The Camel and its master--Occasional fury of the animal--A boy
killed by a Camel--Another instance of an infuriated
Camel--Theory respecting the Arab and his Camel--Apparent
stupidity of the Camel--Its hatred of a load, and mode of
expressing its disapprobation--Riding a Camel through the
streets--A narrow escape--Ceremony of weaning a young Camel--The
Camel's favourite food--Structure of the foot and adaptation to
locality--Difficulty in provisioning--Camel's hair and
skin--Sal-ammoniac and desert fuel--The Camel and the needle's
eye--Straining at a gnat and swallowing a Camel 233
THE BACTRIAN CAMEL.
General description of the animal--Its use in mountain
roads--Peculiar formation of the foot--Uses of a mixed
breed--Its power of enduring cold--Used chiefly as a beast of
draught--Unfitness for the plough--The cart and mode of
harnessing--The load which it can draw--Camel-skin ropes--A
Rabbinical legend 244
THE HORSE.
The Hebrew words which signify the Horse--The Horse introduced
into Palestine from Egypt--Similarity of the war-horse of
Scripture and the Arab horse of the present day--Characteristics
of the Horse--Courage and endurance of the Horse--Hardness of
its unshod hoofs--Love of the Arab for his Horse--Difficulty of
purchasing the animal--The Horse prohibited to the
Israelites--Solomon's disregard of the edict--The war-chariot,
its form and use--Probable construction of the iron chariot--The
cavalry Horse--Lack of personal interest in the animal 248
THE ASS.
Importance of the Ass in the East--Its general use for the
saddle--Riding the Ass not a mark of humility--The triumphal
entry--White Asses--Character of the Scriptural Ass--Saddling
the Ass--The Ass used in agriculture--The Ass's millstone--The
water-wheel and the plough--Reminiscences of the Ass in the
Scriptural narrative--Its value as property--The flesh of the
Ass--The siege of Samaria and its horrors--Various legends
respecting the Ass--The impostor and his fate--Samson and Balaam
264
THE WILD ASS.
The Arod and Pere of Scripture--Various allusions to the Wild
Ass--Its swiftness and wildness--The Wild Ass of Asia and
Africa--Knowledge of the animal displayed by the sacred
writers--How the Wild Ass is hunted--Excellence of its
flesh--Sir R. K. Porter's meeting with a Wild Ass--Origin of the
domestic Ass--The Wild Asses of Quito 279
THE MULE.
Ancient use of the Mule--Various breeds of Mule--Supposed date
of its introduction into Palestine--Mule-breeding forbidden to
the Jews--The Mule as a saddle-animal--Its use on occasions of
state--The king's Mule--Mules brought from Babylon after the
captivity--Obstinacy of the Mule--The Mule as a beast of
burden--The "Mule's burden" of earth--Mules imported by the
Phoenicians--Legends respecting the Mule 285
SWINE.
The Mosaic prohibition of the pig--Hatred of Swine by Jews and
Mahometans--A strange use of bacon--The prodigal son--Resistance
to the prosecution of Antiochus--Swine hated by the early
Egyptians--Supposed connexion between Swine and diseases of the
skin--Destruction of the herd of Swine--The locality of the
event discovered--Pigs bred for the monasteries--The jewel of
gold in a Swine's snout--The wild boar of the woods, and the
beast of the reeds--The damage which it does to the
vines--General account of the wild boar of Palestine--Excellence
of its flesh 292
THE ELEPHANT.
The Elephant indirectly mentioned in the Authorized
Version--Solomon's ivory throne--Ivory used in Egypt--Horns of
ivory--The ivory palaces--Beds of ivory--The Tyrian ships--Ivory
mentioned by Homer--Vessels of ivory--The Elephant as an engine
of war--Antiochus and his Elephants--Oriental
exaggeration--Self-devotion of Eleazar--Attacking the Elephants,
and their gradual abandonment in war--The Talmudical writers on
the Elephant--A funeral and an omen 302
THE CONEY, OR HYRAX.
