sacred

tones which have just been described. The reader will perceive that

all the tones are simply octaves, blown with more or less rapidity,

the short notes of Terooah being taken as quickly as the trumpeter can

blow them, and the concluding note well swelled out, until "the voice

of the cornet waxes exceeding loud." Sometimes fifths are used instead

of octaves.

The sounds of the shofar are very peculiar and harsh, quite unlike the

notes of any modern instrument. In spite, however, of the wild and

almost discordant harshness of the instrument, and the abrupt and even

startling character of the Shebârim and Terooah, the sound of the

shofar has a strangely solemn effect, carrying back the mind of the

hearer to the time when the priests bore their rams'-horn trumpets

before the ark, and blew the same sacred blasts under the shadow of

Sinai.

Dr. Beigel has made a most singular discovery concerning the tones of

the shofar. If the reader will blow them on a flute in the exact order

in which they stand, he will find that he is playing a portion of the

nightingale's song. This remarkable fact has been communicated to the

Chief Rabbi and other Rabbim, who are unanimous in expressing their

satisfaction at it. We cannot, of course, venture to say whether the

sacred tones were in the first instance copied from the notes of a

singing bird, but it is not unlikely that, whether consciously or not,

the mind of the ancient composer might have been influenced by tones

which he had often heard, and which could be reproduced in the limited

compass of the ram's horn trumpet.

The old Rabbinical writers have a curious saying about the ram: "The

ram in life has one tone, in death seven." This they explain in the

following way. When the animal is living the only sound which it can

produce is the bleat, but when it is dead it is made into musical

instruments.

1. Of the horns are made trumpets.

2. Of the leg-bones are made flutes.

3. Of the large intestines are made lute-strings.

4. Of the small intestines are made harp-strings.

5. Of the skin is made the drum-head.

6. Of the wool are made the pomegranates which hang between the

golden bells of the High Priest's garment.

This latter sentence explains a passage in Exodus xxviii. 33, which is

not very easy of comprehension. When describing the ephod of the High

Priest, the sacred writer proceeds to say, "And beneath upon the hem

of it thou shalt make pomegranates of blue, and of purple, and of

scarlet, round about the hem thereof, and bells of gold between them

round about." Both the material and the use of the blue and purple and

scarlet pomegranates are here left uncertain, but this old Rabbinical

saying explains both. They were made of the dyed wool of the sheep,

and their use was to prevent the bells from clashing harshly together,

and to keep up a sort of gentle chime as the High Priest went about

his sacred duties.

It is very true that only six tones instead of seven are enumerated,

but we must not be too critical in dissecting an aphorism.

We now come to the important subject, the use of the Sheep in sacrifice.

No animal was used so frequently for this purpose as the Sheep, and

in many passages of the Mosaic law are specified the precise age as

well as the sex of the Sheep which was to be sacrificed in certain

circumstances. Sometimes the Sheep was sacrificed as an offering of

thanksgiving, sometimes as an expiation for sin, and sometimes as a

redemption for some more valuable animal. The young male lamb was the

usual sacrifice; and almost the only sacrifice for which a Sheep might

not be offered was that of the two goats on the great Day of

Atonement. To mention all the passages in which the Sheep is ordered

for sacrifice would occupy too much of our space, and we will

therefore restrict ourselves to the one central rite of the Jewish

nation, the sacrifice of the Paschal lamb, the precursor of the Lamb

of God, who taketh away the sins of the world.

Without examining in full the various ceremonies of the Paschal

sacrifice, we will glance over the salient points which distinguish it

from any other sacrifice.

The lamb must be a male, which is selected and examined with the

minutest care, that it may be free from all blemish, and must be of

the first year. It must be killed on the fourteenth of the month Abib

as the sun is setting, and the blood must be sprinkled with hyssop. In

the first or Egyptian Passover the blood was sprinkled on the lintels

and doorposts of the houses, but afterwards on the altar. It must be

roasted with fire, and not boiled, after the usual custom in the East;

not a bone must be broken. It must be eaten by the household in haste,

as if they were just starting on a journey, and if any of it should be

left, it must be consumed in the fire, and not eaten on the following

day.

Such are the chief points in connexion with the Paschal rite, at once

a sacrifice and a feast. The original directions not being

sufficiently minute to meet all the practical difficulties which might

hinder the correct performance of the rite, a vast number of

directions are given by the Rabbinical writers. In order, for example,

to guard against the destruction of any part of the animal by careless

cooking over a fire, or the possible fracture of a bone by a sudden

jet of flame, the Paschal lamb was rather baked than roasted, being

placed in an earthen oven from which the ashes had been removed. In

order to prevent it from being burned or blackened against the sides

of the oven, (in which case it would be cooked with earthenware and

not with fire), it was transfixed with a wooden stake, made from the

pomegranate-tree, and a transverse spit was thrust through the

shoulders. These spits were made of wood, because a metal spit would

become heated in the oven, and would cause all the flesh which it

touched to be roasted with metal, and not with fire; and the wood of

the pomegranate was chosen, because that wood was supposed not to emit

any sap when heated. If a drop of water had fallen on the flesh, the

law would have been broken, as that part of the flesh would be

considered as boiled, and not roasted.

As to the eating of unleavened bread and bitter herbs with the lamb,

the custom does not bear on the present subject. In shape the oven

seems to have resembled a straw beehive, having an opening at the side

by which the fuel could be removed and the lamb inserted.

It is most interesting to compare with the ancient Paschal sacrifice

the mode of conducting the Passover as still practised on Mount

Gerizim by the Samaritans, who still "worship in this mountain," as

their fathers had done. The Samaritans, a turbulent nation, or rather

an aggregation of tribes who had adopted their own modification of the

Jewish religion, considered Mount Gerizim as the most sacred spot on

the earth, and made it a principle of their faith to worship there.

They hallowed the mountain with various traditions, some perhaps true,

others clearly erroneous. They said that on the summit of Mount

Gerizim, and not on the comparatively little hill of Moriah, Abraham's

marvellous faith was so fearfully tested. They even now point out the

very spot on which it took place--a small smoothed plot of ground on

the summit of the mountain, remarkable for the contrast which its

level plateau presents to the rough, rugged sides of the mountain,

broken by clefts and strewn with great angular stones, as if a rocky

mountain had been blown to pieces and the fragments showered on

Gerizim.

On Gerizim are the "twelve stones" of Joshua, placed by him in

commemoration of the passage of the Jordan. There are the great,

massive stones placed closely together in a row, and apparently

forming part of the rocky mountain itself.

On Gerizim are the seven steps made by Adam when he was driven out of

Paradise, and in Gerizim is the cave in which the Tabernacle was

built. On Gerizim the Passover was celebrated in the time of Christ,

and on Gerizim it is celebrated still. The Samaritans have often been

prevented from doing so by the Moslems, and even so late as 1842 the

Mahometan Ulema threatened to murder the whole of the little

community, under two hundred in number, on the ground that they had no

religion.

The Samaritans believe themselves to be children of Ephraim and

Manasseh, and that their present priest is lineally descended from a

branch of the tribe of Levi, and have accordingly a great pride in

their descent. They observe the ceremonial law with exceeding care,

and, even through the many years of persecution to which they have

been subjected, they have never failed to go thrice in the year to the

top of their holy mountain, repeating parts of the Law as they ascend.

A great loss has lately fallen upon them. They had at one time a

priesthood of the house of Aaron, but the family gradually dwindled

away, and at last utterly perished.

The ceremony of the Passover has been described by several persons,

such as the late Consul Rogers and the Dean of Westminster, the latter

of whom has given a most striking and vivid account of the rite in his

"Lectures on the Jewish Church."

The place which is now employed in the celebration of this rite is a

level spot about two hundred yards from the summit of the mountain, a

place which is apparently selected on account of its comparative quiet

and seclusion. Dean Stanley thinks that in former times, when the

Samaritans were the masters of the country, they celebrated the

sacrifice on the sacred plateau on the very summit of the mountain, so

that the rite could be seen for a vast distance on every side. Now,

however, the less conspicuous place is preferred. By the kindness of

the Palestine Exploration Society, I am enabled to present the reader

with a view of this sacred spot, taken from a photograph made an hour

or two before the time of sacrifice. The rough, rugged character of

the mountain is shown by this illustration, though not so well as in

several other photographs of Gerizim, in which the entire surface

seems to be loosely covered with stones like those of which the low

wall is built. Near the centre of the illustration may be seen a pile

of sticks and the tops of two caldrons, on each of which a stone is

laid to keep the cover from being blown off by the wind. These sticks

nearly fill a trench in which the caldrons are sunk, and their use

will be presently seen on reading Dean Stanley's narrative. In the far

distance are the plains of Samaria, and the long-drawn shadows of the

priest and his nephew, and probable successor, show that the time of

sacrifice is rapidly approaching.

