Fortunately, too, besides the few specimens of Florentine porcelain that
have survived to our day a manuscript has been found in the
Magliabechian Library at Florence which states that the paste was
composed of 24 parts of sand, 16 of a glass (powdered rock crystal 10
and soda 8), and 12 parts white earth of Faenza. To 12 parts of this
mixture 3 parts of the kaolinic clay of Vicenza were to be added, and
the pieces glazed with a lead glaze, or sometimes with the tin-enamel of
the Italian faience maker. We are in the presence, therefore, of a
material unlike Chinese porcelain in every respect, the Florentine
porcelain being the first of a long line of European porcelains the
artistic qualities of which were obtained by mixing a large quantity of
glass with a small quantity of clay, so that they may almost be regarded
as a species of glazed and painted glass. The technical methods used in
their manufacture and decoration, however, were those of the potter and
not of the glass maker.
With the death of Francesco de' Medici in 1587 it seems probable that
this wonderful innovation came to an untimely end, and we hear no more
of porcelain in Italy for more than a century. During this century
(1587-1687) there can be no doubt that efforts were made all over Europe
to discover the secret of porcelain manufacture; but the first reliable
date we can point to is 1673, when Louis Poterat, a faience maker of
Rouen, obtained a privilege from the French king for the manufacture of
porcelain in that town. The Rouen porcelain in turn ceased with the
death of Poterat in 1696. Authentic specimens are extant in the shape of
salt-cellars, mustard pots and some few vases, the latter of
considerable size. The pieces are usually decorated in blue with
patterns in the Rouen style and were evidently painted by an expert
faience painter. In composition, the porcelain of Rouen, like that of
Florence, was of the artificial or glassy type, and shortly afterwards a
similar ware made its appearance at the faience works of St Cloud near
Paris, and at various works in the city of Paris. Well-known pieces,
bearing the marks here shown, formerly supposed to be the earliest
specimens of French porcelain and the work of Poterat at Rouen, are
probably experimental pieces made in Paris after the date of Poterat's
discovery, as they differ in important particulars from his ware.
[Illustration: Paris Potters' marks.]
[Illustration: St Cloud Potters' marks.]
Once firmly established in France, this manufacture, under the patronage
of the French court or of some great French noble, rapidly assumed a
position of importance. The works at St Cloud received letters-patent
from Louis XIV. in 1696, and the manufacture was continued there down to
1773. The appearance of the St Cloud porcelain is very characteristic,
for though the paste has a yellowish tinge it is of fine quality with a
clear and brilliant glaze. The first efforts appear to have consisted in
frank imitations of the much-prized Oriental wares, and white pieces
decorated only with branches of flowering plum in relief, or pieces
modelled with imbricated or scale pattern or with delicate flutings,
were made. The earliest colour decoration was naturally in under-glaze
blue, and while quasi-oriental designs were largely used, the commonest
feature is the prevalence of painted borders like those used on the
faience of Rouen and St Cloud. At a later date decoration in over-glaze
colours and gilding was also employed, and though the ware never reached
to such a pitch of excellence as that of the Royal Manufactory at
Sèvres, the St Cloud porcelain is one of the most distinctive French
porcelains of the 18th century.
_German Porcelains._--While the glassy porcelains of France were being
developed at St Cloud, success of a more permanent order was reached in
Germany. Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony (1670-1733), had formed
an extensive collection of Chinese and Japanese porcelains, still to be
seen in the Dresden Museum, and he had established experimental pottery
works, bringing skilled potters from Holland and elsewhere. His chief
investigators appear to have been Tschirnhaus and Böttger, both
alchemists, and it was the glory of the latter to be the first European
to produce a porcelain like the Chinese, both in the nature of its
materials, and in the appearance of its paste and glaze. It may be
surmised that Böttger was guided toward this momentous discovery by
information brought from China, though such an idea is always stoutly
denied by German authorities, who, with pardonable pride, claim that
Böttger at the age of twenty-four succeeded where all other European
experimenters had failed. He was certainly working at the problems
offered by the exotic wares of China, for his first production was an
extremely hard redstone-ware--often erroneously called "Böttger's red
porcelain"--resembling the Chinese "boccaros" or red teapots of the
Yi-hsing potteries. He had been anticipated in this direction by Dwight
of Fulham, but the red pottery of Böttger was so intensely fired that it
became dense enough to be cut and polished by the lapidary as if it were
a piece of jasper or carnelian. It was first offered for sale at the
Leipzig fair of 1710, and for many years it enjoyed great popularity, as
well as the undesirable honour of wide imitation. At the same time
(1710) Böttger exhibited a few crude specimens of greyish-white
porcelain. Imperfect pieces were on sale in 1713, and by 1716 its
manufacture was definitely established, though the pieces were still far
from perfect. Böttger died in 1719, having had the rare fortune, in his
short and eventful life, to establish in Europe the manufacture of true
porcelain.
