rarely found and which occur only in certain limited regions. There
has been much discussion in regard to these. Some entomologists have
thought them simply varieties or dimorphic forms while others have
considered them hybrids. An analysis of the conditions shows that
these doubtful butterflies occur only in regions where the different
species overlap. Thus in the boundary connecting the Banded Purple
and the Red-spotted Purple there are forms which resemble these two
species in such a way as to suggest that these are the parents of the
hybrid. In localities where the Viceroy and the Banded Purple occur
there are other forms which seem to connect these two species, and in
the locality where the Viceroy and the Red-spotted Purple occur there
are still other forms which seem to suggest these as the parents. So
the evidence seems pretty conclusive that where these butterflies
overlap there are likely to be occasional crosses between the species
which result in these natural hybrids.
In the far Western states there are certain other species of
Basilarchia which take the place of the eastern form. One of the most
abundant of these on the Pacific Coast is sometimes called Lorquin's
Admiral (_B. lorquini_). In Florida there is another species, _B.
floridensis_, which is found in the Southern states. It is the only
one whose coloring resembles that of the Viceroy.
=The Viceroy=
_Basilarchia archippus_
The common name of this butterfly was probably given it in allusion to
its resemblance to the Monarch butterfly. For the Monarch and the
Viceroy have been closely associated in the minds of many observers
ever since people began to study butterflies in America. These two
insects have become famous as the most notable examples that we have
of the mimicking of one butterfly by another. According to the theory
which has been held by many naturalists, the Monarch is distasteful to
birds and other animals and it advertises the fact by its bright
combination of brown and black. The Monarch is thus an example of what
has often been called warning coloration. On the other hand, the
Viceroy is commonly supposed to have no objectionable taste when eaten
by birds, but it so closely resembles the Monarch in its color pattern
and its habits of flight that it has been assumed that birds would not
touch it because of its resemblance to the distasteful butterfly.
There has, however, recently been a reaction among naturalists in
regard to the validity of many supposed examples of warning coloration
and the whole subject is still open to careful investigation. (_See
cover; and plate, page 145._)
Whether the Viceroy deserves its celebrity as an insect mimic or not,
it is well worthy of study for other reasons. It is a common and
attractive butterfly and it has most interesting habits in the larval
state. It is found over a large part of North America and flies freely
from spring until autumn over meadows, fields, and open glades.
_The Yearly Cycle of Life_
To trace the yearly cycle of this butterfly's life, let us begin with
one of the mother insects flitting along a stream in early summer. She
stops now and then to lay an egg on the tip of a leaf on a willow or
poplar. She then continues on her way occasionally sipping nectar from
any early flowers she may chance to find, and continuing her leisurely
life perhaps for several weeks.
The egg thus laid upon the poplar leaf remains in position for a week
or more, unless it should be devoured by some wandering ant or
discovered by some tiny parasite. If it escapes these dangers, it
hatches into a minute caterpillar that escapes from the egg shell
through a hole in its side. After it has come out it turns around and
eats the remainder of the shell. It then begins feeding upon the
tender tissue of the leaf it is resting upon, nibbling at the sides
until its appetite is satisfied. Then it retires to the midrib on the
lower surface where it remains quietly through the day and thereafter
feeds chiefly at night. After about a week it becomes too large for
the skin with which it was born, so it moults and immediately devours
its cast skin. It continues these operations of feeding and moulting
at occasional intervals for several weeks, finally becoming a rather
large and curious looking caterpillar, mottled in greenish olive and
light gray, with two large horn-like projections from the front of the
body.
It finally becomes full grown in this larval state. Then it spins a
web of silk upon the bark of the twig and entangles the hooked claws
of its hind legs in the silken web. It thus hangs downward until the
larval skin is shuffled off and the curious pupa with the conspicuous
hump upon the middle of its back remains in its place. This chrysalis
is of a mottled coloring, very similar to that of the caterpillar. A
week or so later the chrysalis skin breaks open, and the butterfly
comes out, catching hold of the twig with its legs and hanging quietly
in position while its wings expand.
The butterflies of this brood are likely to appear late in summer. It
is the second brood of adult butterflies for the season. These insects
have the same leisurely habits as those that were on the wing earlier
in the season. In a similar way the mother butterflies lay their eggs
on the leaves of willows and poplars, and these eggs soon hatch into
young caterpillars that look like those that hatched in early summer.
The caterpillars, however, of this autumnal brood have a most
interesting habit which was entirely lacking in those of early summer.
Soon after hatching they begin to make for themselves little houses in
which to pass the winter. This is very cleverly done by utilizing part
of the leaf upon which they are feeding. Each side of the leaf toward
its tip is eaten off with the midrib remaining untouched; then the
lower half of the leaf which has not been eaten is rolled into a tube
and securely sewed together with silken threads. The stem of the leaf
is also covered with a similar silken web and securely fastened to the
twig in such a way that it is impossible for the leaf to fall off when
the other leaves do. The little caterpillar thus cleverly provides
itself with a safe winter home into which it retreats on the approach
of cold weather to remain until spring. They enter these little cases
head first, and apparently seldom emerge again until the warm spring
sun brings them forth to feed upon the developing willow catkins or
the unfolding leaves.
The caterpillars that thus pass the winter in these pitcher-like cases
are perhaps a third grown. They develop rapidly in spring and are
likely to use the cases for resting purposes when they are not
feeding. After a few weeks they become full-grown caterpillars and
change to chrysalids, to change again a little later into the
butterflies that appear in early summer. There are thus two broods of
each stage of the insect during the year.
_Curious Caterpillar Habits_
This brief summary of the yearly history of the Viceroy is by no means
adequate as a story of the many interesting things to be told about
this insect, which has been carefully studied by several eminent
naturalists. One of these is the strange habit the very young
caterpillars have of fastening a few bits of leaf together by means of
silken threads and then tying the bunch to the denuded rib of the
leaf. To explain this, allow me to quote from an admirable essay of
the late Samuel H. Scudder, whose studies of butterflies have added so
much to our knowledge of these beautiful creatures:
"Soon after birth," wrote Mr. Scudder, "when it has eaten but a very
few swaths down the leaf, the little fellow constructs a small and
loose packet from minute bits of leaf and other rejectamenta, loosely
fastened to one another and to the midrib, close to but scarcely
touching the eaten edge of the leaf; and as fast as the leaf is eaten,
it removes this packet (continually added to until it becomes almost
as big as a small pea) farther and farther down the midrib away from
its perch, always keeping it near the eaten edge. It should be noted
that it is so loosely attached (the bits of leaf at all possible
angles) that it is moved by the least breath. Meanwhile, the
caterpillar has been growing larger and more conspicuous, and thus in
greater peril from its enemies. There are two possible services that
this odd packet may render. A spider wandering over a leaf and
observing its motion may seize it, and thinking it has a prize, hurry
away with it and leave its architect unharmed. This seems to me rather
a strained suggestion, for a wandering spider would probably proceed
to investigate it on the spot. Another explanation seems more
probable. It should be remembered that the leaves preferred by these
creatures as food are mostly such as are easily shaken by the wind,
and as the caterpillar moves with the leaf and with all the
surrounding leaves (in a continual fluttering in the case of the
trembling aspen, and to a less degree in the other food plants), this
of itself is a protection to it, as it would more readily escape
observation as an object distinct from the leaves, all being in motion
together; but on the more stable leaves, like the willow, the motion
in a feeble wind would not be sufficient to be serviceable, and here,
at least, the packet comes into play. An object in motion among others
at rest is a noticeable thing; a fact well recognized among animals,
as a host of them show when they fear being seen. This packet attached
by loose silken threads moves, as stated, with a breath of wind, and
so would distract attention from its architect near by, who has taken
pains to place it at the farthest remove from his perch while still
(to avoid undesirable steps) on his daily track. If this be really its
object, it is surely one of the oddest devices in nature."
The curious winter cases of the Viceroy were first carefully described
by the late Dr. C. V. Riley, in one of his classic reports on the
insects of Missouri. It is one of the best accounts which has ever
been written and is well worth quoting at some length:
"The larvae of the autumnal brood," wrote Doctor Riley, "when about
one fourth or one third grown, build for themselves curious little
houses in which they pass the winter. First and foremost--with wise
forethought and being well aware through its natural instincts that
the leaf which it has collected for its house will fall to the ground
when the cold weather sets in unless it takes measures to prevent
this--the larva fastens the stem of the leaf with silken cables
securely to the twig from which it grows. It then gnaws off the blade
of the leaf at its tip end, leaving little else but the midrib.
Finally it rolls the remaining part of the blade of the leaf into a
cylinder, sewing the edges together with silk. The basal portion of
the cylinder is of course tapered to a point as the edges of the leaf
are nearly drawn together, not overlapped; and invariably the lower
side of the leaf forms the outside of the house so as to have the
projecting midrib out of the way of the larva as it reposes snugly on
the inside. The whole, when finished, has somewhat the appearance of
the leaf of a miniature pitcher-plant (_Sarracenia_), its length
being .50-.65 inch, and its diameter .11-.14 inch.
"These curious little cases may be commonly found upon our willows and
poplars in the winter time. I have examined hundreds of them and
although they are invariably built upon this plan, they vary greatly
in the degree of perfection which the architect attained; and this is
especially the case where they have been built in confinement. The
blade on the tip piece is sometimes gnawed off right down to the rib;
at others it is left almost as broad as the tube. Sometimes it is bent
over the orifice; at others not. They are also much more irregular and
ungainly when made with broad leaves, such as those of the silver
poplar, than when made from the more narrow leaves of the willow tree.
These autumnal larvae have also another peculiar habit: they exhibit a
tendency to build from the time they are hatched and will always eat
the leaves from the side, gnawing large holes and cutting along the
sides of the midrib. They commence at the tip, and as they work
downward toward the base, they collect the debris into a little bunch
which they fasten with silk to the midrib. When the hibernaculum is
finished the seam is perfectly smooth and the hole inside is lined
with silk. The larva, having completed its work, composes itself for
the winter with the hind end toward the orifice. Here it remains till
the catkins are in bloom the next spring when it retreats from its
house and commences feeding. Not the least wonderful part of this
phenomenon is that it is only the autumnal brood of larvae that form
pitcher-like houses to live in during the inclement season of the
year--the summer brood having no occasion to shelter themselves from
cold." It is an interesting fact that in most northern regions these
winter cases are nearly always made so near the ground that they are
protected by snow during most of the winter.
When an insect has such a curious habit as that of making these winter
cases it seems comparatively easy to explain it as an acquired
instinct brought about through the conditions of life during the long
period in which successive generations have been laid. But, as Doctor
Riley seems to suggest above, it is much more difficult to explain
this sort of phenomenon when it occurs only in one of two or more
broods during the season.
=The Banded Purple=
_Basilarchia arthemis_
None of our common butterflies shows more striking color markings than
the Banded Purple. A broad white stripe runs midway through the wings
on both surfaces, the white making a strong contrast to the purplish
or brownish black of the rest of the wings. This white band is
supplemented by rows of fulvous and of blue dots, especially on both
surfaces of the hind wings.
This butterfly is a northern form ranging to a large extent north of
the regions occupied by the Viceroy. Its life-history is very similar
to that of the latter insect. The caterpillars have the same curious
habits and bear a close general resemblance to one another. The Banded
Purple butterflies appear in June and lay their eggs in July upon the
tips of the leaves of birches, especially the black birch. Almost all
of these eggs are laid within two or three feet of the ground. They
are of grayish green color. The caterpillars are greenish- or
olive-brown.