The Shaphan of Scripture, and the correct meaning of the
word--Identification of the Shaphan with the Syrian
Hyrax--Description of the animal--Its feet, teeth, and apparent
rumination--Passages in which the Coney is mentioned--Habits of
the animal--Its activity and wariness--The South African Hyrax,
and its mode of life--Difficulty of procuring it--Similarity in
appearance and habits of the Syrian species--Three species of
Hyrax known to naturalists--The Talmudical writers on the
Shaphan--The jerboa and the rabbit--A curious speculation and a
judicious compromise 312
BEHEMOTH.
Literal translation of the word _Behemoth_--Various theories
respecting the identity of the animal--The Hippopotamus known to
the ancient Hebrews--Geographical range of the animal--"He
eateth grass like the ox"--Ravages of the Hippopotamus among the
crops--Structure of the mouth and teeth--The "sword or scythe"
of the Hippopotamus--Some strange theories--Haunts of the
Hippopotamus--The Egyptian hunter--A valuable painting--Strength
of the Hippopotamus--Rising of the Nile--Modern
hunters--Wariness of the Hippopotamus--The pitfall and the
drop-trap 318
BIRDS.
THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE.
Difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in
Scripture--The Vultures of Palestine--The Lämmergeier, or
Ossifrage of Scripture--The Hebrew word _Peres_, and its
signification--The Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker--Appearance of the
Lämmergeier--Its flight and mode of feeding--How the Lämmergeier
kills snakes and tortoises, and breaks marrow-bones--Mode of
destroying the chamois and mountain sheep--Nest of the
Lämmergeier 333
THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE.
The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian
Vulture--Its appearance on the Egyptian monuments--Signification
of the word _Râchâm_--Various translations of the word--The
shape, size, and colour of the bird--Its value as a scavenger,
and its general habits--The Egyptian Vultures and the
griffons--Its fondness for the society of man--Nest of the
Egyptian Vulture 339
THE GRIFFON VULTURE, OR EAGLE OF SCRIPTURE.
The Griffon Vulture identified with the Eagle of Scripture--The
word _Nesher_ and its signification--Geographical range of the
Griffon--Its mode of flight and sociable habits--The featherless
head and neck of the bird--The Vulture used as an image of
strength, swiftness, and rapacity--Its powers of sight--How
Vultures assemble round a carcase--Nesting-places of the
Griffon--Mr. Tristram's description of the Griffon--Rock caves
of the Wady Hamâm--Care of the young, and teaching them to
fly--Strength of the Griffon--Its emblematical use in Egypt and
Assyria--The god Nisroch--Noble aspect of the Griffon--Its
longevity--Various attitudes assumed by the bird 344
THE EAGLE.
Signification of the word _Asniych_--The Golden Eagle and its
habits--The Imperial Eagle--Its solitary mode of life--The
Short-toed Eagle common in Palestine--Its zoological
position--Food of the Short-toed Eagle--Its form and colour 354
THE OSPREY.
The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle--Its geographical range--Mode of
securing prey--Structure of its feet--Its power of balancing
itself in the air 356
THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE.
The word _Dayah_ and its signification--Dayah a collective term
for different species of Kites--The Common or Red Kite plentiful
in Palestine--Its piercing sight and habit of soaring--The Black
Kite of Palestine and its habits--The Egyptian Kite--The Raah or
Glede of Scripture--The Buzzards and their habits--The Peregrine
Falcon an inhabitant of Central Palestine, and the Lanner of the
eastern parts of the country 357
THE HAWK.
The Netz or Hawk--Number of species probably grouped under that
name--Rare occurrence of the word--The Sparrow-Hawk and its
general habits--Its place of nesting--The Kestrel, or
Wind-hover--Various names by which it is known in England--Its
mode of feeding and curious flight--The Hariers--Probable
derivation of the name--Species of Hariers known to inhabit
Palestine--Falconry apparently unknown to the ancient Jews 364
THE OWL.
