EARLY BRITISH WAR MEDALS
How to arrange a collection of medals--Factors which influence the
value of a medal--The earliest medals--The first English medal--The
first English military medal--The Forlorn Hope medal--The Dunbar
medal--The Culloden medal--Medals granted by the Honourable East
India Company--The Pope's medal, 1793--The Emperor Francis II of
Germany's medal, 1794--The Seringapatam medal--The Egyptian medal,
1801--The Rodriguez medal--The Nepaul medal--The Maida medal--The
Peninsular officers' medal
The dignity which enshrines a collection of war medals is something
greater and fuller than that which can be ascribed to almost any other
branch of curio collecting. Coins, china, furniture, and prints are
all fascinating in their way, but none seem to have the same depth of
interest as is possessed by the average collection of war medals. To
handle one of these tokens of strife and bloodshed is to call up
feelings of reverence and honour for the man who spent his energies so
freely in earning it, and it is probably on account of this extrinsic
quality that war medals are so highly prized among connoisseurs.
With many forms of collecting, the different specimens that are
available are so numerous as to be overwhelming, but this drawback
cannot act as a deterrent to the would-be medal collector. British
medals have been fashioned with a sparing hand, and their number is
more or less limited. Many of them, it is true, are extremely costly,
whilst a select few are quite prohibitive in price--a matter which,
perhaps, adds to the zest of collecting.
The best method of storing these treasures is to follow the plan
adopted by coin-collectors, and to range them on trays in the shallow
drawers of coin-cabinets. Where the pieces are few in number, it is a
good plan to mount them on a board covered with black velvet, and to
frame them just as one does a picture. To have no particular method of
keeping them, to leave them lying loose in drawers, or to place them
as casual ornaments in curio or china cabinets is decidedly wrong, for
a few scratches, a fall, or a little rough handling will often reduce
considerably the value of a specimen.
For the benefit of the uninitiated, it may be well to mention
that not only does the value of a medal depend upon its state of
preservation--that is to say, whether it is in mint condition, slightly
rubbed, much worn, scratched, battered, re-engraved, etc.--but also
upon the number of clasps that go with it. It must not be thought that
collectors tolerate the indiscriminate adding of clasps to claspless
medals. A medal that was awarded with, say, one additional honour
cannot be turned into a three-clasp decoration by purchasing two clasps
from a dealer and placing them upon the slide ribbon. The medal in
question, if it be less than a hundred years old, has the name of
the original possessor engraved upon the flange, and by turning to the
Medal Rolls the number of clasps issued with the particular decoration
can be found. Another factor which affects the value of a medal is the
regiment to which it was issued. A medal given to a private in a crack
regiment will possess a greater value than an identical medal awarded
to a private in a less noted one. The rank of the recipient is also
taken into account; this, however, is perhaps only natural.
[Illustration: ROYALIST BADGE WORN BY THE PARTISANS OF CHARLES I.]
* * * * *
Medals were known to the Ancients. The Greeks, for instance, have left
behind them many interesting specimens which can still be seen in our
public museums, but none of them were given as recompenses for military
bravery. The ordinary soldier of these early days had no status, and
therefore received no rewards, whilst the leaders were given crowns
of laurel, bracelets, and neck chains of gold for the services they
rendered.
It was Queen Elizabeth who first thought of giving medals to British
fighting men, and it was the crews of the ships which sailed out to
meet the Armada that received them.
The first medals to be given for military, as distinct from naval,
honours were struck by Charles I. Probably the very earliest award made
by this King was the medal presented to Sir Robert Welch, an officer
in the Royalist Cavalry, whose bravery in recovering the standard from
the Parliamentary forces at Edge Hill excited the admiration of every
member in his party.
Charles gave orders for many other medals to be struck, but most of
them were presented to officers holding high posts who had performed
special services in times of peace as well as war. Many of these
decorations were fashioned in single copies, and as practically none of
them bore any inscriptions beyond the title and motto of the King, it
is impossible to ascribe them to any definite act of military value.
They were all oval in shape, whilst the designs showed considerable
artistic merit.
All these medals were intended to be worn suspended around the neck, or
fixed brooch-like in the hat. Usually, the ribbons which were worn with
them could be selected by the possessor at will, no fixed pattern being
officially decreed, as obtains in present times. As may be expected,
specimens belonging to this early period are now extremely costly, but
they are often obtainable at public sales. A fine collection of them
may be inspected in the medal-room at the British Museum.