The life of Böttger reads like a page of romance, and the story of the
subsequent development of porcelain manufacture throughout the German
empire is hardly less romantic. When the importance of Böttger's
discovery was recognized, he and his workmen were removed from Dresden
to the Albrechtsburg, a fortress situated at Meissen some 16 m. away, so
that the manufacture could be conducted with the greatest secrecy. All
concerned were practically state prisoners, and this extreme rigour
doubtless defeated the end in view, for workmen escaped from time to
time, and professing, more or less truthfully, a knowledge of the
manufacture, found patrons among the German princes all eager to gain
reputation as experimenters in the new art of porcelain. Some of these
wandering "Arcanists," like Ringler and Hunger, and the men who learnt
from them, travelled all over the empire, and the following list of
dates will show how porcelain factories sprang up from the parent
factory at Meissen:--
Meissen 1710 | St Petersburg 1744
Vienna 1718 | Berlin 1750
Ansbach 1718 | Nymphenburg 1758
Bayreuth 1720 | Ludwigsburg 1758
_Meissen._--Although the factory which was founded at Meissen as a
result of Böttger's discovery remained on its old site until 1863, the
porcelain made there has been commonly known as Dresden porcelain;
probably because Dresden was the seat of the Saxon court, and the
enterprise was conducted at the expense of the electors of Saxony. So
jealously were the secrets of this factory guarded that when Napoleon,
the master of Europe, sent Brongniart to investigate the methods in use
at Meissen in 1812, the elector of Saxony had to release Steinauer, the
director, from his oath of secrecy before he would explain the
processes. Meissen porcelain, therefore, affords us the best example by
which we may follow the changes of fashion and taste that governed the
styles of porcelain decoration in Europe during the 18th century. The
early Meissen porcelain was made from the kaolin found at Aue, near
Schneeberg, and while there is no mention of any other material, we may
be sure that clay and felspathic rock, analogous to the Chinese _kaolin_
and _petuntse_, were obtained from the same quarries, and were used
together. Until after the death of Böttger in 1719 it cannot be said
that the venture was more than a _succès d'estime_. The specimens
preserved in the Dresden Museum show that the pieces were generally
thick in substance and clumsy in shape, being often made from the moulds
that had been designed for Böttger's red-stoneware. Naturally enough
these early examples were inspired by Chinese models, both in shape and
decoration. As at St Cloud, white pieces with modelled decoration were
common. Unlike the contemporary French glassy porcelains, the
decorations in under-glaze blue were very imperfect, the blue colour
being much run and blistered; and when attempts were made at decoration
in enamel colours (i.e. colours fired on the finished glaze) the result
was unsatisfactory, as, owing to the refractory nature of the hard
felspathic material, these colours frequently scaled off. The later
success of the Meissen factory must be attributed to Herold or Höroldt
(who joined the staff in 1720 as a colour maker and painter), and to
Kandler, a sculptor, who came to the works in 1731. In the hands of
these two men the forms and decorations, still largely based on Chinese
and Japanese models, assumed a definitely European style, while the
composition of the body and the glaze, and the application of colours
and gold, were brought to perfection. Herold was appointed director of
the works a few years after 1720, and retained that post until 1765,
while Kandler was chief modeller from 1731 to 1775. The years from 1730
(when the work definitely emerged from its experimental stage) to 1775
(when Kandler died) mark the most distinctive period of the Meissen
porcelain. In the estimation of collectors also the Meissen porcelain of
this period is the most valuable, and genuine examples of _Alt-Meissen_
command high prices in the sale rooms, especially in Germany. This
appreciation was quite as apparent in the 18th century, for by 1740
Meissen porcelain had won the greatest renown in Europe, and was
actually exported by way of Constantinople over the Mahommedan countries
of the Nearer East. It is frequently described by contemporary writers
as being far superior to the porcelain of China, and so great was its
vogue between 1740 and 1750 that as many as 700 workmen--a large number
for those days--were employed, and the industry brought large profits as
well as great reputation to the Saxon court. Each year saw some fresh
departure from the original inspiration of the work, some fresh
innovation of European style in design. After 1730 the rude
reproductions of Chinese forms and decorations in white or blue and
white were replaced by imitations of the Imari porcelains, especially
those decorated in the style of Kakiemon. Here Meissen was running a
race with Chantilly in setting the fashion for the dainty decorations in
red and green and gold which spread in time to all the porcelain
factories of Europe. Gradually European _motifs_ became predominant. The
simple oriental forms were replaced by distinctively European shapes
with architectural mouldings, handles and feet. Instead of the dainty
Japanese patterns, we perceive the gradual introduction of "Rococo"
scroll-work (as interpreted by the Germans) to form a framework or
border for miniature-like paintings of landscapes, ruins,
figure-subjects, hunting scenes, &c., executed in the limited palette of
on-glaze colours then available. Further evidence of the departure from
oriental influence is to be found in the numerous "armorial" services
produced between 1730 and 1740; and at the same period we find the first
appearance of a style of decoration that has persisted to our own times,
as a means of passing off pieces with small flaws in body or glaze, by
hiding them among sprays of naturalistic flowers, with an occasional fly
or some other winged creature thrown with seeming artlessness over the
surface of the piece. This idea, though it seems to have been first used
at Meissen, was so useful to the potter that it became general, and a
device originally adopted to cover faults of manufacture was elevated
into a distinct style of decoration by later European factories (e.g.
Strassburg, Niederviller, &c.).
The talents of Kandler were applied in ambitious but unsatisfactory
attempts to produce life-sized figures of the twelve apostles, an
equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong of heroic proportions, and many
models of animals intended for the decoration of the Japanese palace at
Dresden. Many of these latter are to be seen in the Dresden Museum, and
create an unfavourable impression of the taste of their period. The fame
of Kandler is better perpetuated (see example, Plate IX.) by the little
statuettes and groups of figures and animals that flowed in a steady
stream from his facile hand; for though these figures have prettiness
rather than grace, and _flair_ rather than style, they are instinct with
the spirit of the middle 18th century, and were eagerly imitated or
boldly copied at every factory in Europe. Only in the _biscuit_
porcelain figures of Sèvres, and in some few of the portrait figures of
Derby, do we find anything artistically superior. These Meissen
statuettes look their best when they are simply in white; many are
grotesque and ugly, and the colour decorations are usually in very poor
taste, the harsh, shining colours contrasting unpleasantly with the
pronounced white of the porcelain.