The words which have been translated as "Owl"--The Côs, or
Little Owl--Use made of the Little Owl in bird-catching--Habits
of the bird--The Barn, Screech, or White Owl a native of
Palestine--The Yanshûph, or Egyptian Eagle Owl--Its food and
nest--The Lilith, or Night Monster--Various interpretations of
the word--The Kippoz probably identical with the Scops Owl, or
Marouf 37
THE NIGHT-HAWK.
Different interpretations of the word _Tachmâs_--Probability
that it signifies the Nightjar--Various names of the bird--Its
remarkable jarring cry, and wheeling flight--Mode of
feeding--Boldness of the bird--Deceptive appearance of its size
377
THE SWALLOW.
Identification of the smaller birds--Oriental indifference to
natural history--Use of collective terms--The
Swallow--Signification of the word _Deror_--The Bird of
Liberty--Swallows and Swifts--The Sunbirds and
Bee-eaters--Variety of small birds found in Palestine--The
Swallows of Palestine--Swallows protected by man in various
countries--Nesting of the Swallow--The Rufous Swallow and
Martin--The Sis or Swift--Various species of Swift inhabiting
the Holy Land--Talmudical notions of the Swift or Swallow--The
leper and his offering--The cooking pot and the sacrificial
vessel--Signification of the word _Tzippor-deror_ 381
THE HOOPOE, OR LAPWING OF SCRIPTURE.
The Dukiphath of Scripture--Various interpretations of the
word--The Hoopoe--Its beauty and ill reputation--The unpleasant
odour of its nest--Food of the Hoopoe--Its beautiful nest, and
remarkable gestures--A curious legend of Solomon and the Hoopoe
392
THE SPARROW.
Signification of the word _Tzippor_--The bird used for the
leper's sacrifice--The Sparrow upon the house-top--Architecture
of the East--Proclamation from the house-tops--The Blue Thrush,
its appearance and habits--Little birds exposed for sale in the
market--The two Sparrows sold for a farthing--Bird-catching--The
net, the snare, and the trap--The Sparrow that builds her nest
in the Temple--The Tree Sparrow--Various Sparrows that inhabit
Palestine--Birds kept in cages 395
THE CUCKOO.
The Cuckoo only twice mentioned in Scripture--Difficulty of
identifying the Shachaph--The common species, and the Great
Spotted Cuckoo--Depositing the egg--Conjectures respecting the
Shachaph--Etymology of the word--The various gulls, and other
sea-birds 405
THE DOVE.
Parallel between the lamb and the Dove--Derivation of the Hebrew
word _Yonâh_--The Dove and the olive branch--Abram's sacrifice,
and its acceptance--The sacrifice according to the law of
Moses--The Dove-sellers of the Temple--Talmudical zoology--The
story of Ilisch--The Dove and the raven--The Dove a type of
Israel--The Beni-yonâh, or Sons of Pigeons--Home-finding
instinct of the pigeon--The Oriental Dove-cotes--Voice of the
Dove--Its strength of wing--The Dove's dung of Samaria--Various
pigeons of Palestine--The Rock Dove and its multitudes--The Dove
and the Griffon--The Turtle Doves of Palestine, and their
appearance and habits 408
POULTRY.
Poultry plentiful in Palestine at the present day--The Domestic
Fowl unknown in the early times of Israel--The eating and
gathering of eggs--References to Poultry in the New
Testament--The egg and the scorpion--The fatted fowl of
Solomon--The hen brooding over her eggs--Poultry prohibited
within Jerusalem--The cock-crowing 421
THE PEACOCK.
The foreign curiosities imported by Solomon--The word _Tucciyim_
and its various interpretations--Identity of the word with the
Cingalese name of the Peacock--Reasons why the Peacock should
have been brought to Solomon--Its subsequent neglect and
extirpation 425
THE PARTRIDGE.