Charles I evidently had great faith in the value of decorations, for we
find that towards the latter part of his reign he instituted a general
medal, known popularly as the Forlorn Hope medal, which was to be
awarded much on the lines which regulate the granting of the Victoria
Cross to-day.
The warrant which announced these awards ran as follows:--
"CHARLES R. Trusty and well beloved, we greet you well,
whereas we have received information that those soldiers which have
been forward to serve us in the Forlorn-hope, are not looked upon
according to their merited valour and loyal service. We do, therefore,
require, that from henceforward, the Commander-in-Chief both of Horse
and Foot, which lead up the Forlorn-hope upon whom also we mean to
bestow special tokens of our princely favour, do signify in writing
the names of those soldiers whom they find most forward in serving
us, their King and country, that care may be taken to reward their
deservings and make them specially known to all our good subjects. For
which end we have thought fit to require Sir William Parkhurst, Kt.,
and Thomas Bushell, Esq., Wardens of the Mint, to provide from time to
time certain Badges of Silver, containing our Royal image, and that
of our dearest son, Prince Charles, to be delivered to wear on the
breast of every man who shall be certified under the hands of their
Commander-in-Chief to have done us faithful service in the Forlorn-hope.
"And we do, therefore, most straightly command that no soldier at any
time do sell, nor any of our subjects presume to buy, or wear, any of
these said Badges, other than they to whom we shall give the same,
and that under such pain and punishment as the Council of War shall
think fit to inflict if any shall presume to offend against this our
Royal command. And we further require the said Commanders and Wardens
of our Mint to keep several registers of the names of those, and of
their country, for whom they shall give their certificate. Given at our
Court, at Oxford, the 18th day of May, 1643."
It is unfortunate that what records were presumably kept, under these
orders, were destroyed by a disastrous fire which took place at Oxford
in 1644. Thus we neither know how many specimens of the Forlorn Hope
medal were distributed, nor do we even know for certain the exact
design it bore. A number of identical copies exist of a medallion
bearing the profile of King Charles on the obverse, and that of Prince
Charles on the reverse, and this is usually considered to be the award
in question.
The Dunbar medal, the next to call for attention, is of special
interest, as it was the first British award to be given to every
member of the fighting forces, whether man or officer. This attractive
decoration was struck in 1650 in two sizes, a small gold piece for
officers and a large copper one for distribution among the ranks. Both
bore the same design, namely, Cromwell's profile and the inscription
"Word.at.Dunbar. The Lord of Hosts. Septem. Y. 3. 1650.," on the
obverse, and a view, in exaggerated perspective, of Parliament in full
assembly on the reverse.
A curious letter, referring to the design of this medal, and written
by the Protector, is still extant. It explains that Cromwell while
in Scotland received a visit from the artist chosen by Parliament
to execute the design. The artist went to beg a few sittings of the
great leader with a view to producing a faithful portrait-likeness.
But Cromwell was extremely loath to allow his features to be displayed
upon the medal, and advanced all manner of excuses, probably owing to
feelings of over-sensitiveness. In the end he was prevailed upon, and
the medal bore his profile as stated above. This incident is of special
interest, as historians have seldom, if ever, mentioned in discussing
the character of this able soldier that one of his qualities was
modesty.
* * * * *
After Dunbar came a lengthy period during which many medals were
struck; they were all, however, of an individual character, being
awarded to leaders for personal services.
Culloden, which was fought on April 16, 1746, was the next event
to call for a special issue of medals. To commemorate the Young
Pretender's rout, oval medals in gold and silver were struck. It is
presumed that the gold pieces were awarded to leaders of the highest
rank, whilst the silver ones went to those of lesser importance. It is
certain, however, that no awards were made to the common soldiers.
The design was remarkably bold and imposing; the obverse bore a simple
profile of the Duke of Cumberland with short curly hair and the word
"Cumberland," whilst the reverse showed an unclothed full-length figure
of Apollo, looking to the left. The inscription "Actum est ilicet
perut" and, also in Latin, "Battle of Culloden, April 16th, 1746,"
appeared on the reverse.