[Illustration: THE PLACE OF SACRIFICE.]

On the previous day the whole of the community had pitched their tents

on the mountain, and as the time of sunset approached the women

retired to the tents, and all the males, except those who were unclean

according to the provisions of the Mosaic law, assembled near a long

deep trench that had been dug in the ground. The men are clothed in

long white garments, and the six young men who are selected as the

actual sacrificers are dressed in white drawers and shirts. These

youths are trained to the duty, but whether they hold any sacred

office could not be ascertained.

Then, according to the narrative of Dean Stanley, "the priest,

ascending a large rough stone in front of the congregation, recited in

a loud chant or scream, in which the others joined, prayers or praises

chiefly turning on the glories of Abraham and Isaac. Their attitude

was that of all Orientals in prayer; standing, occasionally

diversified by the stretching out of the hands, and more rarely by

kneeling or crouching, with their knees wrapped in their clothes and

bent to the ground, towards the Holy Place on the summit of Gerizim.

The priest recited his prayers by heart; the others had mostly books

in Hebrew and Arabic.

"Presently, suddenly there appeared amongst the worshippers six sheep,

driven up by the side of the youths before mentioned. The unconscious

innocence with which they wandered to and fro amongst the bystanders,

and the simplicity in aspect and manner of the young men who tended

them, more recalled a pastoral scene in Arcadia, or one of those

inimitable patriarchal _tableaux_ represented in the Ammergau Mystery,

than a religious ceremonial.

"The sun, meanwhile, which had hitherto burnished up the Mediterranean

in the distance, now sank very nearly to the farthest western ridge

overhanging the plain of Sharon. The recitation became more vehement.

The priest turned about, facing his brethren, and the whole history of

the Exodus from the beginning of the plagues of Egypt was rapidly,

almost furiously, chanted. The sheep, still innocently playful, were

driven more closely together.

"The setting sun now touched the ridge. The youths burst into a wild

murmur of their own, drew forth their long bright knives, and

brandished them aloft. In a moment the sheep were thrown on their

backs, and the flashing knives rapidly drawn across their throats.

Then a few convulsive but silent struggles--'as a sheep ... dumb ...

that openeth not his mouth,'--and the six forms lay lifeless on the

ground, the blood streaming from them; the one only Jewish sacrifice

lingering in the world. In the blood the young men dipped their

fingers, and a small spot was marked on the foreheads and noses of the

children. A few years ago the red stain was placed on all. But this

had now dwindled away into the present practice, preserved, we were

told, as a relic or emblem of the whole. Then, as if in congratulation

at the completion of the ceremony, they all kissed each other, in the

Oriental fashion, on each side of the head.

"The next process was that of the fleecing and roasting of the

slaughtered animals, for which the ancient temple furnished such ample

provisions. Two holes on the mountain side had been dug; one at some

distance, of considerable depth, the other, close to the scene of the

sacrifice, comparatively shallow. In this latter cavity, after a short

prayer, a fire was kindled, out of the mass of dry heath, juniper, and

briers, such as furnished the materials for the conflagration in

Jotham's parable, delivered not far from this spot.

"Over the fire were placed two caldrons full of water. Whilst the

water boiled, the congregation again stood around, and (as if for

economy of time) continued the recitation of the Book of Exodus, and

bitter herbs were handed round wrapped in a strip of unleavened

bread--'with unleavened bread and bitter herbs shall they eat it.'

Then was chanted another short prayer; after which the six youths

again appeared, poured the boiling water over the sheep, and plucked

off their fleeces. The right forelegs of the sheep, with the entrails,

were thrown aside and burnt. The liver was carefully put back. Long

poles were brought, on which the animals were spitted; near the bottom

of each pole was a transverse peg or stick, to prevent the body from

slipping off."

This cross-piece does not, however, penetrate the body, which in most

cases scarcely touches it, so that there is little or no resemblance

to a crucifixion. The writer lays especial stress on this point,

because the early Christians saw in the transverse spit an emblem of

the cross. In the Jewish Passover this emblem would have been more

appropriate, as in that ceremony the cross-piece was passed through

the shoulders, and the forefeet tied to it.

The Sheep being now prepared, they were carried to the oven, which on

this occasion was a deep, circular pit, in which a fire had been

previously kindled. Into this the victims were carefully lowered, the

stakes on which they were impaled guarding their bodies from touching

the sides of the oven, and the cross-piece at the end preventing them

from slipping off the stake to the bottom of the pit among the ashes.

A hurdle was then laid on the mouth of the pit, and wet earth was

heaped upon it so as to close it completely. The greater part of the

community then retired to rest. In about five hours, the Paschal moon

being high in the heavens, announcement was made that the feast was

about to begin. Then, to resume Dean Stanley's narrative,

"Suddenly the covering of the hole was torn off, and up rose into the

still moonlit sky a vast column of smoke and steam; recalling, with a

shock of surprise, that, even by an accidental coincidence, Reginald

Heber should have so well caught this striking feature of so remote

and unknown a ritual:

'Smokes on Gerizim's mount Samaria's sacrifice.'

"Out of the pit were dragged successively the six sheep, on their long

spits, black from the oven. The outlines of their heads, their ears,

their legs, were still visible--'his head, with his legs, and with the

inward parts thereof.' They were hoisted aloft, and then thrown on

large square brown mats, previously prepared for their reception, on

which we were carefully prevented from treading, as also from touching

even the extremities of the spit.

"The bodies thus wrapped in the mats were hurried down to the trench

where the sacrifice had taken place, and laid out upon them in a line

between two files of the Samaritans. Those who had before been dressed

in white robes still retained them, with the addition now of shoes on

their feet and staves in their hands, and ropes round their

waists--'thus shall ye eat it; with your loins girded, your shoes on

your feet, your staff in your hand.' The recitation of prayers or of

the Pentateuch recommenced, and continued till it suddenly terminated

in their all sitting down on their haunches, after the Arab fashion at

meals, and beginning to eat. This, too, is a deviation from the

practice of only a few years since, when they retained the Mosaic

ritual of standing whilst they ate. The actual feast was conducted in

rapid silence, as of men in hunger, as no doubt most of them were, and

so as soon to consume every portion of the blackened masses, which

they tore away piecemeal with their fingers--'ye shall eat in haste.'

There was a general merriment, as of a hearty and welcome meal.

"In ten minutes all was gone but a few remnants. To the priest and to

the women, who, all but two (probably his two wives), remained in the

tents, separate morsels were carried round. The remnants were gathered

into the mats, and put on a wooden grate, or hurdle, over the hole

where the water had been originally boiled; the fire was again lit,

and a huge bonfire was kindled. By its blaze, and by candles lighted

for the purpose, the ground was searched in every direction, as for

the consecrated particles of sacramental elements; and these fragments

of flesh and bone were thrown upon the burning mass--'ye shall let

nothing remain until the morning; and that which remaineth until the

morning ye shall burn with fire;' 'there shall not anything of the

flesh which thou sacrificest the first day at even remain all night

until the morning;' 'thou shalt not carry forth aught of the flesh

abroad out of the house.' The flames blazed up once more, and then

gradually sank away.

"Perhaps in another century the fire on Mount Gerizim will be the only

relic left of this most interesting and ancient rite."

THE CHAMOIS.

The Zemer or Chamois only once mentioned in the

Bible--Signification of the word Zemer--Probability that the

Zemer is the Aoudad--Appearance of the Aoudad--Its strength and

activity--Fierce temper of the adult male--Horns of the

Aoudad--Their probable use as musical instruments--Habits of the

Aoudad--The Mouflon probably classed with the Aoudad under the

name of Zemer--Appearance and habits of the Mouflon.

Among the animals which may be used for food is mentioned one which in

our version is rendered Chamois. See Deut. xiv. 5, a passage which has

several times been quoted.

It is evident to any one acquainted with zoology that, whatever may be

the Hebrew word, "Chamois" cannot be the correct rendering, inasmuch

as the real Chamois does not inhabit Palestine, nor are there any

proofs that it ever did so. We must, therefore, look for some other

animal.

Then, the Hebrew word, which only occurs once in the Bible, is Zamar,

or Zemer, _i.e._ the leaper, and therefore an animal which is

conspicuous for its agility. Zoologists have now agreed in the opinion

that the Zamer of Deuteronomy is the handsome wild sheep which we know

under the name of Aoudad (_Ammotragus Tragelaphus_). This splendid

sheep is known by various names. It is the Jaela of some authors, and

the Bearded Sheep of others. It is also called the Fichtall, or

Lerwea; and the French zoologists describe it under the name of

_Mouflon à manchettes_, in allusion to the fringe of long hair that

ornaments the fore limbs.

