substantial talus both within and without the walls, added to the
precaution of leaving vents for the free discharge of the springs, or
the super-abundant fluid, into the tank, would most assuredly counteract
so destructive a weakness as now generally exists. I cannot call to
mind, at this time, any very old masonry that has not succombed thereto,
excepting the great _bund_, or dyke, at Juanpore; which, according to
tradition, was built about fifteen hundred years ago, and having been
made of a very obdurate kind of _kunkur_, found in those parts, blended
with excellent lime, probably burnt from the same stones, appears now a
complete mass of rock, capable of resisting the ravages of all time to
come. This _bund_, which bears all the venerable marks of antiquity, was
originally thrown up to limit the Goomty; a fine river that rises in the
Peelabeet country, and, washing Lucknow, the capital of Oude, passes
through the city of Juanpore under a very lofty bridge, built on strong
piers, terminating in gothic arches. The want of due breadth in the
arches occasions the waters to rise during the rainy season to an
immense height, creating a fall of which that at London Bridge, at its
worst, is indeed but a poor epitome! The distance between the top of the
bridge and the water below it, in the dry season, is something less than
sixty feet; yet it is on record, and in the memory of many inhabitants
of Juanpore, that the river has been so full as to run over the bridge,
which is flat from one end to the other, lying level between two high
banks, distant about three hundred and twenty yards.
Formerly, when the waters were high, they used, according to the
tradition alluded to, to over-run the country on the left bank; forming
an immense inundation throughout the country lying east of Juanpore, and
extending down towards the fertile plains of Gazypore. The hollow, or
low land, by which they penetrated, was about two miles in width;
therefore the _bund_ was built to a suitable extent: it is now about two
miles and a half long; in most parts, about thirty feet broad at the
top, and double that width at the base. Its height varies from ten to
twenty feet. The record states it to have proved effectual in resisting
the inundation, which, however, on account of the _bund_ being at right
angles with the river, so as to occupy a favorable position, and cut off
the torrent, continued to flow annually as far as its base. In time, the
sediment deposited by the water thus rendered stagnant, filled up the
hollow, raising its surface as high as the other parts of the river’s
boundary, and creating a soil peculiarly valuable, now chiefly occupied
by indigo planters. The insalubrity occasioned by the many swamps left
by the inundation, was at the same time averted, and the dread
entertained that the Goomty would, in time, force a new channel for the
entire body of its stream, removed. Large tracts, before of little
value, acquired a deep staple of soil, which, at this date, yields
sugar, indigo, wheat, barley, &c., in abundance and perfection.
The rage for digging tanks, has, I apprehend, in a certain measure,
subsided; for we find little of that very absurd ostentation now
prevalent, which must have actuated to such immense works, rendered
useless by their too great number, or carried to an excess in regard to
their measurement. It would be, perhaps, difficult to ascribe to any
other motive than that of unparalleled vanity, why a man should have dug
near seventy tanks, all nearly contiguous, on a plain not many miles
distant from the military station of Burragong, in the district of
Sircar Sarung, situate between the Gunduc and the Gogra. The population
did not require more than one tank; especially as a stream of tolerably
good water passes within a few hundred yards of the site of these
offsprings of ostentation. The inhabitants tell various stories as to
the person who lavished his money in this empty manner; and, (which
would, no doubt, vex the real prodigal to his very heart,) the modern
narrators differ widely even as to the name and rank of the individual!
With respect to _seraies_, we may, at least, praise the convenience they
afford, without bestowing much admiration on the charity of their
founders. Some of these are very extensive, covering, perhaps, six or
eight acres. They generally consist of a quadrangle, built across the
road, which passes under two lofty arched gateways, having battlements,
or turrets, over them. The gates open to an extent sufficient to allow
any laden elephant, however stupendous, to pass freely. They are made of
strong wood, well bound with iron, and studded with iron spikes, of
which the points are on the outside; for the purpose of preventing
elephants from forcing them by pressure. The surrounding walls of the
quadrangle are generally about fourteen feet in height, and from two to
four in thickness, according either to the antiquity of the building, or
to the parsimony of the builder. They are lined all around with a shed,
built on pillars, and divided by mats, &c., into various apartments, all
sheltered from the sun and rain by means of doors, &c., of bamboos,
mats, grass, &c., as the country may afford; or, eventually, a part is
built up with thin brick, or with mud.