About a week after the egg is laid it hatches into a small caterpillar
that feeds upon the sides of the leaf and rests upon the midrib just
as the Viceroy caterpillar does. It continues to feed through July and
the early part of August, moulting once or twice before it begins to
form the winter case. It usually goes into this during the latter part
of August, when it is in the second or third caterpillar stage. From
then on it remains quietly in its winter home, being covered by the
deep snows during several months, and coming out about the middle of
the following May, when the spring warmth starts the buds of its food
plant. It then feeds for two or three weeks before it changes to a
chrysalis to emerge in June as a butterfly. There seems to be normally
but one brood each year although under exceptional conditions some of
the eggs laid in July mature into butterflies the same season. But it
is probable that these butterflies either do not lay eggs and perish
as the cold comes on, or that if they do lay eggs the caterpillars
that hatch from them do not get large enough to construct their winter
cases. Consequently, it is doubtful if we can consider the insect
really two-brooded even in part.
=The Red-spotted Purple=
_Basilarchia astyanax_
Were it not for the wonderful iridescence of its wings the Red-spotted
Purple would be one of the most plainly marked of the Sovereigns. But
the upper surface of both pairs of wings is thickly covered with
iridescent scales which give the insect a shimmering beauty that makes
it conspicuous among northern butterflies, suggesting something of the
marvelous coloring of the large tropical species. The general coloring
is a purplish black with rows of white dots along the borders of the
wings. The under surface shows much more of the fulvous brown which is
so characteristic of the Viceroy, the brownish background being rather
thinly overlaid with iridescent scales, but with a large number of
spots and stripes, where the fulvous color alone shows.
The favorite food plants of this species belong to the great order
_Rosaceae_ which includes the apple, pear, cherry, rose, and many
other common trees and shrubs. The egg is laid upon the extreme tip of
the leaf, a characteristic habit of all the species of Basilarchia. It
obviously must have decided advantages in preserving the eggs from
attack by ants, spiders, Ichneumon flies, and other enemies. All of
these creatures are constantly patrolling leaf surfaces in search of
eggs and minute insects. They are much more likely to find their
victims upon the broad general surface than upon the extreme tip of
narrowly pointed leaves. The eggs of all these butterflies are small,
and pitted much like a tiny little honeycomb with a large number of
tiny hairs arising from the surface. These hairs are very similar to
the hairs upon the surface of many leaves and they probably assist in
leading other insects to overlook the eggs. Yet, notwithstanding these
devices for protection, it remains true that a large proportion of the
eggs are attacked by tiny parasites and probably many others are eaten
by ants and spiders. This very fact emphasizes the necessity of such
protective features as the laying of one egg in a place upon the tip
of a leaf and the hairy covering on the egg shells.
A few days after the eggs are laid each hatches into a small
caterpillar that immediately begins feeding upon the green tissues
beside it--first, however, devouring the empty egg shell. It does not
eat the midrib of the leaf, but utilizes it as a perch, generally
winding it more or less with silken threads, apparently to make it
stronger and to prevent it from curling up. The caterpillar seems to
feed chiefly at night, resting quietly by day. After a week or so it
moults and then continues feeding as before. It continues to feed and
grow for several weeks, moulting regularly until it becomes full fed
as a caterpillar. It then spins a web of silk closely upon the bark of
twig or branch or possibly upon some other object near at hand. In
this web it entangles the hooked claws of its hind legs and hangs
downward preparatory to the change to the chrysalis. Soon afterward
the last larval skin is shed and the chrysalis hangs in place of the
caterpillar. This chrysalis has the characteristic form of all the
members of this limited group, the outer skin being well hardened and
there being a very prominent projection on the middle of the back.
The chrysalis hangs thus, buffeted more or less by wind and rain for
about ten days, then the skin breaks apart and the butterfly emerges.
Over a large part of its range there are two broods of this butterfly
each year. The adults appear in early summer and lay eggs which
develop into butterflies again during the latter part of summer. The
life-history of this generation is the one described in the last
paragraph. The eggs laid by these late summer butterflies, however,
require a somewhat different story. They hatch in the same way as the
others but when the caterpillars have moulted about twice they form a
winter case or hibernaculum, in exactly the same way as the
caterpillars of the Viceroy. They remain within these winter homes
till the following spring, when they come forth and complete their
development producing the early summer brood of butterflies with which
our story began.
=The Vicereine=
_Basilarchia floridensis_
In Florida and some of the other Southern states there is a butterfly
which looks almost like the Viceroy except that the brown coloring of
the wings is very much darker. The species has been called the
Vicereine as it is believed to mimic the Queen Butterfly, a species
closely related to the Monarch and occurring in the Southern states.
The Vicereine probably has a life-history very similar to that of its
northern cousin.
_Synopsis of the Sovereigns_
_Banded Purple_ (_Basilarchia arthemis_ or _Limenitis arthemis_).
Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Ground color of upper surface of wings black
with a distinct white band in bow-like form running across the middle
of both wings. A row of six tawny spots just outside the white band on
each hind wing and various sub-marginal blue spots outside of these.
Under surface tawny brown with the white stripe distinct and many
red-brown spots.
_Red-spotted Purple_ (_Basilarchia astyanax_ or _Limenitis astyanax_).
Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Ground color brownish black tinged with bluish,
especially on the hind wings. No white band but various red and blue
spots, especially near the outer margins of the upper surface of both
pairs of wings.
_Viceroy_ (_Basilarchia archippus_ or _Limenitis disippus_). Expanse
2 1/2 inches. General color reddish brown with veins and margins
blackish. A narrow black band running across the hind wings just
beyond the middle. A series of white spots in all the marginal bands.
_Vicereine_ (_Basilarchia floridensis_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Similar
to the Viceroy but much darker in the brown coloring of all the wings.
THE TRIBE OF THE EMPERORS
The members of this small group are distinguished from the closely
related Sovereigns by the tailed hind wings in one species, by the
eye-spots on the upper surface of the wings of the others, and by the
fact that on the club of the antennae there are three instead of four
longitudinal ridges. There is also a distinction in the arrangement of
the veins of the hind wings.
This tribe is represented in our northern fauna by only two genera. In
the genus Chlorippe the antennae are as long as the front wings are
wide. In the genus Anoea the antennae are much shorter than the width
of the front wings. Only two species of the former and one of the
latter are sufficiently abundant to be considered here.
=The Goatweed Emperor=
_Anoea andria_
Comparatively few butterflies are confined so closely to the valley of
the Mississippi River as the Goatweed Emperor. From southern Illinois
south to the Gulf this insect is rather abundant in many localities
where its food plant, the goatweed, is common. The life-history of the
insect was carefully studied by Dr. C. V. Riley, and one of the best
accounts was published in one of his early reports on the insects of
Missouri. The excellent illustrations in that article first made the
species familiar to many students.
Briefly summarized, the life-history runs something like this: the
butterflies hibernate, coming forth in spring and visiting various
spring and early summer flowers. The females deposit eggs singly upon
the leaves of the young goatweed plants. In a week or less each egg
hatches into a little caterpillar that feeds upon the tip of the leaf
leaving the midrib and covering it with silk so that it may serve as a
resting perch. Later each makes an excellent tent for itself by
bending over and binding together the opposite margins of a leaf.[D]
This bit of work is cleverly done, a hole being left at each end so
that there is good ventilation and an opportunity for the caterpillar
to go in and out. Quite frequently the nest is also lined with more or
less silken webbing. This tent is used as a refuge from the heat of
the sun and doubtless serves also in concealing the caterpillar from
its many enemies. The larva goes out to neighboring leaves when it
wishes to feed and only occasionally eats up the leaf of which its
tent is made. When this is done it must of course construct another
home.
[D] _See next page._
[Illustration: THE BANDED PURPLE (_see page 202_)
THE RED-SPOTTED PURPLE (_see page 204_)
THE BLUE-EYED GRAYLING OR COMMON WOOD-NYMPH
(Upper and lower surface) (_see page 215_)]
[Illustration: _From drawings by W. I. Beecroft_
_See pages 207-214_
THREE EMPEROR BUTTERFLIES
The Gray Emperor, female (_top_)
The Tawny Emperor, female (_middle_)
The Goatweed Emperor, female (_bottom_)]
After some weeks of this sheltered existence the caterpillar is ready
to change to a chrysalis. It leaves the tent and commonly attaches a
bit of silken web to the under side of a leaf or branch of its food
plant or some other kind of shelter. Here it changes to a chrysalis,
to emerge a little later as the beautiful burnt-orange butterfly.
There are said to be two broods each season, in some regions, although
in others there seems to be but one. The butterflies hibernate in
hollow trees or in such other shelters as they may find.
[Illustration: Goatweed Butterfly: _a_, larva; _b_, chrysalis;
_c_, larval case. (After Riley)]
The full-grown caterpillar (_a_) is an inch and a half long and of a
general grayish color, dotted thickly with slightly elevated points.
The chrysalis (_b_) is suggestive of that of the Monarch butterfly.
It is light green covered with whitish granules.
The adult butterfly is remarkable for the falcate shape of the outer
margin of each front wing and the broad tail at the hind outer angle
of each hind wing. In the male the upper surface of all the wings is
of a dark orange tone, with a rather narrow brown marginal marking. In
the female this marginal band is broader and is nearly paralleled by
another narrower band a little nearer the body. In bright sunshine
there is a distinct purplish red iridescence over practically the
whole upper surface. The under side of both wings is of a color to
suggest a dead brown leaf, with a purplish iridescence in certain
angles of light.
=The Gray Emperor=
_Chlorippe celtis_
This very distinctive medium-sized butterfly is found in the Southern
states at least as far west as the Mississippi Valley. It extends
north to Indiana and Ohio and probably occurs quite generally from
Ohio eastward. This species is distinguished by the general gray-brown
or olive-brown coloring of the wing surfaces, heavily marked with a
much darker dusky brown and with many irregular white spots as well as
one large eye-spot on each front wing near the border, and a row of
seven more or less distinct eye-spots near the border of each hind
wing.
Like the Tawny Emperor this species feeds in the larval state upon the
leaves of hackberry. In Missouri the butterflies appear in June. A
little later they lay eggs upon the under side of the hackberry
leaves, commonly one in a place but sometimes several side by side. A
few days later these eggs hatch into little yellow caterpillars that
feed upon the leaves for about a month when they become full grown.
They are then a little more than an inch long, of a general light
green color with yellow spots along the middle of the back and three
yellow lines along each side. The head has a pair of curious antlers
much like those of the caterpillar of the Tawny Emperor. These
caterpillars now spin a bit of silken web on the under side of the
leaf or twig. They attach their hind legs into this web and hang
downward for a day or two, before casting the last larval skin and
changing to chrysalids. They change again to butterflies which are
seen upon the wing early in August. These butterflies lay eggs in turn
on the hackberry leaves, the eggs soon hatching into small
caterpillars which according to Riley's observations are less active
than those of the earlier brood. These caterpillars feed for a few
weeks until they become nearly half grown and have passed their second
or possibly their third moult. They now stop eating and get ready for
a long fast through the winter. Apparently some of them at least
attach themselves to the under side of the hackberry leaves and turn
to a brownish color, remaining upon the leaves until the latter fall
to the ground and presumably hibernating in the shelter thus provided.
Whether or not all of the caterpillars have this rather curious habit
seems to be doubtful. It has been suggested that some of them find
shelter within the crevices in the rough bark of the tree. At any
rate, the caterpillars remain in a sort of stupor until the following
spring. Then they awaken, climb up the trees or bushes, and begin
feeding upon the young leaves. They continue this until they become
full grown in May when they change to chrysalids, to emerge as the
first brood of butterflies the following month. Many of the
caterpillars make a sort of nest for themselves by spinning a web of
silk upon the under surface of the leaf and drawing together slightly
the outer edges.
As is the case with so many other butterflies that hibernate as
caterpillars, apparently the species is only partially double-brooded.