The Aoudad is a large and powerful animal, exceedingly active, and has

the habits of the goat rather than of the sheep, on which account it

is reckoned among the goats by the Arabs of the present day, and

doubtless was similarly classed by the ancient inhabitants of

Palestine. The height of the adult Aoudad is about three feet, and its

general colour is pale dun, relieved by the dark masses of long hair

that fall from the neck and the tufts of similar hair which decorate

the knees of the male. The female is also bearded and tufted, but the

hair, which in the male looks like the mane of the lion, in the female

is but slightly developed.

It is so powerful and active an animal, that an adult male which lived

for some time in the Zoological Gardens was much dreaded by the

keepers, not even the man who fed it liking to enter the enclosure if

he could help himself. The animal was given to making unexpected

charges, and would do so with astonishing quickness, springing round

and leaping at the object of his hate with tremendous force, and with

such rapidity that even the experienced keeper, who knew all the ways

of the animals under his charge, had often some difficulty in slipping

behind the door, against which the horns of the Aoudad would clatter

as if they would break the door to pieces. So fond was he of attacking

something that he would often butt repeatedly at the wooden side of

the shed, hurling himself against it with eager fury.

The horns of the Aoudad are about two feet in length, and are of

considerable diameter. They curve boldly and gracefully backwards,

their points diverging considerably from each other, so that when the

animal throws its head up, the points of the horns come on either

side of the back. This divergence of the horns has another object.

They cover a considerable space, so that when the animal makes its

charge the object of its anger has much more difficulty in escaping

the blow than if the horns were closer together.

[Illustration: THE AOUDAD CHASED.

"_These are the beasts which ye shall eat: the ox, the sheep, the goat

... and the chamois._"--DEUT. xiv. 4, 5.]

Whether these horns were used as musical instruments is doubtful,

simply because we are not absolutely sure that the Zamar and the

Aoudad are identical, however great may be the probability. But

inasmuch as the horn-trumpets were evidently of various sizes, it is

certain that the Jewish musicians would never have neglected to take

advantage of such magnificent materials as they would obtain from the

horns of this animal. Perhaps the Chaldaic "keren" may have been the

horn of the Aoudad, or of the animal which will next be mentioned.

The Aoudad is wonderfully active, and even the young ones bound to an

astonishing height. I have seen the marks of their hoofs eight feet

from the ground.

In its wild state the Aoudad lives in little flocks or herds, and

prefers the high and rocky ground, over which it leaps with a

sure-footed agility equal to that of the Chamois itself. These flocks

are chased by hunters, who try to get it upon the lowest and least

broken ground, where it is at a disadvantage, and then run it down

with their horses, as seen in the illustration on page 187.

The Aoudad was formerly plentiful in Egypt, and even now is found

along the Atlas mountain-range. It is seen on the Egyptian monuments,

and, owing to its evident profusion, we have every reason to

conjecture that it was one of those animals which were specially

indicated as chewing the cud and cleaving the hoof.

PERHAPS THE MOUFLON (_Caprovis Musimon_) may be the animal which is

meant by the Hebrew word Zamar, and it is not unlikely that both

animals may have been included in one name.

This animal, which is nearly allied to the Aoudad, is also very

goatlike in general aspect. It is indeed to this resemblance that the

name Caprovis, or goat-sheep, has been given to it. The name

Ammotragus, which, as mentioned above, belongs to the Aoudad, has a

similar signification.

The horns of the Mouflon belong only to the male animal, and are of

enormous size, so that if trumpets of deep tone and great power were

needed, they could be obtained from the horns of this animal. Those of

the Aoudad are very large, and would be well adapted for the same

purpose, but they would not furnish such instruments as the horns of

the Mouflon, which are so large that they seem almost unwieldy for an

animal of twice the Mouflon's size, and give visible proofs of the

strength and agility of an animal which can carry them so lightly and

leap about under their weight so easily as does the Mouflon.

At the present time the Mouflon is only to be found in Cyprus,

Sardinia, and Corsica, but formerly it was known to inhabit many

other parts of the earth, and was almost certainly one of the many

animals which then haunted the Lebanon, but which have in later days

been extirpated.

THE GOAT.

Value of the Goat--Its use in furnishing food--The male kid the

usual animal of slaughter--Excellence of the flesh and deception

of Isaac--Milk of the Goat--An Oriental milking scene--The hair

of the goat, and the uses to which it is put--The Goat's skin

used for leather--The "bottle" of Scripture--Mode of making and

repairing the bottles--Ruse of the Gibeonites--The "bottle in

the smoke"--The sacks and the kneading troughs--The Goat as used

for sacrifice--General habits of the Goat--Separation of the

Goats from the sheep--Performing Goats--Different breeds of

Goats in Palestine.

Whether considered in reference to food, to clothing, or to sacrifice,

the GOAT was scarcely a less important animal than the sheep. It was

especially valuable in such a country as Palestine, in which the soil

and the climate vary so much according to the locality. Upon the large

fertile plains the sheep are bred in vast flocks, the rich and

succulent grass being exactly to their taste; while in the hilly and

craggy districts the Goats abound, and delight in browsing upon the

scanty herbage that grows upon the mountain-side.

For food the Goat was even more extensively used than the sheep. The

adult male was, of course, not eaten, being very tough, and having an

odour which would repel any but an actually starving man. Neither were

the females generally eaten, as they were needed for the future

increase of the flocks. The young male kid formed the principal

material of a feast, and as soon as a stranger claimed the hospitality

of a man in good circumstances, the first thing that was done was to

take a young male kid and dress it for him.

For example, when the angel visited Gideon in the guise of a stranger,

Gideon "went in and made ready a kid, and unleavened cakes of an ephah

of flour," and brought them to his guest (Judges vi. 19). And when

Isaac was on his death-bed, and asked Esau to take his bow and arrows

and hunt for "venison," which was probably the flesh of one of the

antelopes which have already been mentioned, a ready substitute was

found in the two kids, from whose flesh Rebekah made the dish for

which he longed. The imposition might easily pass without detection,

because the flesh of the kid is peculiarly tender, and can scarcely be

distinguished from lamb, even when simply roasted. Isaac, therefore,

with his senses dulled by his great age, was the less likely to

discover the imposture, when the flesh of the kids was stewed into

"savoury meat such as he loved."

A curious illustration of the prevalence of kid's flesh as food is

given in the parable of the prodigal son, for whom his father had

killed the fatted calf. "And he answering said to his father, Lo,

these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed I at any time

thy commandment: and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I might make

merry with my friends" (Luke xv. 29). The force of the reproval cannot

be properly understood unless we are acquainted with the customs of

the East. The kid was the least valuable animal that could have been

given, less valuable than a lamb, and infinitely inferior to the

fatted calf, which was kept in wealthy households for some feast of

more than ordinary magnificence.

The kid was cooked exactly in the same manner as the sheep, namely, by

cutting to pieces and stewing in a caldron, the meat and broth being

served separately. See, for example, the case of Gideon, to whom a

reference has already been made. When he brought the banquet to his

guest, "the flesh he put in a basket, and he put the broth in a pot,

and brought it out unto him under the oak, and presented it. And the

angel of God said unto him, Take the flesh and the unleavened cakes,

and lay them upon this rock, and pour out the broth."

The same custom exists at the present day. When an Arab chief receives

a guest, a kid is immediately killed and given to the women to be

cooked in a separate tent, and the guest is pressed to stay until it

is ready, in the very words used by Gideon three thousand years ago.

"Depart not hence, I pray thee, until I come unto thee, and bring

forth my present, and set it before thee." And the angelic guest

answered him just as a modern Arab traveller would answer his host, "I

will tarry until thou come again." For the refusal of proffered

hospitality would be and still is considered to be, either a studied

insult, or a proof of bad manners, and no one with any claims to

breeding would commit such an action without urgent cause and much

apology.

Like the sheep, the Goat is extremely valuable as a milk-producer, and

at the present day the milk of the Goat is used as largely as that of

the sheep. "At Rasheiya, under Mount Hermon," writes Mr. Tristram, "we

saw some hundreds of goats gathering for the night in the wide open

market-place beneath the castle. It was no easy matter to thread our

way among them, as they had no idea of moving for such belated

intruders on their rest. All the she-goats of the neighbouring hills

are driven in every evening, and remain for their morning's milking,

after which they set forth on their day's excursion.