In the central parts of the _seray_ there are generally some shops,
ranged on each side of the road, and one building appropriated to the
_cutwal_, or superintendant of the place; whose office is, properly, to
regulate all matters, and to see that travellers are duty accommodated;
that the _bytearahs_, or cooks, dress their victuals, and that the
_chokey-dars_ take due charge of the goods consigned to their care. All
this, however, is done in a slovenly way; the greatest impositions are
often practised; and the itinerant journies on from one scene of
thievish combination to another.
Although a _seray_ may be built near to a river, or to some sufficient
stream, yet there is invariably a well, ordinarily lined with circular
tiles, or masonry, in the area. The water is drawn from such wells, for
the most part, by means of a truck-pulley, suspended between the limbs
of a forked bough cut for the purpose, and having a wooden pin through
it as an axle. Each person draws his own water, and for that purpose
carries a line, generally about twenty feet long. Few indeed travel,
even on foot, without a _lootah_, or brass water-vessel; of which there
are various sizes, from a pint, to half a gallon; a _tully_, or flat
brass plate, with a border about an inch high, nearly perpendicular; and
a _cuttorah_, or metal cup. Some even carry their _daikçhees_, or metal
boilers; though, in general, they purchase for a farthing, or, at the
utmost, for a halfpenny, a new earthen pot, capable of holding perhaps
three quarts, or a gallon, with a lid of the same, in which, if they do
not intend to employ the people of the _seray_, they dress their own
victuals; leaving the crockery, which no one else will use, it being
considered as polluted.
The water of wells in the _seraies_, or in populous towns, is certainly
far fresher and better than is to be had, in general, from small rivers.
But much will depend on the soil, the lining of the well, its depth,
and, indeed, on its width. A quick draught necessarily insures a
plentiful flow, and prevents corruption from any impurity that may
casually fall in from above. At a certain depth there is usually found a
stratum of sand; this is remarkably fine, and, in some places, retains
such a large portion of fluid as to become a perfect quicksand. In many
parts, and especially in the Ramghur district, which, on an average, may
be a thousand feet or more above the level country, this sub-stratum
presents a most serious difficulty in the sinking of wells.
Of this I experienced two instances in my own practice, which gave me
much trouble. Having to sink a well in the corner of a garden, and
wishing to avoid the expence and delay attendant on masonry, I cut a
square shaft, and went on admirably until I came to a tremulous body of
sand. Never having met with a quicksand at such a depth, then about
twenty-four feet from the surface, and on so elevated a table land,
there being no hills nearer than two miles, and those being separated by
deep vallies, in which were running streams, I was somewhat
disconcerted. I felt the whole of the difficulty, but necessity urged me
to proceed. The well was to be lined with logs of about seven feet long,
and about eight inches diameter; they were notched at each end, so that
two, being placed parallel at five feet distance, and two others being
laid over their ends, the four made a quadrangle, which, by means of the
notches, came nearly to a level, and locked very firmly into each other.
Having prepared abundance of these logs, I commenced my operations, by
affixing a pulley over the well for the purpose of lowering them down to
a laborer who stood on a board slung from four stakes at the brink of
the shaft; for he could not stand on the sand, which, when the surface
was broken, instantly became loose and liquid. The four first logs were
scarcely placed before their own weight began to sink them, scarcely
allowing time to put on four others before they disappeared. I perceived
my error, and immediately had the other logs all wrapped round with
straw-rope of about an inch in diameter; whereby they became more
buoyant, and resisted the liquescence of the sand more powerfully, by
their encrease of diameter. As a foundation, I pinned the four first,
forming the primary layer, strongly at their several corners; so that
they made a fixed frame. The work now went on merrily, but it was with
the utmost difficulty I could supply the logs fast enough, the sand
removed by their admission rose so very rapidly. Being determined to
overcome the difficulty, I let down full twenty rounds of logs, equal to
about seventeen feet, when I had the pleasure to see no more would sink:
the sand was excavated, and I found, that, although in one or two places
intervals of two or three inches had taken place, yet, on the whole, I
was able to boast of better success than I expected. By degrees, I got
the logs settled in their places, (a work of serious labor,) and always
had water enough for every culinary purpose, but not for a large garden,
which required ample irrigation daily during the hot season; further, a
quantity was indispensably requisite for wetting the _tatties_, or
frames applied during that season to the doors and windows, to keep my
house cool.