Some of the earlier caterpillars become lethargic when half grown and
remain in that condition throughout the later weeks of summer and all
through the fall and winter.
=The Tawny Emperor=
_Chlorippe clyton_
This handsome butterfly is easily distinguished from the Gray Emperor
by the general reddish color of the wings which are thickly marked
with bands and eye-spots of darker brown or black. The eye-spots are
especially marked on the hind wing, there being a row of five of these
on each hind wing in both sexes. The females are decidedly larger than
the male and generally of a distinctly lighter color.
This butterfly is a southern species found more or less abundantly
from southern New York to northern Florida and across the country to a
line drawn from Iowa to Texas. It seems to be more common in the
Mississippi Valley than in other regions and its life-history was
first thoroughly worked out in Missouri and published in one of
Riley's classic reports on the insects of that state. It has since
been studied by Edwards and others, but even now there seems to be
some uncertainty in regard to many points in its development, notably
the number of broods in different localities and the habits of the
larvae when preparing for hibernation.
The principal points in the life-history of the species may be
outlined as follows: some time in July the eggs are laid on the leaves
of hackberry in dense clusters, each of which may contain from two
hundred to five hundred eggs. These are usually deposited in two or
more layers, one upon another. A little more than a week later these
eggs hatch, each caterpillar eating through one end in a way to cut
out the rim of a tiny cap which is pushed up as the larva escapes. The
whole brood emerges at practically the same time and collects upon one
or more leaves where they begin to feed upon the succulent green
tissues. Like so many caterpillars that feed in companies each spins a
silken thread wherever it goes.
The little larvae remain together until after the third moult, at
which time they are about half grown. In the more northern regions
where they are found they are now likely to scatter about in search of
quarters for hibernation. Having found suitable shelter, they remain
through the winter to come forth early the following spring and feed
upon the developing leaves of the hackberry trees. They continue to do
this for a few weeks before they become full grown. They are then
smooth-bodied, greenish worms about an inch and a half long, striped
longitudinally in yellow and brown. The hind end of the body is forked
in a curious fashion and the head is even more remarkable for the
strange pair of tiny antlers projecting from it.
These full-grown caterpillars soon change to pale green chrysalids,
lightly striped with longitudinal lines of yellow, with a distinctly
pointed head. From these chrysalids butterflies emerge early in
summer.
Evidently in the more Southern states there are two broods of these
butterflies each year but there is great need of more precise
knowledge in regard to them.
As is the case with so many other butterflies there is a dimorphic
form, called _ocellata_, in which the outer half of the hind wing is
very dark brown, with the eye-spot showing as black with red-brown
circles.
_Synopsis of the Emperors_
_Goatweed Emperor_ (_Anoea andria_ or _Pyrrhanea andria_). Expanse
2 1/2 inches. Front outer angle of each front wing projecting into a
falcate tip. Rear outer angle of each hind wing projecting into a
distinct tail. General color burnt-orange with darker marginal bands,
and in the female on the upper surface other sub-marginal markings.
_Gray Emperor_ (_Chlorippe celtis_). Expanse 2 inches. General color
grayish brown with numerous markings of white and blackish. A distinct
brown eye-spot on the upper surface of each front wing near the outer
hind angle.
_Tawny Emperor_ (_Chlorippe clyton_). Expanse 2 inches. General color
tawny brown with markings of black and yellowish white. No distinct
eye-spot on upper surface of front wings.
THE MEADOW-BROWNS OR SATYRS
FAMILY _Agapetidae_
The Meadow-browns form one of the most distinctive family groups among
all the butterfly tribes. They are characterized, at least so far as
our eastern species are concerned, by their slender bodies and rather
large wings, toned in various shades of brown, and marked chiefly with
conspicuous and characteristic eye-spots. The larger veins of the
front wings are swollen at the base. The caterpillars are rather
slender and have a curious division of the last body segment into two
parts, which gives them an appearance suggestive of the caterpillar of
the Emperor butterflies, although the Meadow-brown caterpillars do not
have, upon the head, the curious antlers borne by the Emperor larvae.
=The Common Wood-nymph or Grayling=
_Cercyonis alope_
In the development of our knowledge of both birds and mammals as found
upon the American continent the experience in many cases has been
essentially this: a bird or a mammal was first described from some
well-known region of North America, commonly from specimens carried to
Europe by early voyagers. Later other species of the same genus were
brought to light by various explorers and given specific names. As
each section was thus explored a new form differing markedly from the
others was found and named. At a later period, when great collections
were brought together so that one observer was able to make a careful
survey of specimens from all parts of the continent, it was found that
many of these species merged into each other through intergrading
forms from regions between the localities of the original species. So
it has come about that in the case of a large number of our birds and
mammals we have geographical races distinctly recognized instead of
separate species.
While the study of butterflies has by no means received the degree of
attention which has been given the birds and mammals, it is already
evident that a similar condition prevails with reference to many
species. As the size of collections has increased and more careful
studies have been made of the various forms from different regions it
has been found in numerous cases that they intergraded to so great an
extent that it is impossible to distinguish many species which were
formerly considered entirely distinct. One of the most striking
examples of this is found in the case of our common Wood-nymph, which
is sometimes called the Blue-eyed Grayling. The form which is one of
our most abundant butterflies in southern New England and many of the
Eastern states was described as _Satyrus alope_ by the French
naturalist Fabricius, who also described another species from the
Southern states as _Satyrus pegala_, and a form found in northern
Canada was described by the English entomologist Kirby as _Satyrus
nephele_. Various other forms from isolated regions have been given
specific names by other authorities. (_See plate, page 81._)
During recent years many collectors have gathered these butterflies
from all parts of North America and many specimens have been grouped
together in the more important collections. When this occurred it
became easy to see that this is essentially a variable species which
under varying climatic conditions has assumed slightly different
forms, so that we have a good illustration of well-developed
geographical races. The more important of these are indicated in the
synopsis of the Meadow-browns on page 227.
_The Similar Life-histories_
One good indication that these varying forms all have a common origin
is found in the remarkable unity of their life-histories. It is
essentially the same in all. The mother butterflies lay eggs late in
summer upon the leaves of grasses and perhaps other plants. About
three weeks later these eggs hatch into small caterpillars that
immediately become lethargic and begin their hibernating condition
without eating any vegetation. They remain thus fasting until spring
when, after the weather warms up sufficiently, they begin to feed upon
grasses and perhaps other herbage. But they have lots of time in which
to complete their growth and they are very moderate in their eating
and their movements. They grow slowly so that they do not become
mature as caterpillars until June. They then change to chrysalids to
emerge as butterflies during July and August. The female butterflies
remain upon the wing for some weeks before they begin to lay their
eggs. We thus have in this case an adaptation to single-broodedness in
practically all stages of the insect's life. The twelve months of the
year must be passed and egg, larva, chrysalis, and butterfly each
seems to try to do its part in prolonging its period of life.
These butterflies are especially common along streams and near the
borders of woods, as well as in upland pastures and meadows. They are
interesting creatures with characteristic manner of flight. They are
by no means so easy to capture as one might think who sees them
apparently going with slow, erratic motions from flower to flower. Mr.
S. F. Denton, a collector of long experience, has written this
interesting paragraph upon this point:
"As the flight of these insects is weak, they have been obliged to
resort to a number of tricks to outwit their enemies. In capturing
these butterflies the collector will very soon become acquainted with
their modes of escape, which are very interesting and show no small
amount of cunning, scarcely to be looked for in an innocent little
butterfly. Their first plan of escape on being disturbed is to make
directly for a clump of bushes into the thickest part of which they
dive and there remain until the danger is past. If one is startled
from the grass at some distance from a safe retreat and the collector
overtakes him, he will immediately dodge backward and forward, at one
time high in air and again low down near the grass tops, and in spite
of his slow flight keeping well clear of the net. If the net is at
last brought very close to him he will try his last desperate scheme
to elude his pursuer and shutting his wings quickly together will drop
into the grass, disappearing as if by magic. If it were not for the
cunning of the frail little creatures they would doubtless have gone
to the wall long ago in the struggle for existence."
=The Southern Wood-nymph=
_Cercyonis pegala_
This large southern butterfly is sufficiently distinct from the other
Wood-nymphs to rank as a separate species. The yellow blotch has
expanded into a large band extending practically across the front
wings. On its upper surface there is one eye-spot in the male and two
in the female. It is abundant in the extreme Southern states and has
occasionally been taken much farther north.
=The Pearly Eye=
_Enodia portlandia_
Most butterflies are creatures of open country, basking freely in the
sunshine and visiting flowers of many sorts for their nectar food.
Some of them are found at times along the borders of woods and others
seek the woods especially in autumn for the purpose of hibernation.
This exquisite Pearly Eye, however, is distinctly a woodland species,
being found only in little glades in the midst of woods and apparently
seldom even seeking flowers for their nectar. It is commonly
considered one of the rarest of American butterflies, but many
collectors who have searched their regions carefully have been able to
find small areas in which the butterfly is quite abundant. In such
situations it may be looked for in all parts of the United States east
of the western limits of the Mississippi Valley and south of Canada,
except perhaps the lower part of Florida.
In northern regions this butterfly is single-brooded: the adults
appear shortly before midsummer and continue on the wing through July
and at least part of August. The eggs are laid some weeks after the
butterflies emerge. The caterpillars feed upon grasses and apparently
hibernate after they become well grown, changing to chrysalids the
following spring in time to emerge as butterflies in early summer.
These Pearly Eyes have certain characteristics which are of especial
interest. No other species presents such exquisite modulation of brown
coloring arranged in beautiful circles upon both surfaces of the
wings. The males possess, perhaps to a greater degree than any other
of our native butterflies, the ability to give off a peculiar,
pleasant aroma which is noticeable whenever the insects are collected
and which at least one careful observer has been able to detect in the
open air as the butterfly flew near.
For many years Mr. W. F. Fiske made a special study of the butterflies
prevailing in the region of Webster, New Hampshire. His word picture
of the haunts of the Pearly Eye is more adequate than any other which
has been published and seems well worth quoting in this connection:
"I have found them in several localities, always in some numbers, but
nowhere more abundant than in a little wooded glen in Webster. Here a
scattering group of tall pines, a few thick hemlocks, and a young
growth of miscellaneous deciduous trees fill up the space between two
rather steep banks. A small trout brook follows close by one of these
banks, and near the lower end of the glen, in a space kept clear of
underbrush by the overshadowing influence of the pines and hemlocks,
is a little spring, the overflow from which keeps the ground moist for
some space on each side of the channel which it follows to the brook.
This is the great meeting place of these butterflies; here they may be
seen at almost any time in the day except in the early morning--when
they seek the outskirts of the woods--until the shades of evening
render their flitting forms indistinguishable. Half-way up the bank on
one side, half shrouded in the dense growth of underbrush which is
springing up around it, is an old apple tree upon which the sapsuckers
work yearly. The wounded limbs, dripping with sap, are frequented by
many forms of insect life, most noticeable among them this butterfly,
and such refreshment added to the moisture which they suck from the
margin of the spring is all that I have ever seen them partake."
=The Eyed Brown=
_Satyrodes canthus_
For delicacy of gray-brown color tones few butterflies can compare
with this exquisite creature. It seems indeed to have succeeded in a
modest attempt to obliterate itself, for even when the spread wings
are placed against a clear white background they can scarcely be
called conspicuous and it is very probable that when the butterfly is
at rest in its native haunts, with wings closed together so that only
the very delicate light brown color-tones of the under surface are
revealed, it actually becomes invisible.