"Each house possesses several, and all know their owners. The evening

milking is a picturesque scene. Every street and open space is filled

with the goats; and women, boys, and girls are everywhere milking with

their small pewter pots, while the goats are anxiously awaiting their

turn, or lying down to chew the cud as soon as it is over. As no kids

or he-goats are admitted, the scene is very orderly, and there is none

of the deafening bleating which usually characterises large flocks.

"These mountain goats are a solemn set, and by the gravity of their

demeanour excite a suspicion that they have had no youth, and never

were kids. They need no herdsman to bring them home in the evening,

for, fully sensible of the danger of remaining unprotected, they hurry

homewards of their own accord as soon as the sun begins to decline."

Like the wool of the sheep, the hair of the Goat is used for the

manufacture of clothing; and, as is the case with wool, its quality

differs according to the particular breed of the animal, which assumes

almost as many varieties as the sheep or the dog. The hair of some

varieties is thick and rough, and can only be made into coarse cloths,

while others, of which the mohair Goat and Cashmere Goat are familiar

examples, furnish a staple of surpassing delicacy and fineness. It is

most likely that the covering and curtains of the Tabernacle mentioned

in Exod. xxvi. 7 were of the latter kind, as otherwise they would have

been out of character with the fine linen, and blue and scarlet, their

golden clasps, and the profuse magnificence which distinguished every

part of the sacred building. Moreover, the hair of the Goat is classed

among the costly offerings which were made when the Tabernacle was

built. "And they came forth, men and women, as many as were willing

hearted, and brought bracelets, and earrings, and rings, and tablets,

all jewels of gold: and every man that offered offered an offering of

gold unto the Lord. And every man, with whom was found blue, and

purple, and scarlet, and fine linen, and goats' hair, and red skins of

rams, and badgers' skins, brought them" to be used in the structure of

that wonderful building, in which nothing might be used except the

finest and costliest that could be procured.

One of the principal uses to which the goat-skin was applied was the

manufacture of leather, for which purpose it is still used, and is

considered far better than that of the sheep. Perhaps the most common

form in which this leather is used is the well-known water-vessel, or

"bottle" of the Bible.

These so-called bottles are made from the entire skin of the animal,

which is prepared in slightly different methods according to the

locality in which the manufacture is carried on. In Palestine they are

soaked for some little time in the tanning mixture, and are then

filled with water, after the seams have been pitched. In this state

they are kept for some time, and are kept exposed to the sun, covered

entirely with the tanning fluid, and filled up with water to supply

the loss caused by evaporation and leakage.

The hair is allowed to remain on the skins, because it acts as a

preservative against the rough usage to which they are subject at the

hard hands of the water-carriers. By degrees the hairy covering wears

off, first in patches, and then over the entire surface, so that a new

bottle can be recognised at a glance, and any one who wished to sell

an old bottle at the price of a new one would be at once detected.

Vessels made in this rude manner are absolutely necessary in the

countries wherein they are used. Wooden or metal vessels would be too

heavy, and, besides, the slight though constant evaporation that

always takes place through the pores of the leather keeps down the

temperature of the water, even under a burning sun, the slight loss

which is caused by the porousness of the skin being more than

counterbalanced by the coolness of the water. It is true that the

goat-skin communicates to the liquid a flavour far from pleasant, but

in those countries the quality of the water is of little consequence,

provided that it is plentiful in quantity, and tolerably cool.

Even in our own country, leathern drinking-cups are sometimes used,

and all who have taken any interest in antiquarian manners are

familiar with the "leather bottle" and the "black-jack," the former

only surviving in museums and as signs to public-houses, though the

latter has within the memory of the present generation been in common

use. Leathern bottles are still used in the Turkish army, and I have

in my collection one of these water-bottles, which is practically the

same article as the "bottle" of Scripture, though it is of

comparatively small size, and is made with some attempt at elegance of

form.

In all parts of the world where the skin is used for this purpose the

mode of manufacture is practically identical. An account of the art of

preparing the goat-skin as practised in Abyssinia is given by Mr. C.

Johnston, in his "Travels in Southern Abyssinia:"--

"To be of any value it must be taken off uncut, except around the

neck, and in those situations necessary to enable the butchers to draw

the legs out of the skin; also, of course, where the first incision is

made to commence the process, and which is a circular cut carried

around both haunches, not many inches from and having the tail for a

centre. The hide is then stripped over the thighs, and two smaller

incisions being made round the middle joint of the hind-legs enable

them to be drawn out.

"A stick is now placed to extend these extremities, and by this, for

the convenience of the operators, the whole carcase is suspended from

the branch of a tree, and, by some easy pulls around the body, the

skin is gradually withdrawn over the fore-legs, which are incised

around the knees, to admit of their being taken out; after which, the

head being removed, the whole business concludes by the skin being

pulled inside out over the decollated neck. One of the parties now

takes a rough stone and well rubs the inside surface, to divest it of

a few fibres of the subcutaneous muscle which are inserted into the

skin, and after this operation it is laid aside until the next day;

the more interesting business of attending to the meat calling for

immediate attention.

"These entire skins are afterwards made into sacks by the apertures

around the neck and legs being secured by a double fold of the skin

being sewed upon each other, by means of a slender but very tough

thong. These small seams are rendered quite air-tight, and the larger

orifice around the haunches being gathered together by the hands, the

yet raw skin is distended with air; and the orifice being then tied

up, the swollen bag is left in that state for a few days, until slight

putrefaction has commenced, when the application of the rough stone

soon divests its surface of the hair. After this has been effected, a

deal of labour, during at least one day, is required to soften the

distended skin by beating it with heavy sticks, or trampling upon it

for hours together, the labourer supporting himself by clinging to the

bough of a tree overhead, or holding on by the wall of the house.

"In this manner, whilst the skin is drying, it is prevented from

getting stiff, and, still further to secure it from this evil

condition, it is frequently rubbed with small quantities of butter.

When it is supposed that there is no chance of the skin becoming hard

and easily broken, the orifice is opened, the air escapes, and a very

soft, flaccid leather bag is produced, but which, for several days

after, affords an amusement to the owner, when otherwise unemployed,

by well rubbing it all over with his hands."

The reader will see that the two processes are practically identical,

the chief difference being that in one country the skins are distended

with water and in the other with air.

As these bottles are rather apt to be damaged by the thorns, branches,

rocks, and similar objects with which they come in contact, and are

much too valuable to be thrown away as useless, their owners have

discovered methods of patching and repairing them, which enable them

to be used for some time longer. Patches of considerable size are

sometimes inserted, if the rent should be of importance, while the

wound caused by a thorn is mended by a simple and efficacious

expedient. The skin is first emptied, and a round flat piece of wood,

or even a stone of suitable shape, is put into it. The skin is then

held with the wounded part downwards, and the stone shaken about until

it comes exactly upon the hole. It is then grasped, the still wet hide

gathered tightly under it, so as to pucker up the skin, and a ligature

is tied firmly round it. Perhaps some of my readers may have

practised the same method of mending a punctured football.

Allusion to this mode of mending the skin bottles is made in Josh. ix.

4, 13. The Gibeonites "did work wilily, and went and made as if they

had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses, and wine

bottles, old, and rent, and bound up ... and said ... these bottles of

wine, which we filled, were new; and, behold, they be rent."

If these skin bottles be allowed to become dry, as is sometimes the

case when they are hung up in the smoky tents, they shrivel up, and

become rotten and weak, and are no longer enabled to bear the pressure

caused by the fermentation of new wine. So, in Ps. cxix. 81-83: "My

soul fainteth for Thy salvation: but I hope in Thy word.

"Mine eyes fail for Thy word, saying, When wilt Thou comfort me?

"For I am become like a bottle in the smoke; yet do I not forget Thy

statutes."

How forcible does not this image become, when we realize the early

life of the shepherd poet, his dwelling in tents wherein are no

windows nor chimneys, and in which the smoke rolls to and fro until it

settles in the form of soot upon the leathern bottles and other rude

articles of furniture that are hung from the poles!

In the New Testament there is a well-known allusion to the weakness of

old bottles: "Neither do men put new wine into old bottles, or the

bottles break and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish; but

they put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved." It would

be impossible to understand the meaning of this passage unless we knew

that the "bottles" in question were not vessels of glass or

earthenware, but merely the partly-tanned skins of goats.

Another allusion to the use of the goat-skin is made in that part of

the Book of Joshua which has already been mentioned. If the reader

will refer to Josh. ix. 4, he will see that the Gibeonites took with

them not only old bottles, but old sacks. Now, these sacks bore no

resemblance to the hempen bags with which we are so familiar, but were

nothing more than the same goat-skins that were employed in the

manufacture of bottles, but with the opening at the neck left open.