This medal was one of the first to be issued with a definitely
prescribed pattern for the ribbon. The warrant effecting its issue
stated that "it was to be worn round the necks of officers by
means of a crimson ribbon having a narrow green border." The medal
is exceedingly rare, but of the few copies known to exist one,
fortunately, may be seen among the treasures of the British Museum,
and another in the Royal United Service Museum.
* * * * *
The history of British and Indian medals is so interwoven that it
is impossible to study the first without knowing something of the
latter. It may even be claimed that much which affected the fashioning
and awarding of late eighteenth-century decorations given by the
authorities at Bombay has since been copied by our authorities at home.
The most obvious point bearing on this contention deals with the shape
of the medals. Before the Indian examples, all of which were circular,
were struck, the British patterns invariably appeared oval in form,
whilst most of the subsequent issues have been circular. Again, the
allegorical designs of patriotic themes, which our most recent medals
bear, had their early origin in the sepoy tableaux which decorated
the reverse of the Indian medals. The reverse side of British medals
before the Indian specimens were issued usually depicted the features
of a royal personage, a coat of arms, or, perhaps, a sailing vessel.
But the greatest influencing factor of the Indian medals was the
method of granting them. Every soldier from the highest general down
to the lowest fighter received an award. In England quite a different
custom prevailed. With the single exception of the Dunbar medal, no
English soldier was ever awarded a royal medal until Waterloo, unless
his conduct had been unusually brave and he had merited some special
recognition. The controversy which raged round Wellington's campaigns
as to whether the ordinary men as a class should or should not
receive decorations was finally settled by remembering the sepoys of
India. If it were good for these soldiers to receive them, then our
British fighting men must have them as well. Such was the popular
opinion which prevailed.
[Illustration: THE CRIMEAN MEDAL.]
* * * * *
The pioneer medal from India is usually spoken of as the 1778
decoration awarded for services at Poona, but, as no specimens are
known to exist, there is reasonable doubt as to whether the decoration
was ever struck. The records, however, state plainly that the
Bombay Council decided to give medals to all the officers among the
grenadier-sepoys who went with Colonel Egerton to quell a native rising
in Poona.
In 1780, a campaign in Deccan took place against Tippoo Sahib and his
father. A medal was afterwards minted by the Honourable East India
Company and presented to all officers and men forming the Bengal Army.
There were gold and silver specimens, vast numbers of both being
struck. The obverse showed Britannia, leaning forward, offering a
wreath to a fort flying a British flag. The reverse bore a Persian
inscription.
A second encounter with Tippoo Sahib, known as the Mysore Campaign,
took place in 1791-2. The medals which were subsequently struck for the
officers and men who served under Colonel Cockerell were made in gold
and silver and were intended to be worn around the neck, suspended by a
yellow silk cord. The obverse depicted a sepoy grasping a half-unfurled
British flag, trampling at the same time on the enemy's colours; the
reverse bore the inscription, "For Services in Mysore, A.D.
1791-1792."
If medals were ever dearly won, those of the Mysore Campaign seem to
have been, for many stories have been told of the great daring shown
by Cockerell's men. Thomas Carter in his work on "War Medals" writes
as follows: "One of the most dashing exploits in the War of Mysore
was the capture of Bangalore, the second city in the dominions of
Tippoo. It was enclosed by a high wall and a deep ditch, and the gate
was covered by a close thicket of Indian thorns. The attack was made
without any examination of the ground, and the troops in advancing and
endeavouring to force an entrance were exposed to a destructive fire of
musketry. Colonel Moorhouse, one of the best officers in the service,
fell mortally wounded. At length, Lieutenant Ayre, a man of diminutive
stature, succeeded in forcing his way through the shattered gate; which
gallant action being observed by General Meadows, he shouted to the
stormer, 'Well done! Now, whiskers, try, if you can, to follow and
support the little gentleman.' This animated appeal succeeded: the
troops rushed through the gate into the town and drove out the enemy at
the point of the bayonet."
It is now necessary to speak of two medals of a slightly different
nature to any of the foregoing. In mentioning the first, we must recall
the work undertaken by the 12th Lancers in 1793, when one section of
the regiment went to Corsica and, landing, captured the Bastia, whilst
another section went forward to the Italian coast and entered the
harbour of Civitavecchia. For the protection thus afforded him, Pope
Pius VI gave a dozen of the officers gold medals suitably inscribed.
These decorations, it must be added, were not officially recognized in
England, and the recipients received no permission to wear them when in
uniform.