The upper surface of the wings is broadly washed with a gray-brown
color which runs into a suggestion of a lighter band near the outer
margin of the front pair. The upper surface of the hind wings is
almost uniformly washed with this same brown color which is
interrupted only by very fine, double lines at the outer margin and a
sub-marginal row of delicate _ocelli_ which are larger than the
somewhat similar sub-marginal row of eye-spots on the front wings. The
under surface is much lighter in color, with distinct striations
extending across the main surface of both wings from front to back and
with some very attractive _ocelli_ arranged as a sub-marginal series
each with a central white eye.
This is distinctly a northern species, having rather a limited range
in Canada and New England. It extends south to Pennsylvania and Ohio
and westward to Wisconsin and Iowa. It is more abundant in northern
than in southern New England but it is often overlooked by collectors
who are not familiar with its haunts. It is especially likely to be
found among the tall grass of swamps and brooks running through
lowlands. One of the best ways to discover it is to beat the grasses
in such situations.
The life-history of the Eyed Brown is fairly well known. The eggs are
laid chiefly on grasses and probably at times upon the grass-like
sedges. The larvae feed upon these plants and become nearly full grown
before winter sets in. They then hibernate in this larval stage and
the following spring complete their growth and change to chrysalids in
time for the butterflies to emerge in June. There is but one brood a
year.
=The White Mountain Butterfly=
_Oeneis norna semidea_
To appreciate the extraordinary distribution of this notable species
one must let his fancy carry him back a million years or so until he
reaches that old time when the whole northern part of the American
continent was covered with an icy coating. Then he must follow the
gradual retreating of the ice northward, carrying with it wonderful
changes in climate and along with these climatic changes taking
northward many plants and animals which were adapted to the cool
temperature along the borders of the glacier. As the ice cap retreated
most of these arctic forms retreated with it, and all along the lower
levels they were replaced by others migrating from the south so that
gradually there came about the distribution of plants and animals as
we find them to-day.
When, however, the glaciers left the higher elevations of the White
Mountains and the Rocky Mountains there were at the summits small
areas in which the climatic conditions were of very much the same
arctic character as prevailed along the margin of the ice cap.
Consequently conditions were here favorable for the continuation of
many of the arctic species which had disappeared from the warmer,
lower levels. It was as if we had a great sea of air of a certain
warmth and rising above this the islands of the mountain tops, these
islands retaining the same arctic features as otherwise are found much
farther northward.
Among the animals thus left stranded by the retreating ice cap this
White Mountain butterfly has perhaps attracted the most attention from
scientists. It is a butterfly of moderate size which shows in every
phase of its structure and its life-history the results of the long
process of adaptation to its unique environment. It has been carefully
studied by many observers and has been considered one of the most
desirable trophies by every collector of insects. As a result,
notwithstanding its isolation and the difficulty of studying it, its
life-history is better known than that of many a common and widely
distributed species.
To appreciate the facts in regard to the structure and life of this
butterfly one must know that its habitat is confined to a thousand
feet or so at the summits of the mountain, that in this area there are
no trees or even shrubs worth mentioning, and that the surface of the
mountain is covered with rocks between which grow a few stunted sedges
and over which grows the ever-present reindeer moss. It is a bleak,
bare, gray environment, constantly swept by terrific winds, where snow
is seen in August and is likely to remain until June. So the summer
season is of briefest duration and the climatic conditions are so
severe that one can only wonder how a fragile creature like a
butterfly is able to survive the twelve long months.
_Habits and Life-history_
From a first glance at the mottled gray-brown wings of these insects
one would guess that here was a distinctive example of obliterative
coloring, and it is true as all observers testify that when the
butterfly lights upon the stones and turns sideways, as apparently it
does habitually in deference to the force of the wind, it becomes very
difficult to see, for the wings are closed and only the rounded,
mottled under surface shows. It appears also to have the habit of some
of the Graylings when hard pushed of simply closing its wings and
dropping to the ground feigning death. In deference also to the winds
its flight is just above the surface. Doubtless if it rose high in the
air it would be swept away to lower regions where evidently it is
unable to survive for long periods.
[Illustration: _From a drawing by Mary E. Walker_ _See page 229_
THE ZEBRA BUTTERFLY
On orange leaves and blossoms. (Reduced)]
[Illustration: On a milkweed pod]
[Illustration: _From "Seeing Nature First"_ _See pages 47, 235_
On clematis seed-fruits
PHOTOGRAPHS OF A PET MONARCH BUTTERFLY]
These butterflies appear early in July and continue on the wing for
several weeks. They lay their small eggs upon or near a species of
sedge which is abundant on these alpine summits. About two weeks later
the eggs hatch into sluggish little caterpillars which feed upon the
sedge leaves, apparently eating only at night and hiding in crevices
between stones by day. As one would expect from the prevailing low
temperatures these caterpillars grow very slowly and apparently a
large proportion of them require two years to complete their
development. There seems to be some uncertainty in regard to this
phase of the insect's life-history, but most entomologists are of the
opinion that some of the butterflies mature in one year while others
require two years: that is, the broods are both annual and biennial.
There is no doubt that the insect hibernates as a caterpillar, and if
this statement about the number of broods is correct some of the
caterpillars hibernate when very small, and recently hatched from the
egg, while others hibernate when nearly full grown.
The full-grown caterpillars change to chrysalids beneath the shelter
of the small stones in practically the same sorts of situation which
they have chosen for hiding at night or for hibernation through the
winter. Here without any button of silk or silken loop and with
scarcely a suggestion of a silken cocoon they change to chrysalids,
generally about the first of June. They remain in this condition for
perhaps three or four weeks when they come forth as butterflies.
=The Arctic Satyr=
_Oeneis norna jutta_
This is another butterfly of decided interest because of its
geographical distribution. It is normally an inhabitant of the Far
North, extending around the North Pole over parts of three continents.
Apparently, the only place in the United States where it occurs is a
bog a little north of Bangor, Maine. This locality is called the
Orono-Stillwater bog and is the only place where collectors have been
able to find this species.
* * * * *
An even more local insect is another of these mountain butterflies
found by H. H. Newcomb on Mount Katahdin, Maine. So far as known this
species is confined to the higher portion of this mountain and so is
even more distinctly localized than the White Mountain butterfly. It
is called the Katahdin butterfly (_Oeneis norna katahdin_).
=The Little Wood Satyr=
_Cissia eurytus_
This elfin creature has well been named the Little Wood Satyr,
although under our modern conditions it is often found in fields and
along hedgeroads rather than in the woods. It has, to a marked degree,
the delicacy of structure of its allies and its small size serves to
emphasize this appearance. It has also a rather general distribution
west to the Mississippi Valley, extending from the corner of Dakota,
south through Nebraska, Kansas, and central Texas, and north to
Wisconsin, Michigan, and New England. It occupies the whole of the
United States east and south of the lines thus indicated.
The life-history of this species is very similar to the Common
Grayling. The butterflies appear in early summer, deposit their eggs
upon grasses, and the resulting larvae feed upon the grasses and grow
slowly through the weeks of summer. They become nearly full grown by
autumn and hibernate in this condition in such shelter as they can
find at the soil surface. The following spring they come forth,
probably feeding for a short time, and change to chrysalids in time to
emerge as butterflies in May and early June. Practically all observers
emphasize the fact that the butterflies are abundant only late in
spring or early in summer, generally disappearing before the middle of
July. There is thus but one brood a year.
_Other Meadow-browns_
The _Gemmed Brown_ (_Neonympha gemma_) is a small southern species
remarkable for the plainness of its gray-brown wings which are marked
on the upper surface only with two or three dark spots on the middle
margin of each hind wing. There are two broods a year.
The _Georgia Satyr_ (_Neonympha phocion_) is another small southern
form, remarkable for the four elongated eye-spots on the lower surface
of each hind wing. The shape of these spots distinguishes it at once
from the _Carolina Satyr_ (_Cissia sosybius_) in which the eye-spots
are rounded.
_Synopsis of Meadow-browns_
_Pearly Eye_ (_Enodia portlandia_ or _Debis portlandia_). Expanse
2 1/4 inches. Eyes hairy. Outer margin of hind wings projecting in a
noticeable angle. Brown with many distinct eye-spots on both surfaces
of wings.
_Eyed Brown_ (_Satyrodes canthus_ or _Neonympha canthus_). Expanse 2
inches. Eyes hairy. Margin of hind wings rounded, without an angle.
Both surfaces of wings pale brown with four distinct blackish
eye-spots on each front wing near the margin. Five or six such spots
on each hind wing.
_Common Wood-nymph_ or _Grayling_ (_Cercyonis alope_). Expanse 2
inches. Eyes not hairy. Eye-spots on front wings, but not on upper
surface of hind wings. The chief geographical races of this abundant
species are indicated below, although in regions where the forms
overlap many intermediate hybrids occur.
_Blue-eyed Grayling_ (_Cercyonis alope alope_). A large
yellowish-brown blotch near outer margin of each front wing, above and
below, with two distinct eye-spots in middle spaces of the blotch. A
southern race extending north to central New Hampshire, Michigan, and
Wisconsin.
_Dull-eyed Grayling_ (_Cercyonis alope nephele_). The yellowish brown
blotch obsolete or nearly so, but eye-spots present. A northern race
extending southward only to central New Hampshire, Michigan, and
Wisconsin.
_Maritime Grayling_ (_Cercyonis alope maritima_). Similar to the type
form, but with the yellowish blotch tinged with reddish. A race found
only near the seacoast.
_Southern Wood-nymph_ (_Cercyonis pegala_). Expanse 3 inches. Eyes not
hairy. General color brown with an orange-yellow blotch near outer
margin of each front wing above and below with one eye-spot in middle
space of the blotch on the male, and two on the female.
_Little Wood-satyr_ (_Cissia eurytus_ or _Neonympha eurytus_). Expanse
1 1/2 inches. Eyes not hairy. General color fawn-brown with two
eye-spots on upper surface of each front wing and several on each hind
wing.
_Gemmed Brown_ (_Neonympha gemma_). Expanse 1 1/4 inches. Eyes not
hairy. General color mouse-brown with no markings on upper wing
surface except a rather indistinct pair or more of spots next the
margin of the middle of each hind wing. Under surface indistinctly
striped with rusty lines and a few brown and silvery spots on the hind
wings directly beneath the spots on the upper surfaces. Occurs in
Southern states.
_Georgia Satyr_ (_Neonympha phocion_). Expanse 1 1/4 inches.
Distinguished from the related species by the four distinct eye-spots
on lower surface of each hind wing, these spots being transversely
elongated rather than round. Occurs in Southern states.
_Carolina Satyr_ (_Cissia sosybius_). Expanse 1 1/4 inches.
Distinguished by the row of round eye-spots near outer margins of
lower wing surface. Occurs in Southern states.
THE HELICONIANS
FAMILY _Heliconidae_
This is a tropical family with only a single species migrating
northward to our Southern states. The butterflies of this group are
characterized by having the wings so long and narrow that their length
is usually twice as great as their width. The front legs in both sexes
are so poorly developed that they are considered a modification
approaching the complete dwarfing found in the Brush-footed
butterflies.
=The Zebra Butterfly=
_Heliconius Charitonius_
While the butterflies of temperate North America show many examples of
marvelous beauty and coloring, one must go to the tropics to see the
culmination of what nature has done in painting the outstretched
membranes of butterfly wings with gorgeous colors. The great butterfly
tribes that swarm in tropical forests seldom reach our temperate
clime, and even when they do they are likely to show only a suggestion
of the splendid size and rich coloring to be seen farther south. The
Zebra butterfly (_Heliconius charitonius_) belongs to one of these
tropical tribes. It shows its affinities by its coloring and the
curious shape of its wings. In most of our northern butterflies, the
wings are about as long as they are wide, but in the tropical family,
_Heliconidae_, they are very much longer than wide. This gives the
insect an entirely different look from our common forms so that one
recognizes it at once as a stranger within our gates. Indeed, it does
not penetrate far into our region, being found commonly only in
Florida and one or two other neighboring states, its principal home
being in tropical America.