They were, in fact, skin-bottles for holding solids instead of

liquids. The sacks which Joseph's brethren took with them, and in the

mouths of which they found their money, were simply goat-skin bags,

made as described.

Yet another use for the goat-skin. It is almost certain that the

"kneading-troughs" of the ancient Israelites were simply circular

pieces of goat-skin, which could be laid on the ground when wanted,

and rolled up and carried away when out of use. Thus, the fact that

"the people took their dough before it was leavened, their

kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothing upon their

shoulders," need cause no surprise.

Nothing could be more in accordance with probability. The women were

all hard at work, preparing the bread for the expected journey, when

the terrified Pharaoh "called for Moses and Aaron by night, and said,

Rise up, and get you forth from among my people, both ye and the

children of Israel, and go, serve the Lord, as ye have said.... And

the Egyptians were urgent upon the people that they might send them

out of the land in haste; for they said, We be all dead men."

So the women, being disturbed at their work, and being driven out of

the country before they had leavened, much less baked, their bread,

had no alternative but to roll up the dough in the leathern

"kneading-troughs," tie them up in a bundle with their spare clothing,

and carry them on their shoulders; whereas, if we connect the

kneading-troughs with the large heavy wooden implements used in this

country, we shall form an entirely erroneous idea of the proceeding.

As soon as they came to their first halting-place at Succoth, they

took the leathern kneading-troughs out of their clothes, unrolled

them, took the dough which had not even been leavened, so unexpectedly

had the order for marching arrived, made it into flat cakes, and baked

them as they best could. The same kind of "kneading-trough" is still

in use in many parts of the world.

Stone as well as earthenware jars were also used by the inhabitants of

ancient Palestine; but they were only employed for the storage of wine

in houses, whereas the bottles that were used in carrying wine from

one place to another were invariably made of leather. Water also was

stored in stone or earthenware jars. See, for example, John ii. 6:

"And there were set there six waterpots of stone, after the manner of

the purifying of the Jews, containing two or three firkins apiece."

Whereas, when it was carried about, it was poured into bottles made of

skin. Such was probably the "bottle of water" that Abraham put on

Hagar's shoulder, when she was driven away by the jealousy of Sarah.

Such was the "bottle of wine" that Hannah brought as her offering when

she dedicated Samuel to the service of God; and such was the "bottle

of milk" that Jael opened for Sisera when he came to her tent. Even

oil is carried in these bottles, which are certainly better adapted to

the backs of mules, which are the usual beasts of burden, than they

would be if they were made of glass or earthenware.

The Rabbinical writers have much to say upon the Goat; but as the

greater part of their observations and directions are without any

general interest, only a few will be selected from them.

Knowing the great strength of the Goat of their own days, they

exaggerate the power of those which belonged to the ancients. Job's

he-goats, for example, are said to have been so strong and fierce that

they could conquer wolves, while some were so powerful that they

carried bears upon their horns. They also were accustomed to climb

rocks, dig up roots, and bring them down in their mouths.

The milk of the white Goat is useful medicinally for affections of the

lungs, and the spleen of a female kid for diseases of the spleen. But

if Goats are allowed to drink of the water in which blacksmiths cool

their iron, the spleen gradually withers away, and at last disappears

altogether. If the owner should desire to fatten a she-goat, he ought

to tie up the udders so tightly that the milk cannot come into them,

and the nourishment is therefore converted into fat instead of milk.

Also, he should take care to keep his Goats away from the place where

bread is being made, as they are very fond of the unbaked dough, and

always die if they eat it.

In sacrifices, the Goat was in nearly as much requisition as the lamb,

and in one--namely, that which was celebrated on the Great Day of

Atonement--the Goat was specially mentioned as the only animal which

could be sacrificed. The reader will, perhaps, remember that for this

peculiar sacrifice two Goats were required, on which two lots were

cast, one for the Lord, _i.e._ with the word "Jehovah" upon it, and

the other for the scapegoat, _i.e._ inscribed with the word "Azazel."

The latter term is derived from two Hebrew words, the former being

"Az," which is the general name for the Goat, and the second "azel,"

signifying "he departed." The former, which belonged to Jehovah, was

sacrificed, and its blood sprinkled upon the mercy-seat and the altar

of incense; and the Goat Azazel was led away into the wilderness,

bearing upon its head the sins of the people, and there let loose.

These being the uses of the Goat, it may naturally be imagined that

the animal is one of extreme importance, and that it is watched as

carefully by its owners as the sheep. Indeed, both sheep and Goats

belong to the same master, and are tended by the same shepherd, who

exercises the same sway over them that he does over the sheep.

They are, however, erratic animals, and, although they will follow the

shepherd wherever he may lead them, they will not mix with the sheep.

The latter will walk in a compact flock along the valley, the shepherd

leading the way, and the sheep following him, led in their turn by the

sound of the bell tied round the neck of the master-ram of the flock.

The Goats, however, will not submit to walk in so quiet a manner, but

prefer to climb along the sides of the rocks that skirt the valleys,

skipping and jumping as they go, and seeming to take delight in

getting themselves into dangerous places, where a man could not

venture to set his foot.

In the evening, when the shepherds call their flocks to repose, they

often make use of the caverns which exist at some height in the

precipitous side of the hills, as being safe strongholds, where the

jackal and the hyæna will not venture to attack them. When such is the

case, the shepherds take their station by the mouth of the cave, and

assist the sheep as they come sedately up the narrow path that leads

to the cavern. The Goats, however, need no assistance, but come

scrambling along by paths where no foot but a Goat's could tread,

mostly descending from a considerable height above the cave, and, as

if in exultation at their superior agility, jumping over the backs of

the sheep as they slowly file into the accustomed fold.

Friendly as they are, the Goats and sheep never mingle together. There

may be large flocks of them feeding in the same pasturage, but the

Goats always take the highest spots on which verdure grows, while the

sheep graze quietly below. Goats are specially fond of the tender

shoots of trees, which they find in plenty upon the mountain side;

and, according to Mr. Tristram, by their continual browsing, they have

extirpated many species of trees which were once common on the hills

of Palestine, and which now can only be found in Lebanon on the east

of the Jordan.

[Illustration: GOATS ON THE MARCH.

"_As a shepherd divideth the sheep from the goats._"--MATT. xxv. 32.]

Even when folded together in the same enclosure, the Goats never mix

with the sheep, but gather together by themselves, and they

instinctively take the same order when assembled round the wells at

mid-day.

This instinctive separation of the sheep and the goats naturally

recalls to our minds the well-known saying of our Lord that "before

Him shall be gathered all nations, and He shall separate them one from

another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats: and He shall

set the sheep on His right hand, and the goats on His left."

The image thus used was one that was familiar to all the hearers, who

were accustomed daily to see the herds of sheep and Goats under one

shepherd, yet totally distinct from each other. At feeding-time the

Goats will be browsing in long lines on the mountain sides, while the

sheep are grazing in the plain or valley; at mid-day, when the flocks

are gathered round the wells to await the rolling away of the stone

that guards the water, the Goats assemble on one side and the sheep on

the other. And at night, when they are all gathered into one fold by

one shepherd, they are still separated from each other. The same image

is employed by the prophet Ezekiel: "As for you, O my flock, thus said

the Lord God, Behold I judge between cattle and cattle, between rams

and the he-goats."

Generally, the leading Goat was distinguished by a bell as well as the

leading sheep, and in reference to this custom there was an old

proverb, "If the shepherd takes the lead, he blinds the bell-goat,"

while another proverb is based upon the inferior docility of the

animal--"If the shepherd be lame, the Goats will run away."

Yet the Goat can be tamed very effectively, and can even be

taught to perform many tricks. "We saw just below us, on the

rudely-constructed 'parade,' a crowd of men and children, surrounding

a fantastically-dressed man exhibiting a Goat, which had been tutored to

perform some cunning trick. It stood with its four feet close together

on the top of a very long pole, and allowed the man to lift it up and

carry it round and round within the circle; then the Goat was perched

on four sticks, and again carried about. A little band of music-pipes,

drums, and tambourines--called together the people from all parts of

the town to witness this performance.

"The Goat danced and balanced himself obediently and perfectly, in

very unnatural-looking positions, as if thoroughly understanding the

words and commands of his master. The men who watched the actions of

the Goat looked as grave and serious as if they were attending a

philosophical or scientific lecture." ("Domestic Life in Palestine,"

by Miss Rogers.)