Mention must be made of the use of modelled flowers at Meissen.
Originating in the simple application of modelled branches of prunus,
&c. in imitation of the white porcelains of Fu-kien, the method
developed until we get not only the characteristic "May-flower"
decoration (see example, Plate IX.), but also independent sprays and
bouquets modelled in porcelain and coloured with the utmost mechanical
precision. It is not quite clear whether this production of porcelain
flowers was first perfected at Meissen or at Vincennes,[35] but it was
largely practised at both places.
Toward the end of this period, vases, candelabra, mirror-frames and
clock cases were modelled in the most _outré_ rococo forms with applied
scrolls, shells and flowers. These pieces had their modelled details
picked out in gold and colours, while the success of the French styles
of decoration is still further shown by the copies of Watteau figures
and groups on the more important vases, dishes and plates. Frederick the
Great made sad havoc with the prosperity of Meissen during the Seven
Years' War. He looted the factory both in 1759 and 1761, and is said on
the latter occasion to have carried away to Berlin both models, working
moulds and many workmen. This misfortune marks the end of the most
distinctive Meissen porcelain, for after this time Sèvres became the
most important porcelain factory in Europe, and the later productions of
Meissen were, for the most part, German versions of the styles initiated
at the French royal factory. From 1764 to 1774 Dietrich, a painter, was
at the head of affairs, while a Frenchman named Acier succeeded Kandler.
They introduced the neo-classical style, which was spreading like a
blight all over Europe, and this departure was perfected under the
directorship of Count Marcolini (1774-1814), when Meissen, fallen from
its high estate, was content to follow the lead of Sèvres.
After the Marcolini period there is nothing to be said of Meissen. The
old productions of the factory had become valuable, and the custom of
reproducing them, marks included, was adopted. Such a practice was not
likely to lead to further progress, and, though the factory was removed
from its old site in the Albrechtsburg in 1863, it cannot be said to
have added anything to the progress of European porcelain during the
19th century.
[Illustration: "Dresden" Potter's mark.]
During the initiatory period the "Dresden" pieces bore the monogram
"A.R." interlaced (Augustus Rex), and between 1712 and 1716 pieces
intended for sale and not for the use of the court were marked with
the sign of Aesculapius (a snake twining round a staff). From about
1720 two crossed swords, painted in blue under the glaze, with or
without accompanying stars, crosses, &c., formed the general mark, but
the mark has been so often used on other porcelains that, in itself,
it is of slight value as a means of identification.
_Vienna._--The first mention of the manufacture of porcelain in Vienna
occurs in 1718, when a Dutchman, Claude du Paquier, was granted a
patent. He had secured two runaways from Meissen, Stölzel and Hunger,
yet little progress was made until after 1744, when the factory was
bought by the empress Maria Theresa. At first the traditional styles of
Meissen were continued, but the characteristic Viennese porcelain was
produced after 1785. In this ware figure-painting, rich ground colours
and elaborate gilding are associated in an unmistakeable manner.
Leithner, who was chemist and colour maker at this period, succeeded in
producing a more extensive and brilliant palette of colours than was in
use at any other European porcelain factory in the last quarter of the
18th century; and the gilding was rich and elaborate. Apart from its
technical merits the ware has nothing to recommend it, for the styles of
decoration showed pronounced neo-classical influence, and lacked the
saving merits of the French work in the same style. The works was closed
in 1864, on account of the heavy expenses, and collectors should be
reminded that many spurious imitations, the product of small Viennese
factories, are to be found on the market.
[Illustration: Wegeli's mark.]
_Berlin._--The first Berlin porcelain was made by W. Casper Wegeli,
aided by workmen from other German factories, as early as 1750. This
business was unsuccessful and came to an end in 1757, but its
productions are highly prized on account of their rarity. Success only
came when Frederick the Great brought workmen, moulds and materials from
Meissen in 1761, and, becoming proprietor of the works in 1763, founded
the Royal Berlin Porcelain Manufactory. Though Meissen workmen and
methods had been imported, and the Meissen style governed the earliest
productions, Frederick's well-known _penchant_ for French art was
doubtless responsible for the fact that the rococo style of decoration
was more determinedly followed here than elsewhere in Germany. The
colour schemes of this ware are unusually simple, pieces being seldom
decorated in more than three colours, while a rose-coloured enamel, a
favourite colour with the great Frederick, is quite characteristic. The
Royal Berlin Factory passed under a cloud in the troubled condition of
the Prussian monarchy during the early years of the 19th century, and
down to 1870 it was content to follow in the wake of Sèvres like most of
the other European factories. Since about the year 1880, however, it has
developed into the most scientific of European porcelain works, and it
was here that Seger manufactured his special porcelain, made to
reproduce the qualities of the finest Japanese wares. In spite of this
scientific success it must be remarked that the late Berlin porcelain is
artistically disappointing, being too exuberant for our taste and
recalling anything rather than porcelain in its treatment.
_Minor German Factories._--It is unnecessary to describe the
productions of all the German porcelain works of the 18th century, for
not only is there a strong family likeness, but all the works aimed at
producing pieces comparable with those of Meissen, Vienna or Berlin.
In every case the industry was established under the patronage or at
the direct charge of princes or great nobles, anxious to emulate the
success of the elector of Saxony or the king of Prussia, and generally
the enterprise came to an end with the death of a patron or from his
unwillingness to sustain the continued drains upon his purse.
