Among the Germans, as among all other nations, the earliest literature
is poetical. Little is preserved of their ancient poetry, but Tacitus
tells us that the Germans of his time had ancient songs relating to
Tuisco and Mannus, and to the hero Arminius. It is the opinion of many
critics that the stories of “Reynard, the Fox,” and “Isengrim, the
Wolf,” may be traced back to these remote times. The legends of the
“Nibelungenlied” have many marks of antiquity which would place them in
this pre-historic age. The first definite period, however, is:
I. THE EARLY MIDDLE AGE.—When the German tribes accepted Christianity,
the clergy strove to replace the native poetry by the stories of the
gospel. In the fourth century Bishop Ulfilas prepared a clear, faithful
and simple translation of the Scriptures, which has since been of value
in the study of the Teutonic languages. Charles the Great overpowered
the effort the priests had made to check poetry by issuing orders to
collect the old German ballads. But few of these treasures of Old High
and Low German literature have come down to us. Later the Church still
further counteracted the influences of pagan literature by a religious
poetry in which the life of Christ was sung in verse. Scholastic
learning was also zealously cultivated in the monasteries and schools.
II. THE AGE OF CHIVALRY.—Under the Hohenstaufen dynasty during the
period of Middle High German the country passed through one of the
greatest epochs of its literature. The most characteristic outcome
of this active era is a series of poetical romances produced in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In these romances the subject of
whatever epoch it might be, was treated wholly in the spirit of
chivalry, the supreme aim was to furnish an idealized picture of the
virtues of knighthood. Wolfram von Eschenbach was one of the most
brilliant of these writers; “Parzival,” his chief poem, is purely
imaginative. The hero is made to pass from a life of dreams to one of
adventure, finally to become lord of the palace of the Holy Grail.
Its object is to show the restless spirit of the Middle Ages, which,
continually discontent with life, sought a nobler place.
Gottfried, of Strasburg, was a complete contrast to Wolfram and his
greatest contemporary. Tristam and Iseult is his theme. Mediæval
romance bore its richest fruit in these two poets, and most of their
successors imitated either one or the other. To this age belongs the
famous epic, the “Nibelungenlied,” in which many ancient ballads have
been collected and arranged. “Gudrun” is another epic in which a poet
of this period has given form to several old legends. But lyrics as
well as romances and epics mark the age of chivalry. The poets of this
class were known as _minnesänger_ because their favorite theme was
_minne_ or love. Of all the _minnesänger_ the first place belongs to
Walther von der Vogelweide. He wrote poems of patriotism as well as on
the usual subjects of lyric verse.
To this epoch belong the beginnings of prose in German literature.
Latin was the speech of scholars, and prose works were almost uniformly
in that language. The “Sachenspiegel” and “Schwabenspiegel,” two
collections of local laws, aroused interest among Germans in their
language. The preachers, however, were the chief founders of prose
style. Dissatisfied with the abuses and mere forms under which genuine
spiritual life was crushed, they strove to awaken new and truer ideas
of religion. A Franciscan monk, Berthold, and Eckhart are the two to
whom most is due.
III. THE LATER MIDDLE AGE.—After the fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty,
chivalry died out in Germany, and with it the incentive to poetry.
During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, attempts were made to
produce poetry by rule. As every trade has its guild, so there was
formed a guild of poetry, in which the members made their verses by the
“_tabulatur_,” and were obliged to pass through successive stages up
to the “_meistersänger_.” More important were the efforts at dramatic
composition. They were crude representations of scriptural subjects,
with which the clergy sought to replace the pagan festivals. Out of
these representations grew the “mysteries,” or “miracle plays,” in
which there was an endeavor to dramatize sacred subjects. “Shrove
Tuesday plays” were dialogues, setting forth some scene of noisy fun,
and were the first attempts at comedy.
During the latter part of the fifteenth century there was in Germany,
as in other European countries, a great revival of intellectual life.
It was due to two things—the re-discovery of Greek literature and the
invention of printing. In the universities a broader culture took the
place of scholastic studies. Many books found their way to the people,
but these were mainly on social questions. The tyranny of princes and
abuses of the clergy were the topics for the times, and multitudes of
books were written ridiculing princes, priests, nobles, and even the
Pope. The greatest of these satires was “Reineke Vos,” by Barkhusen,
a printer of Rostock. During this stirring period Maximilian I. was
emperor, and attempted to revive the mediæval romance. His success was
not great, and in no sense affected popular taste.
IV. THE CENTURY OF THE REFORMATION.—While the Renaissance brought
about a great literary movement in England and France, and an artistic
movement in Italy, in Germany the Reformation agitated the nation.
Luther was the commanding spirit of the age in literature, as in
religion. His greatest achievement was his translation of the Bible.
For the first time a literary language was given to the nation. Luther
gave to the men of all the countries of Germany a common speech, so
that it is to him that the Germans owe the most essential of all the
conditions of a national life and literature. Next to Luther stands
Ulrich Von Hutten, an accomplished defender of the new culture and of
the Reformation. Hans Sachs, the meistersänger of Nuremburg, is now
acknowledged to be the chief German poet of the sixteenth century. He
wrote more than six thousand poems. His hymn, “Warum betrübst du dich,
mein Herz,” was soon translated into eight languages. The religious
lyrics of this age were of superior worth. Indeed, next to the
translation of the Bible, nothing did so much to unite the Protestants.