Another feat is a favourite with the proprietors of trained Goats. The

man takes a stool and plants it carefully on the ground, so as to be

perfectly level, and then orders the Goat to stand upon it. A piece of

wood about six inches in length, and shaped something like a dice-box,

is then placed on the stool, and the Goat manages to stand on it, all

his sharp, hard hoofs being pressed closely together on the tiny

surface. The man then takes another piece of wood and holds it to the

Goat's feet. The animal gently removes first one foot and then

another, and, by careful shifting of the feet, enables its master to

place the second piece of wood on the first. Successive additions are

made, until at the last the Goat is perched on the topmost of some

nine or ten pieces of wood balanced on each other, the whole looking

like a stout reed marked off with joints.

The stately steps and bold bearing of the old he-goat is mentioned in

the Proverbs: "There be three things which go well, yea, four are

comely in going:

"A lion, which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not away for

any;

"A greyhound; an he-goat also; and a king, against whom there is no

rising up." (Prov. xxx. 29-31.) The word which is here rendered as

he-goat signifies literally the "Butter," and is given to the animal

on account of the mode in which it uses its formidable horns. The word

is not common in the Bible, but it is used even at the present day

among the Arabs.

Several herds of goats exist in Palestine, the most valuable of which

is the Mohair Goat, and the most common the Syrian Goat. These,

however dissimilar they may be in appearance, are only varieties of

the ordinary domestic animal, the former being produced artificially

by carefully selecting those specimens for breeding which have the

longest and finest hair. It was from the hair of this breed that the

costly fabrics used in the Tabernacle were woven, and it is probably

to this breed that reference is made in Solomon's Song, iv. 1, 2:

"Behold, thou art fair, my love; behold, thou art fair; thou hast

doves' eyes within thy locks: thy hair is as a flock of goats, that

appear from Mount Gilead.

"Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep that are even shorn, which came

up from the washing." In this passage the careful reader will also

note another reference to the habits of the Goats and sheep, the hair

being compared to the dark-haired Goats that wander on the tops of the

hills, while the teeth are compared to sheep that are ranged in

regular order below. The Mohair Goat is known scientifically as _Capra

Angorensis_. The same image is used again in chap. vi. 5.

The second breed is that which is commonest throughout the country. It

is known by the name of the Syrian Goat, and is remarkable for the

enormous length of its ears, which sometimes exceed a foot from root

to tip. This variety has been described as a separate species under

the name of _Capra Mambrica_, or _C. Syriaca_, but, like the Mohair

Goat, and twenty-three other so-called species, is simply a variety of

the common Goat, _Hircus ægragus_.

Reference is made to the long ears of the Syrian Goat in Amos iii. 12:

"Thus saith the Lord: As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the

lion two legs, or a piece of an ear; so shall the children of Israel

be taken out that dwell in Samaria." Such a scene, which was familiar

to Amos, the shepherd as well as the prophet, is represented in the

illustration. In the foreground is the goat on which the lion has

sprung, and from which one of the long ears has been torn away. Its

companions are gathering round it in sympathy, while its kid is trying

to discover the cause of its mother's uneasiness. In the background is

a group of armed shepherds, standing round the lion which they have

just killed, while one of them is holding up the torn ear which he has

taken out of the lion's mouth.

[Illustration: THE GOAT.

"As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the lion a piece of an

ear."--AMOS iii. 12.]

THE WILD GOAT.

The Azelim or Wild Goats of Scripture identical with the Beden

or Arabian Ibex--Different names of the Beden--Its appearance

and general habits--En-gedi, or Goats' Fountain--The Beden

formerly very plentiful in Palestine, and now tolerably

common--Its agility--Difficulty of catching or killing it--How

the young are captured--Flesh of the Beden--Use of the horns at

the present day--The Ako of Deuteronomy.

In three passages of the Old Testament occurs a word, "Azelim," which

is variously translated in our Authorized Version.

It is first seen in 1 Sam. xxiv. 2, in which it is rendered as "Wild

Goats." "It was told Saul, saying, Behold, David is in the wilderness

of En-gedi [_i.e._ the Fountain of the Goat]. Then Saul took three

thousand chosen men out of all Israel, and went to seek David and his

men upon the rocks of the wild goats (_azelim_)." The same word occurs

in Job xxxix. 1: "Knowest thou the time when the wild goats of the

rock bring forth?" It is also found in Ps. civ. 18: "The high hills

are a refuge for the wild goats." In all these passages it is rendered

as "wild goats." But, in Prov. v. 19, it is translated as roe:

"Rejoice with the wife of thy youth. Let her be as the loving hind and

pleasant roe (_azelah_)." The Jewish Bible follows the same diverse

renderings.

We now have to discover the animal which was signified by the word

Azel. According to its etymology, it is the Climber, just as the adult

he-goat is called the Butter.

That it was a climbing animal is evident from its name, and that it

loved to clamber among precipices is equally evident from the repeated

connexion of the word rock with the name of the animal. We also see,

from the passage in Job, that it is a wild animal whose habits were

not known. There is scarcely any doubt that the Azel of the Old

Testament is the ARABIAN IBEX or BEDEN (_Capra Nubiana_). This animal

is very closely allied to the well-known Ibex of the Alps, or

Steinbock, but may be distinguished from it by one or two slight

differences, such as the black beard and the slighter make of the

horns, which moreover have three angles instead of four, as is the

case with the Alpine Ibex.

The Beden is known by several names. It is sometimes called the Jaela,

sometimes the Nubian Wild Goat, and is also known as the Wild Goat of

Sinai. The general colour of the Beden is grey, becoming brownish in

winter, and being whitish grey beneath. The feet are spotted with

black and white, and the beard of the male is black, differing from

that of the Alpine Ibex, which is brown. The female is beardless. The

lines along the back and the sides of the tail are black, and there

are three streaks on each ear.

The Beden generally lives in little herds of eight or ten, and is even

now to be found in Palestine. At the strange, wild, weird-looking

En-gedi (Ain Jiddy), or Fountain of the Goats, the Beden is still to

be seen. Mr. Tristram suggests that David and his followers took up

their residence at En-gedi for the sake of the Wild Goats that were

plentiful upon the spot, and which would furnish food for himself and

his hardy band of outlaws. "In the neighbourhood of En-gedi," remarks

this traveller, "while encamped by the Dead Sea shore, we obtained

several fine specimens, and very interesting it was to find the

graceful creature by the very fountain to which it gave name.

"When clambering over the heights above En-gedi, I often, by the help

of my glass, saw the Ibex from a distance, and once, when near

Mar-saba, only a few miles from Jerusalem, started one at a distance

of four hundred yards. At the south end of the Dead Sea they were

common, and I have picked up a horn both near Jericho on the hills and

also on the hills of Moab on the eastern side. At Jericho, too, I

obtained a young one which I hoped to rear, but which died after I had

had it for ten days, owing, I believe, to the milk with which it was

fed being sour. Further north and west we did not find it, though I

have reason to believe that a few linger on the mountains between

Samaria and the Jordan, and perhaps also on some of the spurs of

Lebanon. We found its teeth in the breccia of bone occurring in the

Lebanon, proving its former abundance there."

As the Beden was found so plentifully even in these days when

fire-arms have rendered many wild animals scarce and wary, so that

they will not show themselves within range of a bullet, it is evident

that in the time when David lived at En-gedi and drank of the Goats'

Fountain they were far more numerous, and could afford nourishment to

him and his soldiers. Travellers, moreover, who do not happen to be

experienced hunters, will often fail in seeing the Beden, even in

places where it is tolerably plentiful. The colour of its coat

resembles so nearly that of the rocks, that an inexperienced eye would

see nothing but bare stones and sticks where a practised hunter would

see numbers of Beden, conspicuous by their beautifully curved horns.

The agility of the Beden is extraordinary. Loving the highest and most

craggy parts of the mountain ridge, it flings itself from spot to spot

with a recklessness that startles one who has not been accustomed to

the animal, and the wonderful certainty of its foot. It will, for

example, dash at the face of a perpendicular precipice that looks as

smooth as a brick wall, for the purpose of reaching a tiny ledge which

is hardly perceptible, and which is some fifteen feet or so above the

spot whence the animal sprang. Its eye, however, has marked certain

little cracks and projections on the face of the rock, and as the

animal makes its leap, it takes these little points of vantage in

rapid succession, just touching them as it passes upwards, and by the

slight stroke of its foot keeping up the original impulse of its leap.