The factory at Höchst was started about 1720 by wanderers from
Meissen, but it was only carried to a successful issue through the
patronage of the archbishop-elector of Mainz after 1746. The general
style of Höchst is a palpable imitation of the contemporary wares of
Meissen, but this factory was noted for its excellent figures and
groups, especially those modelled by Melchior (1770-1780). He
modelled, at Höchst, more than three hundred figures, as well as many
portrait medallions. The works came to an untimely end during the
French invasion of 1794.
Frankenthal had a porcelain factory (founded by the Hannongs of
Strassburg) in 1756, and patronized by Karl Theodor, elector palatine
from 1762 to 1795, when the French invasion put an end to its
activities. Melchior, the sculptor, came here from Höchst after 1780,
and elaborate pieces in the current styles of Sèvres and Dresden were
made.
Nymphenburg, near Munich, had a factory which was made a royal factory
in 1758 by Max Joseph III. of Bavaria. The ware was of fine quality,
but without special distinction. Melchior came on here about 1800,
remaining till his death in 1825; his Nymphenburg figures are as
highly esteemed as those he modelled at Höchst and Frankenthal. In the
early years of the 19th century elaborate painting became the rule
here, as at the other royal factories, and copies were made on
porcelain of some of the famous paintings in the Munich galleries. The
works is still in existence, in the hands of a private company, who
unfortunately sell many reproductions of the 18th-century wares.
Ludwigsburg, some 9 m. from Stuttgart, had a porcelain factory from
1758 to 1824, liberally subsidized by the dukes of Württemberg.
Highly-finished painting was the rule at this factory, and because the
ware bore a crown as one of its marks, it has rather foolishly been
called "Kronenberg" porcelain.
Fürstenberg was the factory patronized by the dukes of Brunswick.
Experiments were made as early as 1746, but little ware was produced
before 1770. Fürstenberg set itself to imitate all the best-known
styles of the day, and its only distinctive productions are its
"biscuit" statuettes and medallions. The factory remained in operation
until 1888, but as the moulds were then sold by auction, imitations of
the old pieces are now common.
Other 18th-century German factories were those of Fulda, Bayreuth,
Cassel, Ansbach, Kloster-Veilsdorf, Wallendorf and Limbach.
Mention must also be made of the work of certain famous decorators,
like Bottengruber and Preussler, who decorated both German and
oriental pieces; while Busch, the canon of Hildesheim, produced
effects like fine engraving by etching the glaze with a diamond and
rubbing black colour into the lines.
While France and Germany were each developing their own particular type
of porcelain, it was only natural that the kings and princes of other
countries should strive to emulate them in the manufacture of this still
rare and highly esteemed form of pottery. Naturally, perhaps, the
countries to the north and east seem to have been influenced most by
German methods, whilst those to the south and west followed the French
example.
_Holland._--The earliest Dutch factories were started as early as
1704, first at Weesp near Amsterdam, and afterwards at Oude
Loosdrecht. The mark of this factory occurs as M: O.L., or M.o.L.
After 1782 the works was removed to Nieuwe Amstel, but the "Amstel"
porcelain came to an end with the French invasion. The ware resembled
the German both in material and decoration. The best porcelain made in
Holland was produced at a factory at the Hague, founded some time
after 1775. There is a choice collection of this ware in the Gemeente
Museum at the Hague. No porcelain appears to have been made in Holland
after about 1810 until 1890 or later.
_Denmark._--It has been stated that porcelain of the German type was
made in Copenhagen as early as 1731, but there is no definite record
of the production of true porcelain until about 1772, when potters,
modellers and painters from some of the German works founded the
enterprise which was taken over by King Christian VII. in 1779 and
converted into a royal factory. Fostered by the king's patronage, fine
porcelain of pronouncedly German style was largely made down to the
end of the 18th century. The collection in the castle of Rosenburg
contains many examples of the work of this period. In the early years
of the 19th century the Empire style of decoration was adopted, and
the artistic influence of Sèvres became paramount. Large sums of money
were continually required from the crown to maintain the establishment
until, in 1867, it was sold into private hands to get rid of an
encumbrance. The subsequent new-birth of the existing royal Copenhagen
porcelain works must be noted in the next section.
_Sweden._--The history of Swedish porcelain in the 18th century is
connected with the factories at Rörstrand and Marieberg, both in the
environs of Stockholm. Tentative experiments were made at both these
places before 1760, but these came to an end by the close of the 18th
century, though the Rörstrand works was reopened some fifty years ago
and will be subsequently referred to. The Swedish porcelains were of
two kinds, one a true felspathic porcelain like the German, and the
other a glassy porcelain resembling that made at Mennecy in France. It
is interesting to note that the decorative styles in both cases are
distinctly French in character.
_Russia._--Peter the Great is said to have projected a porcelain
factory at the suggestion of his ally Augustus the Third of Saxony,
but the scheme was not carried into execution until the days of the
empress Elizabeth. Catherine II. subsidized the work in prodigal
fashion, but although she brought over French artists, the Russian
porcelain more closely resembles its German than its French prototype.
In the early years of the 19th century the imperial Russian factory
followed the example of Sèvres in producing costly dinner services and
extravagant vases of large dimensions.
Small independent factories were started in the neighbourhood of
Moscow: one by an Englishman named Gardner about 1780, and another by
A. Popoff. Besides producing ordinary table ware these Moscow
factories sent forth a considerable number of statuettes, the most
interesting being those representing Russian peasant types.
_Hungary._--The one Hungarian porcelain factory of note is that at
Herend, which was founded about 1830 by Moritz Fischer. At this
factory copies of oriental porcelain were made that have deceived many
collectors, though the pieces are usually impressed with the word
"Herend" in the paste.