The Zebra butterfly is well named. Across the brownish black wings
there runs a series of yellow stripes, three on each front wing and
one on each hind wing, with a sub-marginal row of white spots on each
of the latter. The under surface is much like the upper, except that
the coloring is distinctly paler. It is very variable in size: some
specimens may be but two and a half inches across the expanded wings,
while others are four inches. (_See plate, page 224._)
The Zebra caterpillars feed upon the leaves of the passion flower.
When full grown they are about an inch and a half long, whitish, more
or less marked with brownish black spots arranged in transverse rows,
and partially covered with longitudinal rows of barbed black spines.
They change to chrysalids which are remarkable for their irregular
shape, with two leaf-like projections on the head which the insect can
move in a most curious fashion.
One of the most notable things about this insect is the fact that the
male butterflies are attracted to the chrysalids of the females even
before the latter emerge. Many observers have reported upon this
curious phenomenon and have recorded experiments demonstrating that it
is a general habit with the species.
_The Roosting Habits_
The adult butterflies flock together at night and rest upon the
Spanish moss which festoons so many of the trees in the Far South, or
upon dead branches. They take positions with heads upward and wings
closed, many of them often flocking together to roost, and wandering
out to the near-by fields when the morning sun gives them renewed
activity. But these butterflies are essentially forest insects.
Reliable observers have noticed that when one emerges from a chrysalis
it flies up in the air and makes straight for the nearest woods.
Others have noticed that when a butterfly in a field is alarmed it
also makes for the woods. And in the regions where the species is
abundant the butterflies are most likely to be found in paths and
glades in the forest. Thus they show the influence of their ancestral
habitat in the tropical wilderness.
There seems to be a certain amount of ceremony attending the flocking
together at night for roosting purposes. A famous English naturalist,
Philip Henry Gosse, saw the performance in the West Indies many years
ago and described it in these words:
"Passing along a rocky foot-path on a steep wooded mountain side, in
the Parish of St. Elizabeth (Jamaica), about the end of August, 1845,
my attention was attracted, just before sunset, by a swarm of these
butterflies in a sort of rocky recess, overhung by trees and creepers.
They were about twenty in number, and were dancing to and fro, exactly
in the manner of gnats, or as _Hepioli_ play at the side of a wood.
After watching them awhile, I noticed that some of them were resting
with closed wings at the extremities of one or two depending vines.
One after another fluttered from the group of dancers to the reposing
squadron, and alighted close to the others, so that at length, when
only two or three of the fliers were left, the rest were collected in
groups of half a dozen each, so close together that each group might
have been grasped in the hand. When once one had alighted, it did not
in general fly again, but a new-comer, fluttering at the group,
seeking to find a place, sometimes disturbed one recently settled,
when the wings were thrown open, and one or two flew up again. As
there were no leaves on the hanging stalks, the appearance presented
by these beautiful butterflies, so crowded together, their long, erect
wings pointing in different directions, was not a little curious. I
was told by persons residing near that every evening they thus
assembled, and that I had not seen a third part of the numbers often
collected in that spot."
THE MILKWEED BUTTERFLIES
FAMILY _Lymnadidae_
So far as the great majority of readers of this book are concerned,
this family includes but one species--the familiar Monarch or Milkweed
butterfly. In the Southern states there is another--the Queen--and in
Florida, still a third. The distinguishing characteristics are found
in the dwarfed, useless front legs and the absence of scales upon the
antennae.
=The Monarch=
_Anosia plexippus_
From June until October one may often see the stately Monarch flitting
leisurely about over fields and meadows. It is one of the largest and
most distinctive of these "frail children of the air" and may be
easily recognized by its resemblance to the picture opposite page 241.
The veins of the wings are heavily marked in black, with large white
dots upon the black bands along the margin. The color of the rest of
the wings both above and below is reddish brown.
These butterflies come from the South in spring or early summer. They
find milkweed plants and lay their eggs upon the leaves. These eggs
soon hatch into small white and black caterpillars that feed upon the
milkweed leaves and grow rapidly. One is likely to find them
throughout most of the summer, wherever a milkweed shows partially
eaten leaves. Bring in the half-grown caterpillars, place them in an
open vivarium, and furnish fresh leaves every day or two. The
caterpillars will soon mature and change to beautiful green chrysalids
with golden markings. This chrysalis has been called "the glass house
with the gold nails." (_See plates, pages 32-33, 241._)
About two weeks later the glass house will burst open and the
butterfly emerge. It will rest an hour or two while its wings and body
harden and then it will want to fly away. It is not so anxious to do
this, however, as most butterflies. If one is kept beneath a
good-sized bell-glass, or in a glass-covered box, or even in a closed
room, and fed with sweetened water it will soon become so tame that it
will perch on one's finger and suck nectar from a flower held in one's
hand. On this account it is a particularly desirable butterfly for the
amateur photographer to cultivate, because he can easily get many
interesting and beautiful pictures by posing the butterfly on
different flowers.
_The Change from Caterpillar to Butterfly_
The change from the caterpillar to the butterfly is easier to watch in
this species than in most others. The full-grown caterpillar
spins--sometimes on the under surface of the milkweed leaf, sometimes
elsewhere--a little mat of silk in which it entangles the hooked claws
of its hind feet. Then it lets go with its fore feet, and hangs
downward with the front end of its body curled upward. In this
position it remains for some hours--perhaps a day--the body juices
gravitating downward and causing a swollen appearance on the lower
segments. Then the skin splits apart and is wriggled off by the
contortions of the body. When it finally drops away, there is left a
strange-looking creature, broader below than above. This is a
transition stage that lasts but a very short time: soon the form is
entirely changed so that the broadest part is above instead of below.
The definite outline of the chrysalis is soon taken on, the outer
tissues hardening into a distinct covering. The insect is now a
beautiful green with wonderful golden spots upon its surface and a few
black spots just below the black "cremaster" by which the chrysalis is
connected with the web of silk upon the leaf.
In this quiet chrysalis the insect remains for nearly a fortnight.
Then the structure of the forthcoming butterfly begins to show through
the thin outer covering and you know that the period of the chrysalis
is nearly ended. If you keep watch you will probably see the sudden
bursting of the outer envelope and the quick grasping of its surface
by the legs of the newly emerged butterfly. Its wings at first are
short and crumpled, bearing little resemblance to those of the fully
developed butterfly. But as it hangs there with one pair of legs
holding to the empty chrysalis and the other to the leaf above, the
wings rapidly lengthen, hanging limply downward, and the body juices
penetrate the veins. A little later they expand in the other
direction, the hind wings reaching full size before the front ones do.
Finally both pairs of wings are fully expanded, and the butterfly is
likely to walk to the top of the support, where it rests for an hour
or two while its tissues harden, before it attempts to fly.
In early autumn out of doors these butterflies start southward on
their long journey. They often gather in great flocks and roost at
night on wayside shrubs and trees. At this season it is easy to catch
them in an insect net and bring them indoors for pets. They live for a
long while and lend interest and beauty to living room or window
garden. To the photographer they offer opportunities for attractive
indoor pictures. (_See plates, pages 32-33, 160, 225._)
=The Queen=
_Anosia berenice_
The general form and color patterns of this fine butterfly show at
once that it is related to the Monarch. Its general colors are
chocolate-brown and black, dotted and spotted with white. The eggs are
laid upon milkweed and the life-history is much like that of the
Monarch. One of the most interesting facts in connection with this
species is that it seems to be mimicked by the Vicereine butterfly in
the same way that the Monarch is mimicked by the Viceroy.
THE SNOUT BUTTERFLIES OR LONG-BEAKS
FAMILY _Libytheidae_
One has a suggestion of Hobson's choice in the common names of this
unique family. If Snout butterflies does not seem sufficiently elegant
as a descriptive phrase for such delicate creatures, he can call them
the Long-beaks, until he sees that this also is inadequate. As a
matter of fact both are misnomers, for the projection from the head
that gives them these names is neither a snout nor a beak. It is
simply a pair of palpi unusually developed, which perhaps in an early
stage of butterfly history served a useful purpose. At present,
however, they serve chiefly to set the few owners apart from the other
butterflies in the system of classification; although possibly they
may also serve the butterfly by helping to give the impression of a
leaf attached to a twig. (_See plate, page 240._)
=The Snout Butterfly=
_Hypatus bachmani_
There is a peculiar interest in any form of animal life which can be
definitely traced far back through the geologic ages. In nearly every
group of living creatures there are certain types which scientists
have found were once abundant but which now are on the wane. As a rule
these are better represented in the museums through fossil species
than by those now living. To a considerable extent also such forms are
likely to present various features which mark their primitive
condition and the living allies have peculiarities which set them off
as distinct from those of their own relations which have been modeled
in a more modern fashion. Among the mammals the curious marsupials, of
which our southern opossum is an example, furnish good illustrations
of this general truth. Among the birds the curious little Least
Bittern is an example. Among the butterflies the strange Snout
butterfly is by far the best example.
These Snout butterflies, of which only two species are now living in
North America, are the sole representatives with us of the family
_Libytheidae_ or the Long-beaks. Only one of these species occurs to
any extent at least north of Texas. It is the curious little creature
called the Snout butterfly. It has a strange appearance due to the
angular outline of both front and hind wings and the long palpi which
project forward from the head in a way to attract attention. The
common name is due to these projecting palpi. Even the coloring is
primitive, the general tone of the wings being blackish brown,
distinctly marked with white and orange spots. The under surface is
less primitive in its coloring, being toned in iridescent grayish
brown in a way to suggest protective coloring, except in that part of
each front wing which is not hidden when the insect is at rest. This
shows the white and orange-brown markings.
Some years ago there were found in certain fossil deposits in the
West about a dozen species of fossil butterflies. It is strange indeed
that these ethereal creatures should be fossilized at all. One would
think it scarcely possible that they could be so preserved that a
million years after they had died man should be able to study them,
determine to what families they belonged, and even guess with a high
probability of accuracy upon what leaves their caterpillars fed. This
little collection of fossil butterflies was studied by one of the
great American authorities on living butterflies, the late Samuel H.
Scudder, who said of them: "They are generally preserved in such fair
condition that the course of the nervures and the color patterns of
the wings can be determined, and even, in one case, the scales may be
studied. As a rule, they are so well preserved that we may feel nearly
as confident concerning their affinities with those now living as if
we had pinned specimens to examine; and, generally speaking, the older
they are the better they are preserved."
A curious fact is that out of the comparatively few species of these
fossil butterflies two were easily recognized as members of this
Long-beak family. They were given special scientific names and
undoubtedly were closely related to the Snout butterfly which is still
flying every year in various parts of the United States. Our modern
species lays its eggs upon the leaves of hackberry and in these
geologic deposits of that far-gone era there have been found
well-preserved leaves of old hackberry trees, upon which it is
extremely probable that the caterpillars of these ancient Long-beaks
fed. What an opportunity for a modern collector of butterflies to work
his fancy, as he thinks of those old times when these fossil creatures
were flying in the sunshine, depositing their eggs upon the leaves of
trees that made up landscape pictures probably very different from
those of to-day! And how he wonders what flowers these butterflies
visited for their nectar food, what birds chased them from tree to
tree, and what mammals wandered through those ancient forests. What a
suggestion also it gives of the continuity of life upon our old earth
to realize that these butterflies of to-day are carrying on their
brief existence in practically the same way that these forbears of
theirs did so many millions of years ago.