Similarly, the Ibex comes sliding and leaping down precipitous sides

of the mountains, sometimes halting with all the four feet drawn

together, on a little projection scarcely larger than a penny, and

sometimes springing boldly over a wide crevasse, and alighting with

exact precision upon a projecting piece of rock that seems scarcely

large enough to sustain a rat comfortably.

The young of the Ibex are sometimes captured and tamed. They are,

however, difficult to rear, and give much more trouble than the young

gazelles when taken in a similar manner. The natives can generally

procure the kids at the proper time of year, and sell them at a very

cheap rate. They seldom, however, can be reared, and even those who

live in the country experience the greatest difficulty in keeping the

young Beden alive until it attains maturity.

Were it not for the curious habits of the Beden, the young could

scarcely ever be obtained alive, as they are so agile that they could

easily leap away from their slow two-legged pursuers. But the mother

Ibex has a habit of leading a very independent life, wandering to

considerable distances, and leaving her kid snugly hidden in some

rock-cleft. The hunters watch the mother as she starts off in the

morning, clamber up to the spot where the kid is concealed, and secure

it without difficulty. The Arabs say that there are always two kids at

a birth, but there is considerable discrepancy of evidence on this

point, which, after all, is of very little importance.

[Illustration: ARABIAN IBEX, OR BEDEN; THE WILD GOAT OF SCRIPTURE.

"_The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats._"--PSALM cxiv. 18.]

The flesh of the Beden is really excellent. It is far superior to that

of the gazelle, which is comparatively dry and hard, and it has been

happily suggested that the Beden was the animal in search of which

Esau was sent to hunt with his quiver and his bow, and which furnished

the "savoury meat" which Isaac loved. None but a true hunter can hope

to secure the Beden, and even all the knowledge, patience, and energy

of the best hunters are tried before they can kill their prey. It was

therefore no matter of wonder that Isaac should be surprised when he

thought that he heard Esau return so soon from the hunting-grounds.

"How is it that thou hast found it so quickly, my son?"

There are few animals more wary than the Beden, and even the chamois

of the Alps does not exercise the finest qualities of a hunter more

than does the Beden of Palestine. It is gifted with very keen eyes,

which can discern the approach of an enemy long before its grey coat

and curved horns can be distinguished from the stones and gnarled

boughs of the mountain side. And, even if the enemy be not within

range of the animal's sight, its nostrils are so keen that it can

detect a man by scent alone at a considerable distance. Like all

gregarious animals, the Beden insures the safety of the flock by

stationing sentries, which are posted on places that command the whole

surrounding country, and to deceive the watchful senses of these wary

guardians tests all the qualities of the hunter.

The dawn of day is the time that is generally chosen for approaching a

herd, because the animals are then feeding, and if the hunter can

manage to approach them against the wind, he may chance to come within

range. Should however the wind change its direction, he may quietly

walk home again, for at the first breath of the tainted gale the

sentinels utter their shrill whistle of alarm, and the whole party

dash off with a speed that renders pursuit useless.

The horns of the Beden are of very great size, and from their bold

curves, with the large rings and ridges which cover their front, are

remarkably handsome objects. In their own country they are in great

request as handles to knives, and even in England they may be

occasionally seen serving as handles to carving-knives and forks.

As to the word Ako, which occurs in Deut. xiv. 5, together with other

animals, and is rendered as "Wild Goat," there is so much doubt about

the correct translation that I can do no more than mention that the

Jewish Bible follows our authorized edition in translating Ako as Wild

Goat, but adds the doubtful mark to the word.

THE DEER.

The Hart and Hind of Scripture--Species of Deer existing in

Palestine--Earliest mention of the Hind--The Hart classed among

the clean animals--Passages alluding to its speed--Care of the

mother for her young, and her custom of secreting it--Tameable

character of the Deer--The Rabbinical writers and their

theories--Shedding of the Deer's horns--Its fabled mode of

sleeping--The gall in the tail--Curious traditions of the enmity

between Deer and serpents--Virtues of a Deer-skin coat.

We now come to the DEER which are mentioned in Scripture. There are

not many passages in which they are mentioned, and one of them is

rather doubtful, as we shall see when we come to it.

There is no doubt that the two words HART and HIND (in the Hebrew

_Ayzal_ and _Ayzalah_) represent Deer of some kind, and the question

is to find out what kind of Deer is signified by these words. I think

that we may safely determine that no particular species is meant, but

that under the word Ayzal are comprehended any kinds of Deer that

inhabit Palestine, and were likely to be known to those to whom the

earlier Scriptures were addressed. That some kind of Deer was

plentiful is evident from the references which are made to it, and

specially by the familiar word Ajala or Ayala, as it is pronounced,

which signifies the Deer-ground or pasture. But the attempt to

discriminate between one species and another is simply impossible, and

the more careful the search the more impracticable the task appears.

As far as can be ascertained, at least two kinds of Deer inhabited

Palestine in the earlier days of the Jewish history, one belonging to

the division which is known by its branched horns, and the other to

that in which the horns are flat or palmated over the tips. Examples

of both kinds are familiar to us under the titles of the RED DEER and

the FALLOW DEER, and it is tolerably certain that both these animals

were formerly found in Palestine, or that at all events the Deer

which did exist there were so closely allied to them as to be mere

varieties occasioned by the different conditions in which they were

placed.

We will now proceed to the various passages in which the Hart and Hind

are mentioned in the Bible.

[Illustration: FALLOW-DEER, OR HIND OF SCRIPTURE.

"_I charge you ... by the hinds of the field._"--CANT. ii. 7.]

As might be expected, we come upon it among the number of the beasts

which divided the hoof and chewed the cud, and were specially

indicated as fit for food; see Deut. xii. 15: "Notwithstanding thou

mayest kill and eat flesh in all thy gates, ... the unclean and the

clean may eat thereof, as of the roebuck, and as of the hart."

There is, however, an earlier mention of the word in Gen. xlix. 21. It

occurs in that splendid series of imagery in which Jacob blesses his

sons, and prophesies their future, each image serving ever afterwards

as the emblem of the tribe: "Naphtali is a hind let loose: he giveth

goodly words;"--or, according to the Jewish Bible, "Naphtali is a hind

sent forth: he giveth sayings of pleasantness." Now, such an image as

this would never have been used, had not the spectacle of the "hind

let loose" been perfectly familiar to the eyes both of the dying

patriarch and his hearers, and equally so with the lion, the ass, the

vine, the serpent, and other objects used emblematically in the same

prophetic poem.

The excellence of the Hart's flesh is shown by its occurrence among

the animals used for King Solomon's table; see 1 Kings iv. 23, a

passage which has been quoted several times, and therefore need only

be mentioned.

Allusion is made to the speed and agility of the Deer in several

passages. See, for example, Isa. xxxv. 6: "Then shall the lame man

leap as an hart, and the tongue of the dumb sing." Again, in 2 Sam.

xxii. 33, 34: "God is my strength and power: and He maketh my way

perfect.

"He maketh my feet like hinds' feet: and setteth me upon my high

places."

Nearly four hundred years afterwards we find Habakkuk using precisely

the same image, evidently quoting David's Psalm of Thanksgiving:--"Yet

I will rejoice in the Lord, I will joy in the God of my salvation.

"The Lord God is my strength, and He will make my feet like hinds'

feet, and He will make me to walk upon mine high places." (iii. 18,

19.)

A passage of a similar character may be found in Solomon's Song, ii.

8, 9: "The voice of my beloved! behold, he cometh leaping upon the

mountains, skipping upon the hills.

"My beloved is like a roe or a young hart."

There is one passage in the Psalms which is familiar to us in many

ways, and not the least in that it has been chosen as the text for so

many well-known anthems. "As the hart panteth after the water-brooks,

so panteth my soul after Thee, O God.

"My soul thirsteth for God, for the living God: when shall I come and

appear before God?" (Ps. xlii. 1, 2.)

Beautiful as this passage is, it cannot be fully understood without

the context.

David wrote this psalm before he had risen to royal power, and while

he was fleeing from his enemies from place to place, and seeking an

uncertain shelter in the rock-caves. In verse 6 he enumerates some of

the spots in which he has been forced to reside, far away from the

altar, the priests, and the sacrifice. He has been hunted about from

place to place by his enemies as a stag is hunted by the hounds, and

his very soul thirsted for the distant Tabernacle, in which the

Shekinah, the visible presence of God, rested on the mercy-seat

between the golden cherubim.