_Switzerland._--Little porcelain has been produced in Switzerland, and
considering the geographical position of the country it seems natural
that porcelain of the German type should have been made at Zurich and
of the French type at Nyon on the lake of Geneva, but these
productions are of no particular importance.
_French Porcelains._--The beginnings of French porcelain at Rouen and St
Cloud have already been mentioned, as they preceded Böttger's discovery
of true porcelain; but as nothing was known in France of the methods and
materials used by the German porcelain makers, the artificial or glassy
porcelain held sway in France through the greater part of the 18th
century. The next important factory after St Cloud was that founded at
Chantilly about 1725 under the patronage of the Prince de Condé, an
enthusiastic collector of Chinese and Japanese porcelains. One
distinctive feature of the Chantilly porcelain is its imitation of the
Japanese Imari wares of the 17th century, especially those bearing
delicate patterns in the Kakiemon style. This imitation was not confined
to the decoration alone, but great efforts were made to reproduce the
delicious tender whiteness of the original ware, by covering the body of
the soft porcelain with a coating of the tin-enamel used by the French
faience makers. Similar imitation of the Kakiemon style of decoration
became the rage all over Europe, and was largely followed at Meissen and
in England as well as in France; but no European imitations equalled
those of the famous Chantilly ware.
[Illustration: Lille and Chantilly Potters' marks.]
Other porcelain factories were started at Mennecy-Villeroy and at Lille,
but the most important French factory was that founded at Vincennes
about 1740, not only because of the many beautiful pieces produced
there, but also because the works was taken under the direct patronage
of the king in 1753 and was transferred to Sèvres in 1756, becoming
ultimately the most important porcelain factory in Europe.
Fortunately we have documentary information of the exact composition
of the artificial porcelain (_pâte tendre_) of Sèvres, and a brief
account of its manufacture will serve to explain how all the glassy
porcelains of Europe were made. The potter commenced by preparing a
glass or frit, melting together pure sand, alum, sea-salt, gypsum,
soda and nitre. The clear portions of this frit were powdered and
washed with boiling water, and the working clay was compounded by
adding to such powdered frit a small quantity of chalky clay or marl
and sometimes pure chalk as well. This mixture was ground in water
until the fluid was as fine as cream, and it was then boiled to a
thick paste which was so little plastic in itself that black soap or
parchment size was added to it to give it enough plasticity for the
workman to be able to shape it. Vases and other pieces were made from
this paste by pressing cakes of it in plaster moulds of considerable
thickness. After pressing, the pieces were dried and were then either
turned on a lathe or rubbed down with sand-paper to reduce them to
sufficient thinness; while handles, spouts or other ornaments in
relief were applied with a lute of slip, as is customary with every
other species of pottery. The fragile objects were then fired into
what is known as the "biscuit" condition; the most difficult part of
the whole process. During this firing the pieces frequently went out
of shape because of the excessive shrinkage of the material and its
tendency to soften as it approached the melting point of the frit.
Consequently an elaborate system of "propping" the pieces had to be
resorted to, and even then a very large proportion became deformed.
When the porcelain was drawn from the oven after the first firing, the
supports were removed and the pieces were rubbed with sand to clean
the surface, and were then coated with glaze by sprinkling with a
brush; the glaze being a fusible glass very rich in lead. The glaze
coat was melted by refiring the piece at a lower temperature; and it
was frequently necessary to repeat this process several times in order
to get a perfectly even and brilliant result. The difficulties of such
a process were enormous, and it was only by the financial support of
wealthy patrons, or of the state, that such a method of manufacture
was ever carried on for any length of time. At its best the material
is an exceedingly beautiful one, lending itself especially to
decoration in on-glaze colours, and the pieces produced at Vincennes
and at Sèvres, between 1745 and 1770 or thereabouts, form a distinct
class by themselves. Skilful chemists like Hellot and Macquer were
employed to direct the operations, and many beautiful ground colours,
such as the famous _gros-bleu, bleu de roi, rose Pompadour_, pea-green
and apple-green were invented.
_Sèvres Porcelains._--The forms of the Sèvres porcelain are exceedingly
varied. Many of the older shapes were designed by Duplessis, the king's
silversmith, and, as is perhaps natural, are more proper to metal than
to pottery; but the French glassy porcelain is such an artificial
material in every respect that such a point should not be strained too
far. Owing to the want of plasticity in the paste the pieces were always
made in moulds of plaster of Paris, while in many cases they were
moulded in separate parts and these united together with metal screws or
mounted in bands of chased ormolu. Table services made for actual use
were usually painted on a plain white ground with the full palette of
on-glaze colours (or enamels) and much rich gilding. The decorative
pieces such as vases, candelabra, jardinières, &c., were decorated in a
much more sumptuous fashion by covering the greater part of the piece
with a ground of one of the rich enamel colours previously mentioned,
reserving only panels in white on which delicate miniature-like
decorations of the most varied kind were subsequently painted and fired
(see fig. 52; and examples of Sèvres, Plate IX.). Such collections as
the Wallace at Hertford House, or the Jones Bequest in the Victoria and
Albert Museum, show at once the variety and perfection to which the work
attained.
[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Sèvres vase, _pâte tendre_; green body and gilt
imitation mounting. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]
This Sèvres porcelain is entirely devoid of the broad decorative
treatment and rich full colour of any of the great kinds of fine pottery
or porcelain. Artistically considered, it has no place beside the
triumphs of the Chinese or Persian potters, or of the Italian majolists.