Another way in which these butterflies are peculiar is the fact that
the females have six well-developed legs while the males have only
four. As already indicated the caterpillars feed upon hackberry. When
full grown they are about an inch long, dark green, striped with
yellow, with two blackish tubercules on the second ring behind the
head. They apparently pass the winter in the chrysalis stage. The
butterflies are likely to be found along the borders of brooks or
streams running through woods, or along the margins of the forest.
Occasionally they become abundant in certain localities, but on the
whole they are rare and highly prized by collectors.
THE METAL-MARKS
FAMILY _Riodinidae_
This small family of very small butterflies contains five genera and a
dozen species found in the United States and Mexico. Only two,
however, occur in the eastern region and only one extends much north
of the Gulf states. Aside from certain peculiarities of the
wing-venation (a costal and a humeral vein on the hind wings) these
Metal-marks may be known by their minuteness and the bright metallic
markings on the brown wings.
Both our eastern species belong to the genus _Calephelis_. The Small
Metal-mark (_C. caenius_) has been collected in Florida and Georgia.
The wings are rusty red on both surfaces, brighter below than above,
and marked with blackish spots that almost converge to form stripes;
in addition to which there are, beyond the middle of each wing, two
lines made by special scales that glisten with a steel glitter. The
wings expand only about three quarters of an inch. So far as I can
learn, the egg, larva, or pupa have never been described.
The Large Metal-mark is called by science _Calephelis borealis_, but
it deserves the latter name only in the sense that it is more northern
than its allies. It has been collected as far north as New York and
Michigan, but it seems to be very seldom found, at least in eastern
regions. It expands a little more than an inch. The general color of
the wings is yellowish brown, marked with blackish dots and lines,
together with rows of steely spots on the under surface. In this case
also the life-history is unknown.
[Illustration: _See page 236_
THE SNOUT BUTTERFLY IN FLIGHT AND AT REST]
[Illustration: _See page 62_
GIANT SWALLOWTAIL JUST OUT OF THE CHRYSALIS]
[Illustration: _From a drawing by W. I. Beecroft_ _See page 233_
THE MONARCH BUTTERFLY
Caterpillar feeding; caterpillar hung up for pupation;
chrysalis, and adult]
THE GOSSAMER-WINGS
FAMILY _Lycaenidae_
The daintiest and most delicate of all our butterflies are included
among the Gossamer-wings. Their bodies are small and slender, their
antennae ringed with white and almost threadlike, their wings thin and
of exquisite beauty. Many of them are marked with the slenderest of
tailed projections from the hind wings. When the face is viewed
from in front it is seen to be much narrower than its height. At the
insertion of the antennae the eyes are notched, and they are also more
or less surrounded with white scales. Most of the caterpillars have
oval, slug-shaped, smooth bodies, with the under surface flattened,
and very small heads, which in many species can be extended by means
of an extensile neck. The chrysalids are held in place by silken
threads both at the tail and over the middle. They are rounded, short,
and stout.
Notwithstanding their small size, the Gossamer-wings are among the
most spritely of all our butterflies. They seem indeed winged sprites,
playing everywhere, in fields and open woods, along roads, lanes, and
brooks, in dooryards and gardens--wherever, in fact, a bit of open
space invites their presence. Not alone upon the wing but even when at
rest does their liveliness appear. For most of these butterflies have
the curious habit of keeping the hind wings in motion after alighting,
rubbing them against each other in a vertical plane or "moving them
backward and forward when half expanded." These habits are so fixed
that when one sees a butterfly thus engaged one can pretty certainly
conclude it is a member of this family.
The Gossamer-wings are commonly separated into three rather distinct
tribes--the Hair-streaks, the Coppers, and the Blues. The
characteristic features are these:
Three branches arising from the radius of each front wing. Under
surface of hind wing commonly marked with threadlike streaks: the
Hair-streaks.
Four branches arising from the radius of each front wing. Under
surface of hind wing commonly marked with spots rather than lines.
Colors brownish red: The Coppers.
Colors blue: The Blues.
THE TRIBE OF THE HAIR-STREAKS
The Hair-streaks are small butterflies with the eyes notched to allow
for the insertion of the bases of the antennae. The name is given on
account of the fine, hair-like markings which extend across the under
surface of the hind wings. In many species there is a tailed
projection or two on the hind inner margin of the hind wing. The
caterpillars are remarkable for the small head, so connected with the
body that it can be pushed forward in a characteristic way.
The Hair-streaks are among the most exquisite and delicate of all our
butterflies. A large proportion of them have the upper surface of the
wings toned in beautiful hues of grayish brown and the under surface
lighter gray, marked with dots and stripes, some of which are
brilliant in coloring. A few of the larger species are brilliantly
iridescent in purples, blues, and greens, marked with black. The males
have well-developed scent-pockets in many species, these being
commonly along the front border of the front wing.
A very interesting suggestion in regard to the possible function of
the curious tail projections was made nearly a hundred years ago by
some English entomologists and has since been discussed at
considerable length in various publications. It is that the slender
tails, together with the enlargement of the wing just back of them,
give the impression of a false head. Along with this unusual
development of the wing is to be considered the fact that these
butterflies nearly always alight head downward so that the false head,
furnished with what seem to be waving antennae, takes the place that
would naturally be occupied by the true head. Instances have been
reported in which this false head has apparently been nipped off by a
lizard and much evidence has accumulated to indicate that this curious
device may be a real protection in many cases. Of course, the loss of
the tails and the part of the wings adjacent would be comparatively
insignificant. In most cases, these projections on the wings are held
at right angles to the plane of the wing.
While nearly half a hundred species of Hair-streaks have been found in
North America, only a few of these are sufficiently abundant to
require discussion in this little book.
=The Great Purple Hair-streak=
_Atlides halesus_
It seems something of a reflection on the activities of American
entomologists to say that, after the lapse of more than a century
since Abbott studied the insects of Georgia, our knowledge of the
early stages of two of the largest Hair-streak butterflies is still
confined to the observations he made. Yet this is true, and one of
them--the Great Purple Hair-streak--is the largest species of the
group that occurs in the eastern United States. The other is the
White-M Hair-streak.
The Great Purple Hair-streak is a beautiful, iridescent blue creature,
as seen from above, with blackish borders around the blue. As seen
from below, the wings are dark brown, with red spots near the body.
The two tail-like projections are quite long. It is very large for the
group to which it belongs, measuring nearly two inches across the
expanded wings. It is a tropical form, extending into our southern
borders from California to Florida and occasionally occurring north as
far as southern Illinois. The larvae feed on oak. (_See plate, page
256._)
=The White-M Hair-streak=
_Eupsyche M-album_
The White-M Hair-streak is about two thirds the size of the Great
Purple species with less blue and more black on the upper wing
surface. The hind tail is slender and well developed, and the angle of
the wing just back of it is rounded out in an unusual fashion. The
lower surface of the wing is of a general grayish brown color, marked
by a white stripe, which takes the form of the letter M: hence its
name. This is also a southern species occurring at times as far north
as Ohio and even Atlantic City, New Jersey. The caterpillars feed upon
the leaves of oak and Astragalus or milk vetch.
There is also a third species of this group of whose history we are
ignorant except for Abbot's observations. It is an exquisite little
butterfly called the Least Purple Hair-streak (_Calycopis cecrops_)
and is apparently a tropical form which has spread into our Southern
states. It is especially beautiful because of the brilliant red and
white lines running across the under surface of both wings. It occurs
as far north as West Virginia and Kentucky and ranges westward at
least to the Mississippi Valley.
=The Gray Hair-streak=
_Uranotes melinus_
This exquisite little creature is capable of surviving under a great
variety of climatic conditions. It ranges from New Hampshire to
Florida and Central America, but apparently occurs only rarely north
of the United States. Perhaps the most distinctive feature in the
female is the orange spot just in front of a pair of tiny tails on
each hind wing, the rear one being curiously curved and about three
times as long as the other. In the male the shorter tail is absent.
The general color of the upper surface is a dark bluish gray, relieved
on the margin of each hind wing by a few white dots and the orange
spot already mentioned. The under surface is much lighter gray,
distinctly marked with two dark brown lines near the margin, the outer
line little more than a row of spots and the inner line with a white
edge. (_See plate, page 257._)
These small butterflies lay tiny though beautiful eggs upon a variety
of plants. The eggs hatch into curious little caterpillars that have
the appearance of slugs with small heads which can be extended as if
the little creature had really a rubber neck. The object of this
extensile head is seen when one finds the larvae feeding upon the
fruits or the seed-pods of its various food plants--hawthorn, hop,
hound's-tongue, and St. John's-wort. The caterpillar is able to thrust
its jaws into the interior of the seed-pods and devour their
contents. There seem to be generally two broods in a season, even in
the more northern parts of its range, while toward the south there are
probably at least three broods. The butterflies are found upon the
wing almost any time in summer, especially from early June until late
in August.
=The Banded Hair-streak=
_Thecla calanus_
This is one of the most familiar of the delicate little butterflies
grouped in the genus _Thecla_. It occurs rather commonly in a great
stretch of territory extending from Maine, west to Nebraska, south to
New Mexico and Texas, and east to Alabama and Georgia. It also occurs
in a limited area on the coast of California. The general color of the
upper surface is a dark brown, which in the male is marked near the
front edge of the fore wings with a distinct gray patch of scent
scales. The under side is similar in color to the upper except that
the outer half of the wing is marked by two series of broken lines in
white, blue, and brown and a brilliant bit of coloring just in front
of the tail projection of the hind wings; this coloring shows
beautiful tones of red, blue, and black.
These little butterflies may often be seen visiting the midsummer
flowers but are fully as likely to be found along the sides of a shady
road, where they rest upon the leaves of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous
plants. When disturbed, they fly up in small companies but soon settle
back again into their previous positions. They are lovers of sunshine
and may often be seen upon a leaf, with fully expanded wings, taking
a sun-bath. There is but one brood a year, butterflies appearing early
in summer and remaining for several weeks. They lay their tiny pale
green eggs upon the leaves of various trees, especially oaks and
hickories, and probably hawthorns. It is not known whether these eggs
remain unhatched as a rule until the following spring, or whether they
soon hatch and the young caterpillars hibernate without feeding. It is
probable that both conditions occur. In spring the larvae eat holes in
the leaves of their food plant and grow rather slowly, gradually
becoming brown or green slug-like caterpillars about half an inch
long. They finally change into greenish brown chrysalids from which
the butterflies emerge in early summer.
=The Striped Hair-streak=
_Thecla liparops_
In the Eastern states the distribution of this species is almost the
same as that of the Banded Hair-streak, but in the Central West the
outline of its region moves northward extending into Canada, above
North Dakota, and into Montana and Wyoming. It does not go so far
south, however, extending practically only to the southern borders of
Kansas and Missouri. The butterfly bears a striking general
resemblance to the other species just named, differing chiefly in the
fact that the under surface of the wings is much more thickly marked
with broken lines that extend nearer to the body. As a rule, it is not
common and consequently it is prized by collectors. Some good
observers have noticed that it is more likely to be found only on
flowers, instead of sunning itself on leaves. It is single-brooded,
hibernating either in the egg state or in that of the young larvae.
The food plants are varied, there being good evidence that the
caterpillar feeds upon all of these: apple, plum, shadbush, blueberry,
holly, chestnut, willow, thorn, and several kinds of oaks. Mr. W. F.
Fiske found a chrysalis of this species in the deserted nest of a tent
caterpillar in New Hampshire in early June, the butterfly emerging
later in the month.
=The Acadian Hair-streak=
_Thecla acadica_
This is one of the numerous butterflies that offers some young student
an opportunity to make real contributions to science. It is a
beautiful little creature, expanding scarcely an inch across its
outstretched wings, found from New England west to Montana along a
rather restricted area, which coincides pretty closely with the
southern part of the Transition Zone. There is a form on the Pacific
Coast which is commonly considered to be this same species.