The word _Kore_ and its signification--The Partridge upon the
mountains--David's simile--The Desert Partridge and its
habits--Hunting the Partridge with sticks--Eggs of the
Partridge--A disputed reading, and probable signification of the
passage--Egg-hunting in Palestine--The various species of
Partridge--The Francolin and the Sand-grouse 426
THE QUAIL.
Signification of the word _Selâv_--Various passages in which the
word is mentioned--The locust, the stork, and the
sand-grouse--Spreading the birds around the camp--Migration of
the Quail--Drying the Quails for food--Modes of catching the
Quail in the East--The Quail-hunters of Northern
Africa--Quarrelsome nature of the bird--Quail-fighting in the
East--How the Quails were brought to the Israelites 430
THE RAVEN.
Signification of the word _Oreb_--The Haven tribe plentiful in
Palestine--The Raven and the dove--Elijah and the
Ravens--Various explanations of the circumstance--Feeding the
young Ravens--Luis of Grenada's sermon--The white Raven of
ancient times--An old legend--Reference to the blackness of the
Raven's plumage--Desert-loving habits of the Raven--Its mode of
attacking the eye--Notions of the old commentators--Ceremonial
use of the Raven--Return of the Ravens--Cunning of the
bird--Nesting-places of the Raven--The magpie and its
character--The starling--Its introduction into Palestine--The
Rabbi perplexed--Solution of the difficulty 439
THE OSTRICH.
Hebrew words designating the Ostrich--Description of the bird in
the Book of Job--Ancient use of Ostrich plumes--Supposed
heedlessness of eggs and young--Mode of depositing the
eggs--Hatching them in the sand--Natural enemies of the
Ostrich--Anecdote of Ostriches and their young--Alleged
stupidity of the Ostrich--Methods of hunting and snaring the
bird--The Ostrich in domestication--Speed of the Ostrich--The
flesh of the bird prohibited to the Jews--Ostrich eggs and their
uses--Food of the Ostrich--Mode of drinking--Cry of the Ostrich,
and reference made to it in Micah 450
THE BITTERN.
Signification of the word _Kippod_--The Bittern and its general
appearance--The bird of solitude--Difficulty of detecting the
Bittern in its haunts--Mudie's description of the Bittern and
its home--The strange cry of the bird--Superstitions connected
with it--The Night-raven--Nest of the Bittern--Scarcity of the
bird at the present day--Food of the Bittern--The bird formerly
brought to table 462
THE HERON.
The Heron mentioned as an unclean bird--The Heron used for food
in England, and considered as a delicacy--Sociable character of
the bird, and its mode of feeding--Its enormous appetite--How
the Heron fights--Ancient falconry--Nesting of the Heron--The
papyrus marshes and their dangers--Description of the
papyrus--Vessels of bulrushes--The Egret and its beautiful
plumage--Uses of the train feathers 468
THE CRANE.
Various passages in which the Crane is mentioned--Its migratory
habits and loud voice--Geographical range of the Crane--The bird
once plentiful in the fen districts of England--Its favourite
roosting-places--Size of the Crane, and measurement of the
wings--The Crane once used as food--Plumes of the Crane and
their use--Structure of the vocal organs--Nest and eggs of the
Crane. 474
THE STORK.
Signification of the Hebrew word _Chasidah_--Various passages in
which it is mentioned--The Chasidah therefore a large,
wide-winged, migratory bird--Its identification with the
Stork--Derivation of its Hebrew name--The Stork always
protected--Uses of the tail--Its mode of quartering the ground
in search of food--Migratory habits of the Stork--Nesting of the
bird, and its favourite localities--The fir-trees of
Palestine--Love of the Stork for its young 478
THE SWAN.
Signification of the word _Tinshemeth_--The Gallinule and the
Ibis--Appearance and habits of the Hyacinthine Gallinule--A
strange use for the bird--The White or Sacred Ibis--The bird
mentioned by Herodotus--The Glossy Ibis, or Black
Ibis--Veneration with which the bird was regarded 485
THE CORMORANT.