Its shapes are too formal, and are not sufficiently imbued with a sense
of the qualities of the material. The ground colours defy every natural
tendency of pottery colour for they are even, flawless and mechanical,
with none of the palpitating richness that comes so naturally from the
potter's processes. The paintings, whether of flowers, birds or
figure-subjects, are extraordinarily skilful regarded as miniatures, but
as examples of pottery decoration they cannot be compared to the swift,
apparently careless, brushwork of the great masters of earlier times. So
pronounced was the demand of the period for smooth even finish that such
ground colours as _gros-bleu_ and _bleu de roi_, where the colour
naturally came varied and uneven, were subsequently decorated with small
diapers or lines of gold in the form of _[oe]il de perdrix_ or
_vermicelle_, so as to produce a more regular and even effect. The most
elaborate and costly of all the varieties of old Sèvres is what is known
as "jewelled Sèvres," which is richly sown with imitation jewels, such
as turquoises, pearls and rubies, closely resembling the real stones.
These imitation jewels were in every case set in beautifully chased
mountings of gold, and in the museum at Sevres are to be found examples
of the punches and other tools used in making these mounts. On account
of the enormous expense involved in the production of such costly
triumphs of skill, examples of jewelled Sèvres are rare even in the best
collections, but the English student is fortunate in the fact that the
Wallace collection contains a considerable number of them.
[Illustration: Sèvres Potters' marks, 1753 and 1772.]
Many reasons--the prestige attaching to a Royal Manufactory, the
knowledge that the porcelain was produced regardless of cost, the
mechanical perfection of its colours, gilding and decoration, as well as
the fact that the glassy porcelain was abandoned as too costly and risky
after about 1780--have all conspired to raise the prices which modern
collectors are prepared to pay for fine examples of _vieux Sèvres_. It
is doubtful whether even the prices paid for paintings by old masters
have advanced so rapidly as those paid for Sèvres porcelain of the best
period. In the 'seventies of the 19th century it was deemed worthy of
remark that a sum of £10,000 should have been paid at public auction for
three old Sèvres vases; thirty years later one such piece would probably
fetch the same price. It should be added that the extravagant prices now
paid for Sèvres porcelain, which is much more a triumph of technical
than of artistic skill, have led to an extensive system of "faking" and
even forging specimens which are purchased at high prices by amateurs.
Beautiful as the old Sèvres porcelain was, those who were responsible
for its manufacture could not fail to recognize that the porcelain made
at Meissen and other German factories was both harder and whiter in
substance, more truly resembling the oriental porcelain in every
respect. It was also known that these German porcelains were not so
difficult, and therefore so costly to manufacture as the French, and all
these causes combined to make the directorate of Sèvres unremitting in
their efforts to discover in France natural materials analogous to those
used by the German and Chinese potters. Père d'Entrecolles, the famous
Jesuit missionary, had forwarded to France long before an account of the
methods used by the Chinese, as well as samples of the materials they
employed; and after many years' research Millot and Macquer discovered
the precious materials at St Yrieix near Limoges (see Auscher, _History
of French Porcelain_, pp. 77-81). The first experimental pieces of this
French porcelain, similar in material to the German and Chinese, appear
to have been made about 1769; but it was some years after this before
the manufacture of the new product was firmly established, and then to
the end of the 18th century more and more of the hard porcelain and less
of the glassy porcelain was made at Sèvres. Speaking broadly, we might
say that after 1780 comparatively little of the original French
porcelain was made in France; and from that time to this practically all
French porcelain has been of the same type as the German porcelain, viz.
made with china clay and felspathic rock. This technical change in the
nature of the materials had a profound influence on the artistic
qualities of French porcelain, and the change was doubtless accentuated
by the neo-classical rage which followed on the discovery of Herculaneum
and Pompeii. The influence of antique vase shapes and of modern
renderings of Greek motives in design spread over Europe like a plague,
and whether in France, Germany or England the last quarter of the 18th
and the first quarter of the 19th century mark a definite period in
pottery design and decoration. The introduction of hard-paste porcelain
rendered the manufacture of large vases and other pieces possible; and
after 1780 we find the manufactory at Sèvres engaged in the production
of enormous vases 5 or 6 ft. in height, a manufacture which has been
continued there to this day. About the same time, too, we find the first
production of large plaques or slabs of porcelain on which copies of
well-known pictures were painted in enamel colours. The earliest of
these slabs were in soft-paste porcelain, but in this material it was
only possible to make them of quite modest dimensions; with the
introduction of hard-paste porcelain very large slabs were manufactured,
and a series of these are to be seen in the museum at Sèvres.
The most artistic of all the productions of Sèvres are undoubtedly the
"biscuit" figures and groups. These were modelled with great skill by
many of the best French sculptors of the day, such as Pajou, Pigalle,
Clodion, La Rue, Caffieri, Falconet, Boizot, Julien, Le Riche, &c. The
best of these Sèvres "biscuits" have a real artistic value which places
them in a class quite apart from the German porcelain figures made at
Meissen, Frankenthal and Höchst.
_Paris_.--Although during the reign of Louis XV. many privileges and
prerogatives had been given to the Sèvres manufactory, such as the
exclusive right to gild or paint in colours on porcelain, the
breakdown of the monarchical régime, which was rapidly accelerated
after the accession of Louis XVI., led to the establishment in Paris
and its environs of a number, of factories for the production of
hard-paste porcelains more or less in open rivalry with the royal
manufactory of Sèvres. In order that the royal edicts might be more
easily evaded, most of these factories were placed under the patronage
of one of the French princes of the blood or even of Queen Marie
Antoinette. There is little need to dwell on the doings of these
Parisian factories, but the productions of the best of them, such as
those of Clignancourt (patronized by Monsieur, the king's eldest
brother); Rue Thiroux (patronized by Queen Marie Antoinette); Rue de
Bondy (patronized by the duc d'Angoulême), compare not unfavourably
with those of Sèvres itself.