My well appeared full of water up to the top of the quicksand, but it
was a perfect deception: the sand filled up the shaft in the course of
three or four days, though emptied to the very bottom, which was a hard
red clay.
Finding that more expence was incurred by the perpetual necessity for
sending men down to empty out the sand, I resolved to adopt the old
custom of lining the well with masonry; and having got all clear to the
bed of clay, into which I sunk a stout frame, near a foot and a half
deep, I went on with spirit for a whole day, in which near two yards of
wall were built up: but, during the night, the balers went to sleep, and
I found the whole immersed in the morning. As the sand and water were
emptied, the draft was so great as to wash the lime from between the
bricks, and I was compelled to take all out again. It then occurred to
me to have bricks made in the form of the frustum of a pyramid, so as to
fit exactly in a circle of two feet and a half in diameter internally,
and of four feet externally. These were laid on the frame, which I now
buried a full yard in the clay: between the bricks I put abundance of
dry lime, rubbing them close together, and, with the clay, all the
interval between the masonry and the wooden frame was filled up. Two
workmen were employed all night; one in the well, who ladled the water
from the four corners into a bucket, which the other raised to the
surface: none worthy of notice got within the circular masonry, and I
had the satisfaction, in about a week, to see the whole completed.
Sufficient water found its way through the crevices, to keep me
supplied, and the sand gave so little trouble, that, during a whole year
that I occupied the premises, no clearance was necessary.
This digression may appear irrelevant to the subject; but I could not
forbear giving the fact a place here, as it possibly may prove an useful
guide to others who may be under similar disadvantages. It is curious,
that a very large well, of about twelve feet diameter, was commenced at
the same time by a brother officer, within a hundred yards of mine,
which went on admirably, and was finished in a very short time. He had
no quicksand opposed to his labors; on the contrary, his great
difficulty lay in cutting through two strata of rock, from which only a
few dribblets appeared while the well was lining with masonry; but, so
soon as the rainy season set in, those rocks prevented the descent of
the moisture, which, being by them directed to the well, rushed in such
a violent manner against the masonry, as to force out many stones:
creating a fissure which, in a few weeks, proved fatal to the whole of
the work. A handsome well, with a rich spring issuing from a gravelly
bottom, was thus ruined, and the station was again subjected to much
inconvenience for what we often had in too liberal abundance.
The natives throughout India have a great respect for such persons as
plant _mango topes_ (or woods). These are, in general, managed with
great care, the trees being set at regular distances each way, forming
parallel vistas both lengthwise and breadthwise: the width of which are
equal each way, and varying from twenty to forty feet. When first
planted, they are well enclosed with a ditch and bank, sufficient to
prevent cattle from doing mischief to the young trees, which are also
watered at intervals during the dry season, generally through the means
of a well, dug at the expence of the planter on one side of the _tope_.
If the proprietor be rich, the well is usually large, lined with
masonry, and furnished with cisterns of the same, or of hewn stone, so
that cattle may be refreshed in numbers; two pillars of masonry, or of
substantial wood, are erected; each supporting the end of a timber,
stretching across the well at about five feet above the brink. On this
timber, a shieve of wood is fixed, with one or more grooves for the
reception of the cord used in drawing water.
The first-fruits of plantations are, with few exceptions, considered as
appertaining to the tutelary deity of the planter, and are tendered to
him as offerings on the part of the _tope_. The priests who officiate on
these august occasions, commonly find means to save the sacred character
of their invisible patron from any suspicion of gluttony, by taking upon
themselves the troublesome office of proxy, on this and every occasion
wherein mastication is needful.