In the year 1794, another case of British soldiers receiving a foreign
decoration occurred. In this instance, Emperor Francis II of Germany
was the donor of a gold medal and a chain pendant to each of eight
officers of the 15th Light Dragoons. The Emperor had fallen into a
precarious position at Villiers-en-Crouché, a small settlement near
Cambray, and, had it not been for the heroic and persistent efforts of
the English, he would certainly have been captured by the French, who
were massed in great numbers. The awards were made as a thank-offering
for his lucky escape.
Unlike the Pope's decorations, those of Francis II were recognized by
the English Army authorities, and the recipients were allowed to wear
them when parading in full dress. The following letter may be quoted in
reference to the matter[16]:--
"TO LORD DORCHESTER, COLONEL OF THE
15TH DRAGOONS.
_May 1, 1798._
MY LORD,--The Emperor of Germany having been pleased to
present each of the officers of the 15th Regiment, under your
Lordship's command, who distinguished themselves in so gallant a
manner by their spirited attack upon the enemy, with a very inferior
force, on the 24th April, 1794, near Cambray, a gold medal has been
struck by his Imperial Majesty's orders, on the occasion, as a
particular mark of the sense he entertained of the signal service
thereby rendered to the Allied Army. I have therefore the honour,
by order of his Royal Highness the Commander-in-Chief to signify
to your Lordship his Majesty's pleasure that the above-mentioned
officers shall be permitted to wear the said medals constantly with
their uniforms, as an honorary badge of their bravery in the field
of action, and an inducement to all others to imitate, on every
favourable occasion, their glorious example.
I have, etc.,
WM. FAWCETT, _Adjutant-General_."
[16] D. H. Irwin, "War Medals," p. 17.
From this time until the Peninsular campaign almost all the medals
which we have to record--many of them of a highly interesting
nature--were awarded to native troops by the Honourable East India
Company.
The first, dated 1807, reminds us of the gradual expansion of the
British Empire. It was struck to commemorate the capture of Ceylon
from the Dutch, 1795-6. The medal was made in gold and silver in
Calcutta and was given, probably exclusively, to the Bengal Native
Artillery--one of those sections of the native Indian Army of which the
East India Company was justly proud. The medal was unusually plain,
there being no pictorial design, but merely the inscription, "For
Service at the Island of Ceylon, A.D. 1795-6," on the obverse,
and a Persian inscription on the reverse. It may be said that questions
were asked by those in authority as to how so severe a pattern came
to be chosen, and the reply was given that as no exceptional feats
occurred during the campaign, a simple design was deemed most suitable.
The reason seems unconvincing.
[Illustration: THE GENERAL SERVICE MEDAL, 1793-1814.]
[Illustration: THE AFGHAN MEDAL.]
[Illustration: SOUTH AFRICAN MEDAL, 1877-9.]
The siege and capture of Seringapatam, which culminated in the death of
that arch-enemy, Tippoo Sahib, was the occasion for issuing a Madras
medal, according to a general order dated July 18, 1808. Gold pieces
were given to senior officers, silver gilt pieces to field officers,
silver pieces to junior officers, bronze pieces to the rank and file of
the British force, and tin pieces to sepoys. The design was attractive:
on the obverse appeared a landscape view of our gallant men storming
Seringapatam, whilst a lion overwhelming a tiger filled the reverse.
The medal was not made in Calcutta, as was usually the case with the
Indian decorations, but at Birmingham.
Collectors have often been at a loss to know how the Indian awards were
intended to be worn. In reference to the Seringapatam distinction,
Mayo, in "Medals and Decorations of the British Army and Navy,"
says: "There is no doubt that they were issued unmounted, and as no
directions had been given by the authorities the details as to ribbon
and mountings devolved on the recipients, who exercised their own
discretion and taste. It is, however, probable that the European
officers wore them as the gold medals for the Peninsular and other
campaigns were worn--i.e. round the neck, or at the button-hole,
according to rank. Some added a clasp bearing the word Seringapatam.