The word _Shâlâk_ and its signification--The Greek
Catarrhactes--Habits of the Cormorant--The bird trained to catch
fish--Mode of securing its prey--Nests and eggs of the
Cormorant--Nesting in fir-trees--Flesh of the bird 490
THE PELICAN.
The Pelican of the wilderness--Attitudes of the bird--Its love
of solitude--Derivation of the Hebrew word--Fantastic
interpretation--Mode of feeding the young--Fables regarding the
Pelican--Breeding-places of the bird--The object of its wide
wings and large pouch--Colour of the Pelican 495
REPTILES.
THE TORTOISE.
Reptiles in general--Looseness of the term "creeping
things"--The Tzab of the Scriptures, translated as
Tortoise--Flesh and eggs of the Tortoise--Its slow
movements--Hibernation dependent on temperature--The
Water-Tortoises--Their food and voracity--Their eggs--Their
odour terrifying the horses--The Dhubb lizard and its
legends--Its armed tail, and the use made of it--Its food, and
localities which it prefers 505
THE LEVIATHAN, OR CROCODILE.
Signification of the word _Leviathan_--Description in the Book
of Job--Structure and general habits of the Crocodile--The
throat-valve and its use--Position of the nostrils--Worship of
the Crocodile--The reptile known in the Holy Land--Two legends
respecting its presence there--Mode of taking prey--Cunning of
the Crocodile--The baboons and the Crocodile--Speed of the
reptile--Eggs and young of the Crocodile, and their
enemies--Curious story of the ichneumon and ibis--Modes of
capturing the Crocodile--Analysis of Job's description--The
Crocodile also signified by the word _Tannin_. Aaron's rod
changed into a Tannin--Various passages in which the word
occurs--Use of the word by the Prophet Jeremiah 514
THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD.
Difficulty of identifying the Letââh--Probability that it is a
collective and not a specific term--Various Lizards of
Palestine--The Green or Jersey Lizard--The Cyprius, its
appearance and habits--The Glass Snake or
Scheltopusic--Translation of the word _Chomet_--Probability that
it signifies the Skink--Medicinal uses of the Lizard--The Seps
tribe--The common Cicigna, and the popular belief concerning its
habits--The Sphænops and its shallow tunnel 529
THE CHAMELEON, MONITOR, AND GECKO.
Translation of the word _Koach_--Signification of the word, and
its applicability to the Chameleon--Power of the reptile's
grasp--The prehensile tail--Demeanour of the Chameleon on the
ground--The independent eyes--Its frequent change of
colour--Mode of taking prey--Strange notions respecting the
Chameleon--The Monitor, or Land Crocodile--Its habits and use to
mankind--The Nilotic Monitor, and its habit of destroying the
eggs and young of the Crocodile--The Gecko or Ferret of
Scripture 534
SERPENTS.
Serpents in general--Signification of the Hebrew word
_Nachash_--Various passages in which the Nachash is
mentioned--The fiery Serpents of the wilderness--Explanation of
the words "flying" and "fiery" as applied to Serpents--Haunts of
the Serpent--The Cobra, or Asp of Scripture--Meaning of the word
_Pethen_--The deaf Adder that stoppeth her ear--Serpent-charming
in the East--Principle on which the charmers work--Sluggishness
of the Serpent nature--Ceremony of initiation into
Serpent-charming--Theories respecting the deaf Adder--Luis of
Grenada's sermon--The Cerastes, or Horned Serpent--Appearance
and habits of the reptile--The "Adder in the path" 540
THE VIPER, OR EPHEH.
Passages in which the word _Epheh_ occurs--El-effah--The Sand
Viper, or Toxicon--Its appearance and habits--The
Acshub--Adder's poison--The Spuugh-Slange--The Cockatrice, or
Tsepha--The Yellow Viper--Ancient ideas concerning the
Cockatrice--Power of its venom 552
THE FROG.
The Frog only mentioned in the Old Testament as connected with
the plagues of Egypt--The severity of this plague explained--The
Frog detestable to the Egyptians--The Edible Frog and its
numbers--Description of the Species. 557
FISHES.