On many of the great roads, such as that leading from Benares to the
upper stations, we find very large wells, conveniently situated near
some shelter, though, perhaps, distant from any town: occasionally, a
hut or two may be erected in the vicinity, for the residence of a
_bunneah_, (or kind of chandler,) or for a vender of spirits. Some of
these wells are furnished with various sets of pillars and shieves, very
substantial in their construction; so as to bear the weight of a leather
bag, formed by stitching the edges of a whole hide, trimmed of its
superfluous angles, &c., to an iron hoop of about a foot and a half in
diameter: by means of two arched irons, rivetted at their crossing in
the middle by a swivel and loop, the bag, or _moot_, is managed in the
same way as a bucket in Europe. Many of these _moots_ are capable of
containing, at least, half a hogshead. They retain the water more
steadily in ascending, than any vessel whose sides are fixed and firm;
and, as they are drawn into a cistern, or over a bed made hollow for
their reception, above the brink of the well, no great exertion is
required in emptying them; the waters discharging voluntarily when the
_moot_ is suffered, by the slackening of the rope, to touch the bottom
of the bed, or cistern.
It may reasonably be inferred, that such a weight of water as may be
contained in an ordinary ox or cow hide, though of small growth, must be
more than manual strength could well manage; especially as the pulley is
extremely small, rarely more than six or seven inches in diameter,
nearly as much in width, and moving on a rude piece of wood for an axis;
of which, probably, nearly half has been lost by the excessive friction
so unfinished, and ill proportioned, a piece of machinery must occasion.
Not one in a thousand ever is lubricated, but the hole in the shieve is
generally adequate to the admission of an axis treble the size of that
in use; whence the pulley must jump from one inequality to another;
creating, at every such transition, a check of some consequence to that
power whence it derives its motion.
To draw water by means of the _moot_, two men and a pair oxen are
requisite: the size of the _moot_ being proportioned to the bulk of the
cattle, which are yoked in the ordinary manner, drawing by means of the
rope fastened round the centre of the yoke, and passing between them.
The strength of the oxen is aided very considerably, by the path they
follow being on a declivity; so that, in proceeding from the well, as
they draw up the _moot_, they descend a talus, or slope, of which the
angle may vary from fifteen to twenty-five degrees: the driver
frequently seats himself on the yoke, to encrease the weight acting in
opposition to the _moot_.
The quantity of earth derived from the shaft of the well, rarely
suffices to give the talus sufficient slope, therefore, one half the
length of the bullock’s track (which is regulated by the length of the
rope, and may usually measure about twenty-five yards) is sunk in the
ground, and the height near the well raised with the proceeds of the
excavation. This ensures a sufficient addition to the energies of the
cattle in descending: which they do with great effect, when goaded by
the driver. Arriving at the bottom of the slope, or when the _moot_ is
raised above the surface of the well, the cattle stop, and the man in
attendance at the brink draws the _moot_ over the bed, or cistern, which
is made to project over about one-third of the well.
Some of the wells seen at the sides of the great roads, measure fifteen
or sixteen feet in diameter, and have slopes cut out of the soil, lined
on each side with masonry, that lead to an opening in the well’s
circumference, near to the ordinary level of the water; which, in the
dry season, is generally within very narrow limits. Near the opening, we
sometimes see an iron ladle fastened by means of a chain. This
convenience is, for the most part, held sacred, and he would, in those
parts, be considered a consummate villain, that would pilfer one from
its place of security. But, from many obvious marks of violence, we must
suppose that there are men so depraved as to steal these chains and
ladles, when necessity may press them to take advantage of a fair
opportunity.
We should naturally conclude, that wells founded on such a principle, in
a climate where excessive heats prevail for three months, at least,
would be invaluable. But they really are little used; their surfaces
are, in general, covered with duck-weed, and they rarely are deficient
of an ample colony of frogs. Where huts are built near them, their
waters being rather less stagnant, are, of course, more wholesome, as
well as more palatable: the encampment of a regiment in their
neighbourhood soon sweetens them.