"Three patterns of ribbon, at least, appear to have been used, viz. red
with blue borders, yellow watered, and plain red. That the first was
used under some sort of authority is gathered from a discussion which
took place between the Madras Government and the Commander-in-Chief
in 1831, on the occasion of the distribution of the medals awarded to
the native troops in the first Burmese war. The Commander-in-Chief
had proposed that a piece of red ribbon with blue borders should be
issued with each medal. The Government assented to the issue of the
ribbon but objected to the pattern on the ground of its resemblance to
the Waterloo ribbon. To this the Commander-in-Chief replied that the
ribbon he had proposed was common to all medals granted by His Majesty
in modern times, and was considered to be the medal ribbon of England.
He added: 'The medals of Seringapatam and Java are both suspended from
it, and both are so worn with the sanction of His Majesty.' This is
authoritative evidence of the medal being worn with the only military
ribbon then in use.
"Lord Harris, who commanded at Seringapatam, wore his medal, gold,
suspended round his neck by the red, blue-bordered ribbon, as the
gold medal was worn by general officers. A bust of his lordship was
exhibited at the Royal Military Exhibition, at Chelsea in 1890.
This showed the medal worn round the neck, with a clasp inscribed
'Seringapatam.'"
A second Seringapatam medal, almost similar in design to the first, was
struck in 1808 and presented to British as well as native troops by
order of the East India Company. This decoration was made at Calcutta.
The next medal takes us to Egypt and recalls to mind a number of
desperate encounters between the English and French. In the year 1800
an army of 15,000 British soldiers, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, had
been assembled in the peninsula. The French were already massed there
in great numbers, being more than double our strength. On March 21,
1801, a bloody contest took place at Alexandria, and Abercrombie
fell mortally wounded. Reinforcements were necessary, and these were
supplied by the East India Company, which dispatched an expeditionary
force of native troops with commendable promptitude. On returning to
India in 1803, the Government of Bombay promised the men a campaign
medal--that is to say, a medal would be granted to each individual who
set out to fight for the British cause. Nine years elapsed before the
medal was struck, but it is gratifying to know that specimens were
given to the descendants of all soldiers whose demise had taken place
in the meantime. Sixteen gold and 2,199 silver copies were struck at a
cost of R. 5519.8.
The obverse of this award showed a sepoy holding a Union Jack,
whilst in the background the tents of the Indian camp were revealed.
A Persian inscription filled the exergue (i.e. the section of the
circular face of the medal cut off from the rest by a straight
line). The reverse revealed a wooden British ship nearing the coast,
presumably of Egypt. The date, MDCCCI, was added.
The Turkish Sultan, also, gave a medal to the British soldiers who took
part in this campaign. It is usually spoken of as "The Order of the
Crescent."
These early years of the nineteenth century brought the English into
many unfortunate conflicts with our present allies, the French.
No sooner was strife at an end in Egypt than we once more met our
gallant rivals, this time in the Islands of Rodrigues, Bourbon, and
Mauritius. It was in the years 1809-10, under the command of General
J. Abercromby, who led the 6th and 24th Madras Infantry, also the 4th
Bombay Infantry, and Vice-Admiral Bertie, who brought a squadron of
ships, that a strong force met and defeated the French. The medal which
was afterwards awarded to all natives who took part in the engagement
was inscribed, "This medal was conferred in commemoration of the
bravery and fidelity exhibited by the Sepoys of the English Company in
the capture of the Islands of Rodrigues, Bourbon, and Mauritius in the
year of Hegira, 1226." The date as reckoned by the English calendar was
also given. The obverse revealed a sepoy standing with our national
flag in one hand and a rifle in the other. A cannon was shown just
behind him, whilst the background depicted an expanse of sea. Gold and
silver pieces were struck by the Calcutta Mint. The following Order in
Council of the year 1811 is of interest:--
"On the occasion of the approaching return from the late French islands
of the volunteers from Bengal, Fort St. George, and Bombay, to the
Presidencies to which they respectively belong, His Excellency the
Vice-President in Council considers it to be no less an act of justice
than of indispensable duty to record the high sense he entertains of
the services performed by the native soldiery, who were employed in
concert with His Majesty's troops in the reduction of the Islands
of Rodriguez, Bourbon, and Mauritius. He is pleased to signify his
approbation of the distinguished merits of the volunteers by conferring
honorary medals on all the native commissioned and non-commissioned
officers, troopers, sepoys, gaulundauze, and gun lascars employed on
that service."