During this century the drama made considerable progress.
V. THE PERIOD OF DECAY.—This period is in many respects the most
dismal in German history. During the seventeenth century little poetry
of worth was produced. No progress was made in the formation of the
drama, and few prose works were written that are now tolerated. The one
brilliant thinker of the age was Leibnitz.
VI. THE PERIOD OF REVIVAL.—With the accession of Frederick the Great,
a stronger national life sprung up in Germany, and literature shared
the growth. Several causes contributed to the advance of literature;
the revival of classical learning, and a knowledge of English
literature were chief. Several literary schools grew up. Important
as were many of the writers in them, they exercised slight influence
on the national mind compared with founders of the German classical
literature—Klopstock, Wieland, and Lessing. Klopstock’s fame mainly
rests on the “Messiah,” a work now little read, and if defective, yet
full of striking and beautiful images. Klopstock’s odes are superior to
his dramas, the latter showing knowledge neither of the stage nor of
life. His influence upon intellectual life in Germany was very marked.
Wieland was one of the most prolific of writers. “Oberon” is the most
pleasing of his poems to modern readers, and by far most famous.
“Agathon” is his best prose romance. Although at first a strong
pietist, Wieland eventually became a pronounced epicurean. Lessing,
the third of these great poets, is the only writer before Goethe that
Germans now read sympathetically. As an imaginative writer he was
chiefly distinguished in the drama, and his most important dramatic
work is “Minna Von Barnhelm.” Superior to his imaginative works were
his labors as a thinker. His style ranks with the greatest European
writers, and his criticisms are of great value.
VII. THE CLASSICAL PERIOD.—About 1770 there began in German literary
life a curious movement called “_Sturm und Drang_” (storm and
pressure). Almost all young writers were under its influence. Its most
prominent quality was discontent with the existing world. The critical
guide of the movement was Herder. To him is due the impulse which
led to a collection of the songs and ballads of the people. His most
important prose work was “Ideas Toward the Philosophy of the History
of Humanity.” To Herder belongs the honor of stimulating the genius
of Goethe, who holds in German literature the place of Shakspere in
English. His extraordinary range of activity is his most wonderful
characteristic. Goethe’s first published work placed him among the
writers of the “_Sturm und Drang_” school, as was true of the earlier
works of Schiller. The lyrics of Goethe have perhaps the most subtle
charm of all his writings, but “Hermann und Dorothea,” “Wilhelm
Meister,” “Faust,” etc., are his great productions. Schiller, Goethe’s
great rival, divided with him the public attention and interest.
Schiller’s literary career began when he was only twenty-two. “The
Robbers” and “Don Carlos” are his principal early works. It was in 1794
that Goethe and Schiller began that acquaintance which ripened into
one of the most beautiful friendships in the history of literature.
They wrote in common on Schiller’s journal “Die Horen,” and many of
Schiller’s works were influenced by the larger life of his friend. This
is particularly true of his dramas, “Wallenstein,” “Die Jungfrau von
Orleans,” “Maria Stuart,” and “Wilhelm Tell.”
In 1781 one of the most important works of German literature was
published—Kant’s “Kritik der Reinen Vernunft.” The philosophical
systems of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel followed, and excited even
greater interest than the writings of the imaginative writers.
Each of the leading writers of the classical period had numerous
followers, but the most important band was that which at first grew up
around Goethe—the romantic school. The aim of the school was to revive
mediævalism—to link daily life to poetry. The writer known as the
prophet of the school was Frederick von Hardenburg, generally called
Novalis. The critical leaders were Wilhelm and Friedrich von Schlegel.
Tieck, Nackenroder, Fouquè, and Schleiermacher were the chief writers.
VIII. THE LATEST PERIOD.—In 1832, with the death of Goethe, a new
era began in German literature. In philosophy the school of Hegel,
who wrote during the lifetime of Goethe, has had many enthusiastic
adherents; among these were Strauss, Ruge and Feuerbach. Schopenhauer,
although he wrote his chief book during the time of Goethe at present
stirs deeper interest than any other thinker.
In imaginative literature the greatest writer of the latest period is
Heinrich Heine, whose lyrics have attracted general attention. The
novel has acquired the same important place in Germany as in England.
Among the chief novelists are Freytag, the Countess Ida Hahn-Hahn, Paul
Heyse, Spielhagen and Reuter.
* * * * *
EVERYTHING that regards statesmanship and the interest of the world
is in all outward respects of the greatest importance; it creates
and destroys in a moment the happiness, even the very existence, of
thousands, but when the wave of the moment has rushed past, and the
storm has abated, its influence is lost, and even frequently disappears
without leaving a trace behind. Many other things that are noiselessly
influencing the thoughts and feelings often make far deeper and more
lasting impressions on us. Man can for the most part keep himself very
independent of all that does not trench on his private life—a very wise
arrangement of Providence, since it gives a much greater security to
human happiness.—_William von Humboldt._