Wild and unsettled as was the early life of David, this was ever the

reigning thought in his mind, and there is scarcely a psalm that he

wrote in which we do not find some allusion to the visible presence of

God among men. No matter what might be the troubles through which he

had to pass, even though he trod the valley of the shadow of death,

the thought of his God was soothing as water to the hunted stag, and

in that thought he ever found repose. Through all his many trials and

adversities, through his deep remorse for his sins, through his

wounded paternal affections, through his success and prosperity, that

one thought is the ruling power. He begins his career with it when he

opposed Goliath: "Thou comest to me with a sword, and with a spear,

and with a shield: but I come to thee in the name of the Lord of

hosts, the God of the armies of Israel." He closes his career with the

same thought, and, in the "last words" that are recorded, he charged

his son to keep the commandments of the Lord, that he might do wisely

all that he did.

We now come to another point in the Deer's character; namely, the

watchful care of the mother over her young. She always retires to some

secret place when she instinctively knows that the birth is at hand,

and she hides it from all eyes until it is able to take care of

itself. By some strange instinct, the little one, almost as soon as it

is born, is able to comprehend the signals of its mother, and there is

an instance, well known to naturalists, where, a newly-born Deer,

hardly an hour old, crouched low to the earth in obedience to a light

tap on its shoulder from its mother's hoof. She, with the intense

watchfulness of her kind, had seen a possible danger, and so warned

her young one to hide itself.

There is scarcely any animal so watchful as the female Deer, as all

hunters know by practical experience. It is comparatively easy to

deceive the stag who leads the herd, but to evade the eyes and ears of

the hinds is a very different business, and taxes all the resources of

a practised hunter. If they take such care of the herd in general, it

may be imagined that their watchfulness would be multiplied tenfold

when the object of their anxiety is their own young.

It is in allusion to this well-known characteristic that a passage in

the Book of Job refers: "Knowest thou the time when the wild goats of

the rock bring forth? or canst thou mark when the hinds do calve?"

(xxxix. 1.) A similar image is used in Psa. xxix. 9. After enumerating

the wonders that are done by the voice of the Lord, the thunders and

rain torrents, the devastating tempests, the forked lightning, and the

earthquake "that shaketh the wilderness of Kadesh," the Psalmist

proceeds: "The voice of the Lord maketh the hinds to calve, and

discovereth the forests,"--this being as mysterious to the writer as

the more conspicuous wonders which he had previously mentioned.

So familiar to the Hebrews was the watchful care which the female Deer

exercised over her young, that it forms the subject of a powerful

image in one of Jeremiah's mournful prophecies: "Yea, the hind also

calved in the field, and forsook it, because there was no grass."

(xiv. 5.) To those who understand the habits of the animal, this is a

most telling and picturesque image. In the first place, the Hind, a

wild animal that could find food where less active creatures would

starve, was reduced to such straits that she was obliged to remain in

the fields at the time when her young was born, instead of retiring to

some sheltered spot, according to her custom. And when it was born,

instead of nurturing it carefully, according to the natural maternal

instinct, she was forced from sheer hunger to abandon it in order to

find a sufficiency of food for herself.

That the Deer could be tamed, and its naturally affectionate

disposition cultivated, is evident from a passage in the Proverbs (v.

18, 19): "Let thy fountain be blessed: and rejoice with the wife of

thy youth. Let her be as the loving hind and pleasant roe."

[Illustration: THE RED DEER.

"Canst thou mark when the hinds do calve?"--JOB xxxix. 1.]

We might naturally expect that the Rabbinical writers would have

much to say on the subject of the Hart and Hind. Among much that

is irrelevant to the object of the present work there are a few

passages that deserve mention. Alluding to the annual shedding of

the Deer's horns, there is a proverb respecting one who ventures his

money too freely in trade, that "he has hung it on the stag's horns,"

meaning thereby that he will never see it again. It is remarkable that

in Western Africa there is a proverb of a similar character, the

imprudent merchant being told to look for his money in the place where

Deer shed their horns.

They firmly believed that goats and Deer associate freely with each

other, and that a mixed progeny was the result, but some of them

modify this statement by saying that this only holds good with the

smaller kinds of Deer, _i.e._ the gazelles and other antelopes. This

absurd notion has evidently taken its rise from the line of long

bristly hair that decorates the throat of the adult male, and which

these unscientific writers took to be derived from the beard of the

goat.

On account of its watchfulness it was said always to sleep with one

eye open, "which is well known to be the case with the hare." The

ancient Jews used to catch it with nets, and then domesticate it,

feeding it principally with a plant which has a very long and straight

root, which was used by Joshua as a wand of office when he pointed out

to the Israelites the portion of ground on which each tribe had to

encamp. What the plant might have been they cannot precisely

ascertain, and the looseness of their natural history may be imagined

from the fact that some consider the plant in question to be the ivy

and others the sugar-cane.

Some of the Deer, says these old writers, join the herds of cattle,

and even accompany them to their stalls for the night. The reason of

this gentleness of disposition seems to be found in the position of

the gall-bladder, which is said to be, not in the liver, but near the

tail. It is remarkable, by the way, that Aristotle places it actually

in the tail: "The Achaian harts have their gall in their tails;" while

Pliny thinks that the gall is placed in the ears.

The curious superstitions respecting the enmity between the Deer and

the serpent are of very old date, and have travelled all over the

world. They probably took their rise from the esoteric teachings

which were hidden under the symbolism of animal life, and were

transmitted from country to country and from age to age, after the

manner of superstitions generally. According to one form of the

superstition, the Deer can draw serpents out of their holes by

breathing into them, and then devour them; while, according to another

form, there is such an enmity between the Deer and the serpent, that

if even a portion of the Deer's horns be burned, all snakes that come

within its influence are driven away.

Topsell, in referring to this subject, although he feels himself bound

to believe the tradition, accounts for it in his own quaint fashion.

"A Hart by his nose draweth a Serpent out of her hole, and therefore

the grammarians derived _Elaphas_, or Hart, from _elaunein tous

opheis_, that is, of driving away serpents.

"I cannot consent to the opinion of _Ælianus_, that affirmeth the

Serpents to follow the breath of a Hart like some philter, or amorous

cup: for, seeing that all authors hold a hostility in natures betwixt

them, it is not probable that the Serpent loveth the breath of a beast

unto whose whole body he is an enemy with a perpetual antipathy. And

if any reply that the warm breath of an Hart is acceptable to the cold

Serpent, and that therefore she followeth it as a dog creepeth to the

fire, or as other beasts to the beams of the sun, I will not greatly

gainsay it, seeing by that means it is most clear that the breath doth

not by any secret force or vertue extract and draw her out of the den,

but rather the concomitant quality of heat, which is not from the

secret fire in the bones of the Hart's throat (as _Pliny_ hath

taught), but rather from her ordinary expiration, inspiration, and

respiration. For it cannot be, that seeing all the parts of a Serpent

are opposite to a Hart, that there should be any love to that which

killeth her.

"For my opinion, I think that the manner of the Hart's drawing the

Serpent out of her den is not, as _Ælianus_ and _Pliny_ affirmeth, by

sending into the cave a warm breath, which burneth and scorcheth the

beast out of her den, but rather, when the Hart hath found the

Serpent's nest, she draweth the air by secret and violent attraction

out from the Serpent, who, to save her life, followeth the air out of

her den. As where a vessel is broached or wrecked, the wine followeth

the flying air; and as a cupping-glass draweth blood out of a

scarified place of the body, so the Serpent is drawn unwillingly to

follow her destroyer, and not willingly, as _Ælianus_ affirmeth. The

Serpent being thus drawn forth, addeth greater force to her poyson,

whereupon the proverbial admonition did arise, 'Beware thou meet not

with a Serpent drawn out of her hole by the breath of a Hart, for at

that time, by reason of her wrath, her poyson is more vehement.' After

the self-same manner do the Sea-rams draw the Sea-calves hid in the

subterranean rocks, for by smelling they prevent the air that should

come into them for refrigeration."

In consequence of this antipathy, travellers were accustomed to wear

dresses made of deer-skin, because no serpent would dare to bite any

one who wore such armour. The timidity of the Deer was attributed by

these strange old authors to the great size of its heart, in which

they thought was a bone shaped like a cross.

At the beginning of this article, I mentioned that in one passage the

word which is translated as "Hart" is rendered differently in some

versions. This passage occurs in Lam. i. 6: "And from the daughter of

Zion all her beauty is departed: her princes are become like harts

that find no pasture, and they are gone without strength before the

pursuer." In some editions of the Hebrew Bible, the word Ayilim,

_i.e._ "rams," is used instead of Ayzalim, or "Harts," and this

reading is followed both by the Septuagint and the Vulgate. In two

editions of the Hebrew Bible, however, the word is Ayzalim; and, as

the Jewish Bible retains that reading, we cannot do wrong in accepting

it as the correct one.

THE CAMEL.