Closely following on the declaration of peace in the three
above-mentioned islands of the Indian Ocean came trouble with the Dutch
in Java. As was usual, a joint army of home and native troops was
dispatched to the scene of conflict. A victory was gained in 1811, and
on February 11, 1812, seven thousand medals were struck by the East
India Company at Calcutta, for distribution among the Indian troops.
The British regiments, the 14th, 59th, 69th, 78th, and 89th Foot,
took part in the expedition but, following the usual custom, received
no awards. The particulars of this Indian medal were as follows:
Obverse--sepoys storming Fort Cornelis, upon which was prominently
displayed a flagstaff bearing a British flag above, presumably, a
Dutch flag with the word CORNELIS printed above the scene. Reverse--a
Persian inscription and August MDCCCX. Java Conquered. XXVI.
The Nepaul medal was the next to be struck by the Honourable East India
Company. It bears the date of 1816. In granting this award, a departure
was made from the usual custom of giving a decoration to every soldier,
or his heirs, who actually set out from home with an expeditionary
force. In this case, the medal was granted, first, to officers who
reached the fighting area and, second, to the men who conducted
themselves with conspicuous bravery. Mayo says that the feeling was
probably gaining ground that too many medals were being struck and
their value was becoming lessened in consequence. This he suggests was
the reason for restricting the number on this occasion.
The obverse of the Nepaul medal showed a stirring picture of hills,
strongly fortified, with cannon in the foreground and an array of
bayonets just coming into view. The reverse consisted of a Persian
inscription.
After Nepaul, a long period followed during which no campaign medals
were awarded to Indian troops. Certain individual awards were made to
officers, but as in each case less than twenty pieces were struck, we
consider it unnecessary to record them in detail.
At this point we must retrace our steps to the year 1806 and speak of
the Battle of Maida, which may be described as an outlying encounter in
the Napoleonic campaigns. To celebrate Sir John Stuart's victory over
the forces led by General Regnier, a medal was struck and presented to
thirteen of the highest officers. The award in itself was unimportant,
but as it was practically the first royal medal to be given to British
soldiers since the time of Culloden, it must be looked upon as an
epoch-making decoration. We must admit that Nelson's men at Trafalgar
had received awards, and certain regiments which took part in various
Napoleonic wars were provided with coveted distinctions, but in every
case they were planned and paid for by private individuals and so
cannot rank in any way as royal medals. It is perhaps interesting to
record, in parenthesis, that the Trafalgar medals were given to the
recipients by an engineer of Birmingham named Matthew Boulton.
The last award to be described in this chapter is the Peninsular medal.
Two sizes, both in gold, were struck and presented to officers. No men
received them. The designs of both were: Obverse--Britannia, seated on
a globe, holding out a palm; a couchant lion beside her. Reverse--a
laurel wreath framing the name of one of the following battles: Roleia,
Vimeira, Sahagun, Benevente, Corunna, Martinique, Talavera, Guadaloupe,
Busaco, Barrosa, Fuentes d'Onoro, Albuera, Java, Ciudad Rodrigo,
Badajoz, Salamanca, Fort Detroit, Vittoria, Pyrenees, St. Sebastian
Chateauguay, Nivelle, Nive, Orthes, and Toulouse. The name and rank of
the recipient was engraved upon the edge.
The larger medal was awarded to general officers and was provided with
an attachment for wearing around the neck, a crimson ribbon with blue
edging being specified. The smaller medal was given to junior officers
who took command in cases where their superior-commanders had been
disabled. This award was provided with a buckle and ribbon as above and
was intended for wear upon the breast.
Both the large and small medals were conferred for service in one
engagement. For a second or third engagement bars were provided. These,
it may be added, in parenthesis, were the first bars given to British
soldiers.
When an officer received distinctions in more than three engagements
he was awarded the Peninsular Cross instead of the foregoing circular
medals. This distinction was struck in gold and had much the same shape
and design as was afterwards selected for the Victoria Cross. The lion
on the former, however, faces to the right, whilst on the latter it
looks to the left.
In this chapter we have traced the history of British medals from their
inception in the reign of Elizabeth down to the stormy times of the
Duke of Wellington. The period was marked by the paucity of awards made
to British troops. Popular opinion, however, was gradually forcing its
influence during the latter years of the period upon the authorities
who withheld them, and the following chapter shows how agitations
coming from non-military quarters caused a complete change of policy
in the granting of these coveted distinctions.
[Illustration: THE INDIAN MUTINY MEDAL.]