These butterflies appear during July and August. They visit various
flowers but are especially likely to be found near willow thickets
along the borders of brooks and swamps. It is supposed that the eggs
are laid upon the willows and that they remain unhatched until the
following spring. Then they develop into little caterpillars that feed
upon the willow leaves and mature in time to form chrysalids early in
June. These chrysalids in turn disclose the butterfly early in July.
So far as I know the eggs themselves and the situation in which they
are laid have never been described.
=The Olive Hair-streak=
_Mitoura damon_
Very few butterflies have the distinction of showing a clear case of
protective resemblance to one kind of plant in both the adult and the
larval stages. This is the case, however, with this Olive Hair-streak
which is so intimately associated with our common red cedar, that
where one is found the other is likely to occur, although both
caterpillars and butterflies are seldom seen because they resemble the
twigs of the cedar so closely.
Along the Atlantic Coast this little butterfly occurs from New
Hampshire to Florida, and westward to a line drawn from Dakota to
Texas. The upper surface of the wings is rather dark olive-brown and
the under surface, so far as it is exposed when the butterfly is
resting, is of a greenish hue that harmonizes with the green of the
red cedar twigs. There are also, on the under surface, some irregular
lines and dots of red, brown, and white which probably help in
rendering the insect inconspicuous when it is resting among a cluster
of twigs.
The yearly history of this beautiful little butterfly differs from
that of most of its relatives. The species winters in the chrysalis
state, the first brood of butterflies bursting forth early in May.
These lay their eggs upon or between the scales of the red cedar
twigs, especially those which bear flowers. About a week later the
eggs hatch into tiny caterpillars that feed upon the scale-like
leaves, continuing to eat and grow for nearly six weeks before they
reach their full size. These caterpillars are so similar in color that
they are difficult to see, and they have a remarkable protective
device in that the first ring behind the head is developed into a
shield which covers the head, hiding it so completely that the
movement of the jaws in feeding is effectively concealed. Late in June
they change to chrysalids, part of which appear to remain in this
condition until the following spring, while most of them give forth a
second brood of butterflies in July. These butterflies lay eggs for a
second brood of larvae that mature into chrysalids during September,
and hibernate in this condition until the following spring.
Consequently, in the Northern states, the collector should look for
fresh specimens in May and early June and again in July and early
August.
These butterflies visit various flowers, apparently preferring rather
small blossoms, such as those of the Mouse-ear Everlasting, which is
in bloom when the first brood is flying, and the various members of
the mint family, especially spearmint, as well as the sumacs, which
are in bloom when the second brood is on the wing. The time between
flower visits seems to be spent at rest upon the red cedar branches,
and one of the surest ways to find the butterflies is to give these
trees a sudden jar, which starts them into flight. In fact, they may
often be seen flying around the tops of the cedars a score of feet
from the ground.
_Synopsis of the Hair-streaks_
_Great Purple Hair-streak_ (_Atlides halesus_ or _Thecla halesus_).
Wing expanse 1 3/4 inches. Upper wing surface bright blue with
blackish margins, the blackish coloring extending nearly to the middle
in the female. Two distinct tails on each hind wing. Under surface
sepia brown with blue and red spots. Abdomen orange below.
_White-M Hair-streak_ (_Eupsyche m-album_ or _Thecla m-album_). Wing
expanse 1 1/3 inches. Upper wing surface blue with wide blackish
margins in both sexes. Under surface marked with whitish lines
suggesting the letter M, with a reddish spot near it. Each hind wing
with two small tails.
_Least Purple Hair-streak_ (_Calycopis cecrops_ or _Thecla cecrops_).
Wing expanse 1 inch or less. Upper wing surface dark brown, more or
less marked with blue, especially at base of front wings and inner
half of hind wings. Under wing surface marked with a brilliant red
line edged outside with white. Two very fine tails on hind wings with
brightly colored spots near their base on lower surface.
_Gray Hair-streak_ (_Uranotes melinus_ or _Thecla melinus_). Wing
expanse 1 1/5 inches. Upper wing surface bluish gray with a brilliant
red spot at base of tails on hind wing. Lower wing surface much
lighter gray, each wing marked with a brown and white stripe and a row
of dots nearer the margin.
_Banded Hair-streak_ (_Thecla calanus_). Wing expanse 1 1/5 inches.
Upper wing surface dull dark brown, commonly without markings although
sometimes there is an orange spot on each hind wing. Lower wing
surface a little lighter than upper with bright red and blue spots at
the base of the tiny tails, and with distinct narrow blue and white
broken bands extending across the outer half of each wing.
_Striped Hair-streak_ (_Thecla liparops_). Wing expanse 1 inch. Very
similar to the Banded Hair-streak, but having more white markings on
the lower surface of the wings.
_Acadian Hair-streak_ (_Thecla acadica_). Wing expanse 1 1/3 inches.
Upper wing surface blackish brown with a slaty tinge, and red spots at
base of the single short tail on each hind wing. Lower surface bluish
gray with many small blackish spots edged with white arranged in two
principal rows on the outer half of each wing. Larger orange-red spots
on each side of base of the tail on each hind wing.
_Olive Hair-streak_ (_Mitoura damon_ or _Thecla damon_). Wing expanse
1 inch or less. Upper wing surface olive-brown, more yellow in the
male than the female. Tips of tiny tails on hind wing whitish. Lower
surface green except where upper wing is covered by lower: this part
is brown. The green is marked with a row of white spots on each front
wing and two distinct rows of brown and white spots on each hind wing,
with black spots between.
THE TRIBE OF THE COPPERS
The members of this tribe are well characterized by their name, for
most of them show on the upper wing surface tones of coppery brown,
more or less marked around the margin with darker shades. On the under
side of the tarsi there are numerous spines in irregular clusters. In
the chrysalis there are curious hair-like projections on the skin,
which are short and shaped like tiny toadstools or mushrooms.
While some of the Coppers are very abundant, the majority are rather
rare. Only a few species are sufficiently widely distributed to
require description here.
=The Wanderer=
_Feniseca tarquinius_
In many orders of insects there are whole families whose larvae are
habitually carnivorous, feeding entirely upon other kinds of insects.
This is especially so in case of the beetles, the flies, the true
bugs, and the great order to which the bees and wasps belong. Among
the scale-winged insects, however, carnivorous caterpillars are rare,
seldom occurring among the moths and in hardly more than one species
among the butterflies. This one exception is the modest-looking little
butterfly fancifully called the Wanderer, perhaps because instead of
frequenting the flowery fields where other butterflies congregate it
wanders in and out among the alders by brooks and ponds, alighting
oftener upon a leaf or twig than upon a flower--the latter apparently
lacking for it the attraction it has for other butterflies.
If you watch one of these copper-hued creatures for awhile, however,
you will soon see that its wandering is not aimless but has rather a
method all its own. Perhaps you will see it alight upon an alder twig
on or above which you are likely to notice curious woolly white
excrescences. If you are close enough you will probably see the
butterfly uncoil its tongue and sip up a liquid on twig or leaf--the
exudations of the woolly aphids that make up the supposed excrescence
and suck the sap from the bark. Much of this sap passes through the
bodies of the aphids and collects in liquid globules on twigs and
leaves, forming a sort of honey-dew which is much sought after by
flies, wasps, and other insects. It seems to form the chief sustenance
of these Wanderers.
But many of these butterflies have another purpose besides that of
sipping the honey-dew. Should you watch one of the mother butterflies
carefully you would be likely to see her alight on or near a colony of
woolly aphids and run rather rapidly over them in a wasp-like manner,
finally stopping long enough to lay a tiny, roundish, slightly
flattened egg upon the twig, generally on the under side, and only one
in a place. Then she may continue her way, wandering lazily along the
alder-bordered stream.
Let us now centre our interest upon the egg. Three or four days later
it hatches into a curious caterpillar. Instead of having mouth parts
fitted for biting leaves as is the case with most butterfly larvae, it
has one fitted for grasping, piercing, and sucking the juices of the
plump bodies of the aphids, which it finds hard by its place of birth.
It also has silk spinnerets connected with its mouth, so it is able to
spin a web to shelter it from being run over by its intended victims.
The newly hatched larva is not slow to take advantage of the
facilities with which it is provided. It at once begins to spin a web
above and around itself, from the end of which it reaches out for the
nearest aphids, sucking their life-blood and casting their empty skins
to the discard of its protecting web. The skins thus serve as an
additional shelter so that, as the caterpillar moves forward,
increasing the number of its victims from day to day, it extends its
web and the protection of the cast skins intermingled with it, while
through all--the cast skins, the silken web, and even the hairs on the
body of the caterpillar--there runs a woof of the woolly
excretion--effectually concealing the larva from sight.
The woolly aphids thus serve as the sole food of the caterpillar
during its brief life as a larva. Perhaps because of the pre-digested
nature of its food, it is able to mature much sooner than most
butterfly larvae. In about eleven days after hatching it is ready to
change to a chrysalis, having undergone during this period only three
moults, instead of at least four as with other caterpillars. Each
caterpillar then changes to a chrysalis which is remarkable because
the form and color of its back bears a striking resemblance to the
face of a miniature monkey. It remains in this condition nearly a
fortnight and then emerges as a butterfly.
In New England and the Northern states the short life of the larva
enables this insect to mature three broods each season. Farther south
there are probably more, for this species is widely distributed in
eastern North America, occurring from Nova Scotia to Georgia and west
to the Mississippi Valley.
=The American Copper=
_Heodes hypophlaeas_
This little butterfly is one of the most generally abundant insects in
the northern part of North America. It commonly occurs from ocean to
ocean, from the Hudson Bay region to the latitude of Georgia, and it
flies freely in city parks and village yards as well as in the more
open spaces of field and forest. When seen through a lens it is very
beautifully colored, the coppery red of the wings being overspread
with conspicuous black dots and a touch of orange around the outer
border. The expanded wings measure just about an inch, so that this is
one of the smallest of our common butterflies.
The caterpillars of the American Copper feed upon sorrel, one of the
commonest weedy plants of waste places everywhere. The rusty red
blossoms of the sorrel harmonize in color with the color of the
butterfly, which is frequently to be seen flying slowly above the
plants, stopping now and then to lay its eggs singly upon the leaves
or stems. Each egg soon hatches into a curious caterpillar, which
looks more like a slug than the usual type of butterfly larva. It
feeds upon the succulent tissue of the sorrel leaf, at first biting
small holes in the under surface. As it gets larger it feeds more
freely and is likely to make channels instead of holes. It matures in
about three weeks, changing into a chrysalis under the shelter of a
stone or board. A little later it again changes to a butterfly.
There is an interesting variation in the number of broods of this
butterfly each season. In regions where it has been studied it has
been found to be double-brooded in northern New England and
triple-brooded in southern New England and the Atlantic states. It is
probable that in its far northern home in the Hudson Bay territory it
is only single-brooded. It is thought that the insect hibernates as a
chrysalis.
These little butterflies are so small and fly so near the ground that
they are likely to be overlooked by the casual observer. They
frequently alight to sun themselves or to sip nectar from many kinds
of flowers. They begin their day's work early in the morning and
continue well into the evening. Then they find a roosting-place, head
downward upon a blade of grass, where they sleep until wakened by the
morning sunshine.
[Illustration: _From a drawing by W. I. Beecroft_
FIVE INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES
The Spring Azure (_p. 258_) at the top; the Falcate Orange-Tip
(_p. 94_) next; the Bronze Copper (_p. 257_), female, next;
the Spring Azure (_p. 258_) resting on a leaf, next; and the
Great Purple Hair-streak (_p. 243_), female, below.]