It is impossible to do more than mention the other important French
factories at Mennecy, Sceaux, Bourg-la-Reine, Strassburg,
Niederviller, Marseilles, Limoges and Caen. In the disastrous years
of the French revolution (between 1789 and 1800), such of these
factories as had survived came to an untimely end, even the royal
factory at Sèvres passing through a kind of lingering death between
1792 and 1801, and it was not until Napoleon decided to revive the
glories of Sèvres that modern French porcelain really came into being.
Just as the manufacture of German porcelain spread into Holland,
Denmark, Sweden, Russia, &c., we find the manufacture of a glassy
porcelain analogous to the early French arising in Belgium, Italy, Spain
and England. The materials and methods were so like those used in France
that it would be ridiculous to claim for them an independent origin,
even were we unable to prove by documentary evidence that workmen
trained in the French factories had migrated into those countries.
_Italy_.--In Italy we have the factories at Le Nove near Bassano
(1762-1825); Doccia near Florence (founded in 1735 by the marchese
Carlo Ginori, and still carried on by the same family); and
Capo-di-Monte near Naples (1736-1820); with minor factories like those
at Vinovo, Treviso, and the Volpato factory at Rome. The most
important of these were the factories at Doccia and Capo-di-Monte. The
porcelain made at Doccia was famous for its soft translucent texture,
so that it lent itself beautifully to the production of white glazed
porcelain figures resembling in quality the white pieces of Fu-kien.
[Illustration: Capo-di-Monte Potters' marks; 1736, 1759, 1780.]
The factory at Capo-di-Monte was under the direct patronage of Charles
III., king of Naples. The earliest and best of its productions are in
pure white, probably made in imitation of Chinese white pieces, though
modelled in the form of natural shells supported by corals and
seaweed. Figure-modelling was also largely practised, and besides
groups of statuettes and figures in conjunction with vases, we have
the typical Capo-di-Monte examples in which vases, cups, saucers,
plates, &c., are covered with groups of figures modelled in high
relief on a minute scale. This trivial style of work is greatly
admired because of the minuteness of its execution. At a later period
the works was removed to Portici and ultimately to Naples, but after
about 1770 the classic style was adopted for the shapes and
decorations. The factory came to an end as late as 1820.
[Illustration: Buen Retiro Potters' marks.]
_Spain_.--Charles III. of Naples ascended the throne of Spain in 1759
and took with him to Madrid many of the workmen from the Capo-di-Monte
factory, as well as the best moulds and models. He established a new
china factory in the gardens of Buen Retiro, a palace outside Madrid.
As long as Charles III. lived immense sums were lavished on this
factory, and the ware was not allowed to be sold, but was either used
for the decoration of the royal palaces or for presentation to other
European sovereigns. Enormous vases were made, following the example
of Sèvres, and these were often filled with bouquets of flowers
modelled in porcelain. The most famous productions of this factory,
however, were the plaques and slabs of porcelain used for lining the
walls of certain rooms in the royal palaces. Two of these rooms still
remain, and are frightful examples of the Spanish _rococo_ style. The
factory was entirely destroyed in 1812 during the French war, and
since that date no porcelain of any importance has been made in Spain.
_English Porcelains of the 18th century._--There can be no doubt that
whatever experimental work may have been conducted by our early English
potters, such as the famous John Dwight of Fulham, nothing like an
established manufacture of porcelain existed in this country prior to
about 1740-1745. There are records of many tentative experiments before
this date, but no real history. Between 1745 and 1755 important
porcelain works were established at Chelsea, Bow, Worcester and Derby,
and when we examine the productions of these factories it is impossible
to avoid the conclusion that the processes had been imported from
France. The early English porcelains, like all the French porcelains of
that date, were composed of artificial or glassy mixtures.
We may take the early productions of Bow and Chelsea as typical of the
earliest English porcelain of which there is any definite record. The
material was a mixture of pipe-clay, sand from Alum Bay in the Isle of
Wight, and glass, while the glaze was a fusible English flint-glass rich
in lead. It is obvious, therefore, that we are dealing with substances
very similar to those used in the glassy French porcelain (see above),
and such mixtures were very difficult of fabrication, being subject to
great loss in the process of firing. In the other European countries
the manufacture of porcelain was almost invariably carried on at the
expense of some royal or princely patron; in England, however, the
manufacture was not subsidized in this way, and it is probably for this
reason that at a very early date we find the English porcelain-makers
experimenting with other materials than glass and clay in order to make
their processes more certain. In a patent taken out in 1749 by Thomas
Frye of the Bow works we find mention of the use of bone-ash--the
material that was to make English porcelain a distinct species by
itself. From 1750 onwards there can be little doubt that, though a large
proportion of glass was still used in the composition of the English
porcelains, bone-ash was more and more introduced into the paste in
order to obtain a more refractory material; yet it was not until about
1800 that Josiah Spode of Stoke-upon-Trent abandoned entirely the use of
glass and composed his porcelain of china clay, bone-ash and felspathic
rock for the body, glazing it with a rich lead glaze, and so laid the
foundation of distinctively English porcelain. The material has many
merits both from the useful and artistic points of view; it is much more
easily fabricated than the old glassy porcelains, it endures better for
ordinary table use than any other kind of porcelain, and it permits the
fullest range of decoration.