Some are rendered foul by their containing fish. It would be difficult
to account for fish being there, unless they fall with the heavy showers
attendant upon those violent squalls called north-westers, during the
hot season, when multitudes of small fry have been occasionally found,
even on the tops of houses, in various parts of the country. Some assert
that many have been found alive: I have seen some lying dead; once, in
particular, near Allahabad, after a very heavy shower of rain. It does
not appear possible, that, even if sucked up by a water-spout, and
immediately returned with the rain, they could survive the rapidity of
the ascent, and the force with which they fall.
It is remarkable, that only three kinds of fish are ever seen in wells;
viz. the _solee_, which, in a great measure, resembles our _pike_, and
is equally ravenous; the _gurrye_, or mud-fish, very similar in form to
our _miller’s thumb_; and the _singnee_, or bayonet-fish, so called from
its having three terrible spines in its dorsal and lateral fins, the
wounds made by which are, generally, very severe. This fish has a
purplish skin, without scales, is thin like a substantial pork knife,
and has a broad flat head. Like the _gurrye_, it is found only among mud
and slime, wherein it works very nimbly. Both species can live a long
while in moist mud; as is proved by their being found in recent puddles,
where water had formerly been dried up. It is remarkable, that both the
_gurrye_ and the _singnee_ are very sweet eating, and are never muddy;
the latter in particular.
If we except those small streams that come down from mountains
containing ores, which must, of course, impregnate the waters in those
parts, the catalogue of mineral springs, as yet discovered in Bengal,
and the subordinate stations under that presidency, will be found very
confined indeed. Possibly, numbers may exist that are not generally
known; and this I am the more apt to believe, from having myself
discovered one within a few yards of the road on the west bank of the
Mahana, a small river which rises among the hills near the
Catcumsandy-pass in the Ramghur district. The river being much swelled
by heavy rains, I was compelled to wait until it subsided sufficiently
to admit of my being conveyed over on a raft made of pots.
The mineral water above mentioned would, very probably, have escaped my
notice, had I not been attracted by a nauseous smell, and the black
greasy appearance of the soil whence it issued. The flavor was soapy,
but strongly sulphuric; and a slight scum, which appeared to rise with
the spring, was peculiarly acrid. I do not believe it was ever analyzed,
but should conjecture it to have proceeded from a bed composed of
sulphur and bitumen; especially as coals are found within that district.
There is a very remarkable hot-spring at a place call _Seetah-Coon_,
within three miles of the fort of _Monghyr_. This, it appears, has been
known for ages, it is about twelve or fourteen feet square, and may be
from seven to eight feet deep in the middle: that, however, must be
taken as a computation; the sides being of masonry, shelving in greatly,
and the bottom not remarkably clear of weeds, &c. The water is very hot:
it was with great difficulty I could keep my finger immersed during the
time I counted one hundred and five; and that, too, rather hastily, it
being for a wager. My finger, far from being the better for my
curiosity, was slightly blistered. I have seen an egg moderately poached
at this spring, and have heard that one was boiled in it; but, I
apprehend, not to any degree of firmness.
The most complete proof that a large portion of caloric is contained in
this spring, may be collected from the melancholy fact, of an artillery
soldier, who, in the year 1777, attempting to swim across, was scalded
in such a manner as to expire shortly after being taken out.
The natives, who judge by appearances, and, probably, are guided in this
particular from the encreased quantity of vapour that appears during the
winter to rise from the spring, affirm, that the water is then
considerably hotter than at any other season. The fallacy of such an
opinion is easily detected, and has, indeed, been proved: several
gentlemen have been at the trouble of keeping a register of its daily
variations, which were found to be extremely small. I could not assert
myself to be correct in stating its average degree of heat, having
mislaid my memoranda on that head; but, to the best of my memory, the
temperature lay between 140° and 160° of Fahrenheit.
This well, of which the waters are considered remarkably wholesome,
stands on the borders of a small plantation of (I believe mango) trees;
near to three or four other wells, of which the waters are cold, and
have not any distinguishing quality. The redundant water from the hot
well affords a stream, whose section may be equal to thirty square
inches; it passes into a large marsh, of at least twenty acres, close to
the plantation, where it nourishes a great variety of aquatic plants,
that appear to grow with more than ordinary vigor.