[Illustration: _See page 245_
STAGES OF THE GRAY HAIR-STREAK]
=The Bronze Copper=
_Chrysophanus thoe_
This butterfly is nearly twice as large as the American Copper to
which the female of the present species bears a striking resemblance.
The Bronze Copper is a rare species, occurring from New England nearly
to the Rocky Mountains. The slug-shaped yellowish green caterpillar
feeds upon dock and related plants. (_See plate, page 256._)
_Synopsis of the Coppers_
_The Wanderer_ (_Feniseca tarquinius_). Wing expanse 1 1/4 inches.
Upper wing surface tawny brown, each wing more or less marked with
dark brown spots, the distinction between the colors being clear-cut,
and the lines between having an angular effect. Lower surface of front
wings similar in colors to upper with dark spots rectangular. Under
surface of hind wings mottled with irregular spots of pale brown.
_American Copper_ (_Heodes hypophlaeas_ or _Chrysophanus
hypophlaeas_). Wing expanse 1 inch. Upper surface of front wings tawny
orange with margins and rectangular spots blackish. Upper surface of
hind wings coppery red with a tawny orange band on outer margin. Lower
surface of front wings much like upper surface; that of hind wings
grayish marked with dark spots and an orange line near the margin.
_Bronze Copper_ (_Chrysophanus thoe_). Wing expanse 1 1/2 inches.
_Male._ Upper wing surface coppery brown marked with dark spots and a
tawny orange sub-marginal band along outer margin of hind wings. Under
surface of front wings lighter orange with blackish spots and of hind
wings grayish with blackish spots and an orange sub-marginal band.
_Female._ Upper surface of front wings tawny orange with blackish
spots.
THE TRIBE OF THE BLUES
These beautiful little butterflies are well named, for the majority of
them are colored in exquisite tints of blue. They are distinguished
from the Coppers by this blue coloring, as well as by the fact that
the spines on the under side of the tarsi are arranged in rows rather
than in clusters and are comparatively few in number. The body is
rather slender and the under surfaces of the wings are generally
dotted in a characteristic fashion. Most of the two score or more
species found in North America occur on the Pacific Coast or in the
Southwest, less than half a dozen being common in the eastern region.
=The Spring Azure=
_Cyaniris ladon_
For a wee bit of a gossamer-winged creature that expands scarcely an
inch across its outstretched wings, the Spring Azure has caused
American scientists an immense amount of patient labor. Over the vast
territory from Labrador across to Alaska and south to the Gulf of
Mexico, this little blue butterfly exists in so many different forms
that it requires special analytical keys to separate them. Not only
does it vary geographically so that in one locality we find one form
and in another a different form, but it also varies seasonally to a
marked degree. As one would expect there is a striking difference in
its annual cycle between Labrador and the Gulf Coast. In the far
northern region there is but one brood a year, while in the southern
region there are at least two and perhaps more.
The variations in this butterfly are shown by the differences in the
marking of both surfaces of the wings. These markings may run from a
faint blackish border along the extreme margin and a few faint dots
upon the under surface, to a wide black margin around the wings and a
deep abundant spotting of the under surface. The markings of the
various forms are so uniform that the varieties are easily
distinguished. It is beyond the scope of this book to attempt to
differentiate all these varieties but any reader interested will find
an admirable summary of the conditions illustrated by an excellent
plate in Comstock's "How to Know the Butterflies." The species as a
whole may be known from the fact that the upper surface is blue, the
lower surface ash-gray, more or less spotted with dark brown, and the
wings are without tails. (_See plate, page 256._)
_The Strange Structures of the Larvae_
A remarkable variation of the adults is sufficient to give this
species a special interest, but the larvae also have a unique
attraction for the naturalist. The mother butterflies lay their eggs
upon the flower buds of various plants, especially those which have
clustered racemes of blossoms. These eggs hatch into minute slug-like
larvae which feed upon the buds, commonly burrowing through the calyx
lobes and devouring the undeveloped stamens and pistils inside. They
finally change to chrysalids, which are more or less securely attached
to a central flower stalk, from which in due time the butterflies
emerge. So far there is nothing remarkable about this story of the
life of the Spring Azure, but that is yet to come.
These little caterpillars are subject to attack by tiny parasitic
flies which lay eggs in their bodies. Each egg hatches into a still
more tiny maggot that lives at the expense of the tissues of the
caterpillar and finally kills it. When one of these little
caterpillars has its head buried in the round ball of a flower bud,
about half of its body is exposed defenseless, so that the little fly
that lights upon it to lay her egg cannot even be dislodged by the
head of the caterpillar, as is often the case with other species.
There is a very curious provision for defense, however. If you look
carefully through a lens at the hind part of the body you will find a
little opening on the back of the seventh abdominal ring. This opening
leads to a sort of tiny pocket, a pocket which the caterpillar can
turn inside out when it so desires. Now the curious thing about it is
that the caterpillar, while this pocket is concealed in its body, is
able to secrete in it a drop of liquid which we presume to be sweet to
the taste. When the little pocket is partly filled with this drop of
liquid the caterpillar turns it inside out in such a way that the
liquid drop remains in position on top of the protruded pocket.
Perhaps you ask what is the good of all this complicated arrangement?
If you could see what happens when the little drop of what--for lack
of a better name--we shall call honey-dew is exposed, you would begin
to guess the reason. Wherever these larvae are found you will also
find many ants wandering round among them, and the moment the
honey-dew appears these ants begin to sip it up. When it is all gone
the little caterpillar draws in its pocket again and presumably begins
to store up another bit of liquid. It is certainly a curious example
of what the naturalists call symbiosis, which simply means a living
together of two animals, each helping the other in some way. In this
case it is easy enough to see how the caterpillar helps the ant, but
perhaps you are wondering in what possible way the ant may help the
caterpillar. I hardly dare give the most plausible explanation for
fear some one will cry out, "Nature-faker!" But fortunately the
explanation is based upon at least one precise observation by W. H.
Edwards, one of the most careful and reliable naturalists America has
produced, who lived before the recent era of Nature-fakers and was
never accused of sensationalism. Mr. Edwards saw an ant drive away
from one of these caterpillars a little parasitic fly which apparently
was searching for a victim. Consequently, it would appear that the
ants helped the caterpillars by protecting them from these arch
enemies.
This is by no means an isolated example of the relations between ants
and other insects. It has been known for hundreds of years that the
ants use the aphids as a sort of domestic milk-producer, attending the
aphids at all times and even caring for their eggs throughout the
winter season. As the plant-lice live in colonies, sucking the sap of
their host plant, they are attended by great numbers of ants that
feed upon the honey-dew which passes through their bodies. In many
cases the ants have been observed to stroke the aphids with their
antennae in a way which seems to induce the aphid to give out a drop
of the sweet liquid for the ant to lap up. In a similar way these ants
seem sometimes to stroke these little caterpillars with their antennae
and thus to induce them to turn their little pockets inside out with
the drop of liquid at the tip. This is certainly an unusual and most
interesting relation between two insects far separated by their
structural characters.
The little pocket that I have thus described is situated upon the
seventh segment of the abdomen. Just back of it there are two other
openings which are even more curious in their structure. These are
provided with some slender tentacles on which there are circles of
hairy spurs. These structures are a great puzzle to naturalists. It is
difficult to explain what they are for unless we assume that they
relate in some way to the honey-dew pocket on the seventh ring. The
only plausible explanation is that these serve to advertise to the
ants, by giving off a distinctive odor, that there is nectar near at
hand to be had for the asking. They would thus be analogous in a way
to the fragrant scent of flowers which is for the purpose of
advertising to the bee the fact that nectar or pollen or both are near
at hand and may be had for the asking. In the case of these
caterpillars, however, if this is the true explanation it is a most
wonderful provision and one which would be likely to tax the ingenuity
of man's mind for a long while before it was originated.
So this little butterfly which greets us in every spring, like "a
violet afloat," to quote Mr. Scudder's happy phrase, is full of
interest at all stages of its existence. It should lead one to a new
respect for the familiar things in the natural world when one learns
how baffling to the wits of the wisest scientist is this little
creature with its protean forms and the wonderful structure of its
caterpillars.
=Scudder's Blue=
_Rusticus scudderi_
This beautiful little butterfly is perhaps the most richly colored of
all our northern Blues. The upper surface of the wings in the male is
a nearly uniform hue, except for a narrow dark border around the
margin. In the female there is, in addition, a series of black-centred
orange spots inside of the black border, the series being more
prominent on the hind wings than on the front ones. The under surface
is very pale with distinct marks in black scattered over the basal two
thirds, with a row of orange spots outside of these and another row of
small blackish spots just inside of the blackish border stripe.
This butterfly is a northern species. It occurs in New England, New
York, and Michigan, and thence extends far north into Canada. The
caterpillar feeds upon blue lupine and apparently the butterfly is
likely to be found in most places where this plant grows. The eggs are
laid upon the leaves or stems and the little caterpillars come out of
the shells through small holes which they have gnawed.
"The caterpillar," wrote Mr. Scudder, "has a very extensible head and
flexible neck, and its manner of feeding immediately after birth is
rather remarkable; it pierces the lower cuticle of the leaf, making a
hole just large enough to introduce its minute head, and then devours
all the interior of the leaf as far as it can reach--many times the
diameter of the hole--so that when the caterpillar goes elsewhere, the
leaf looks as if marked with a circular blister, having a central
nucleus; the nearly colorless membranes of the leaf being all that is
left, and at the central entrance to the blister the upper membrane
only." Later in its life it often modifies this feeding habit
somewhat, and as it approaches full growth it is likely to devour the
entire blade of the leaf.
These larvae have the curious nectar-secreting glands on the seventh
abdominal segment which are discussed in connection with the preceding
species. Many ants are attracted by this secretion so that it often
happens that the easiest way to find the caterpillars is to look for
these attendants. In New England there are two broods of the
butterfly, one appearing early in June and the other late in July.
=The Tailed Blue=
_Everes comyntas_
The tiny, threadlike, white-tipped tail projecting from the hind angle
of the hind wings distinguishes this species at sight from any other
found in eastern North America. The species, however, occurs clear to
the Pacific Coast and ranges north and south over most of the northern
continent. The small slug-like caterpillar feeds upon the flowers of
various clovers and other legumes.
=The Silvery Blue=
_Nomiades lygdamus_
It would be a distinct privilege to work out the life-history of this
exquisite little butterfly. Although the adult was described as long
ago as 1842, the early stages seem to be still unknown. The species
occurs in the South Atlantic states, extending west as far as
Wisconsin.
_Synopsis of the Blues_
_Tailed Blue_ (_Everes comyntas_ or _Lycaena comyntas_). Wing expanse
1 inch or less. A slender tail projecting from each hind wing. Upper
wing surface of varying tones of blue, the males lighter than the
females. Lower wing surface grayish white with scattered spots.
_Scudder's Blue_ (_Rusticus scudderi_ or _Lycaena scudderi_). Wing
expanse 1 inch or less. No tails on hind wings. Eyes without hairs.
Upper wing surface blue; female has dusky margins on front wings and
an orange border with blackish spots near outer margin of the hind
wings. Lower wing surface bluish gray with many small spots.
_Silvery Blue_ (_Nomiades lygdamus_ or _Lycaena lygdamus_). Wing
expanse 1 inch. No tails on hind wings. Eyes hairy. Upper wing surface
silvery blue with dusky margins which are broader in the female. Lower
wing surface ashy gray with many darker spots.
_Spring Azure_ (_Cyaniris ladon_ or _Lycaena ladon_). Wing expanse 1
inch. No tails on hind wings. Eyes hairy. Upper wing surface azure
blue with black border markings varying greatly, more pronounced in
the female. Lower wing surface slaty brown with many darker spots.