Before entering upon a detailed notice of the important English
factories of the 18th century, something should be said of the various
influences that were at work in determining what the porcelain-maker
should do, both in the way of shape and decoration. The eyes of all men
were, of course, turned first to the porcelain brought from the far
East; and in the early efforts of the English factories, as of those of
France and Germany, we notice a predominance of white pieces or of
pieces decorated with paintings in under-glaze blue alone, obviously
inspired by the current importations from China. Bow and Chelsea
produced large quantities of ware of this class, and in the early days
of the Worcester factory little else was made there than white, or blue
and white pieces closely simulating the Chinese. Another oriental
influence was to be found in the Imari patterns of Japan, particularly
those in the style of Kakiemon. It has been noted that Meissen,
Chantilly and other continental factories had already created a vogue
for these reproductions of Japanese decorations, and in our own country
Bow, Chelsea and Worcester followed suit. The later Imari patterns,
heavily decorated with blue and red and gold for the use of "the
foreigner," furnished another popular style for Worcester and Derby, and
the vogue of these English "Japan" patterns, in the last quarter of the
18th century and the first half of the 19th century, was so great that
they represent a large proportion of the output of our English porcelain
works during that period. The productions of the German and French
factories also exerted a profound influence on English potters; so that
throughout the 18th century English porcelains largely consisted of
imitations of the foreign wares brought into the country by the wealthy.
We can only point to one method of porcelain decoration which
undoubtedly arose in England. This is the method of transfer-printing,
whereby patterns printed on paper from engraved copper plates are
transferred to porcelain or pottery and subsequently fired, either under
or on the glaze. At the best these printed patterns are in no way
superior to the stencilled work of modern oriental porcelain, while, at
the worst, European and American printed patterns have been perhaps the
most inappropriate decoration ever applied to porcelain in the world. It
has been generally urged on behalf of transfer-printing that it enables
elaborate effects to be produced at a small cost and so brings decorated
pottery within the reach of the humblest. The truer view is, that the
simplest brushwork patterns, or even no pattern at all, would be
preferable to the tawdry results that the cheapest forms of
transfer-printing have rendered possible.
_Chelsea._--Between 1750 and 1770 the Chelsea factory was the most
important of all the English porcelain works, and fine specimens of this
period command high prices in the saleroom to-day. We know little of the
origin of this important factory, though it is believed to have been in
existence from some time after 1740 to 1784, when it was finally
demolished and some of the workmen and part of the plant were removed
to the then important works at Derby. The first manager was one Charles
Gouyn, who was followed by a Mr Sprimont before 1750. Sprimont retained
possession of the works until 1769, and died in 1771. It was during his
management, from 1750 to 1770, that the finest and most characteristic
pieces of Chelsea porcelain were made.
Although the styles in vogue at Chelsea are extremely varied, little was
produced there that was really English in character. The earliest pieces
appear to have been either in pure white or in white decorated with
paintings in under-glaze blue. The goat-and-bee cream jugs, crawfish
salt cellars, the shell and rockwork salt cellars, jugs, sauce boats,
small cups and saucers of this type are fairly plentiful. Then came the
decorations, mainly in red and gold, of the Kakiemon style, followed by
reproductions of the brocade patterns of Imari porcelain. Afterwards we
find the appearance of table wares modelled in imitation of leaves,
animals, fruits, birds and fishes, apparently adopted from current
French and German practice.
In another direction the influence of Meissen was also shown by the
production of statuettes (see in Chelsea figure, Plate X.), and of the
small modelled trinkets, scent-bottles and toys of which there is such a
fine collection in the British Museum. In the latter days of the factory
(say after 1758) we find Chelsea following in the wake of Sèvres in the
production of large and elaborate rococo vases, with pierced necks and
covers, scroll-work bases and interlacing handles such as are to be seen
in the Jones Bequest in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Pieces of this
elaborate kind are overlaid with rich grounds of Mazarine blue,
turquoise, pea-green, or the famous Chelsea claret-colour, while white
panels are reserved framed with gilt scrolls and painted in enamel
colours with flowers, birds or figure-subjects in absolute rivalry with
the pieces manufactured at Sèvres.
The Chelsea works appears to have come to an end through the ill-health
of Sprimont, and it was sold in 1769-1770 to Duesbury, the proprietor of
the Derby works. He carried on the establishment from 1770 to 1784, but
in this period a great change is noticeable in the product of the
factory. The "rococo" forms and decorations of the true Chelsea
porcelain were replaced by works in the neo-classical style already
rendered popular by the success of Josiah Wedgwood, and the
Derby-Chelsea porcelain is quite a distinct production from the early
works of Chelsea. The most distinctive mark of the Chelsea porcelain is
an anchor--either embossed in the paste or painted in gold or colour.
Often the anchors occur in pairs, and it is frequently associated with
other marks such as a dagger or a cross. Some of the Derby-Chelsea
pieces are marked with a conjoined D and an anchor.
[Illustration: Chelsea Potters' marks.]
_Bow._--The date of the establishment of the factory at
Stratford-le-Bow, in what is now the East End of London, is quite
uncertain, but in 1744 Edward Heylyn and Thomas Frye, who were connected
with this factory, took out a patent for the manufacture of porcelain.
The materials mentioned in this patent are not such as would produce
porcelain at all, and it appears likely that the specification was made
purposely defective. In 1748 a further patent was applied for in which
we get the first mention of bone-ash, so that from the technical point
of view the wares made at the Bow factory are of the utmost importance
as indicating the experimental beginnings of our English porcelain in
which bone-ash plays such an important part. In 1750 the works at Bow
belonged to Messrs Weatherby & Crowther, and was then known as "New
Canton," and as 300 workpeople were employed, the operations must have
been conducted on a large scale; but ultimately, from causes that can
only be surmised, the partnership was dissolved and the business failed,
so that in 1775 the works was bought for a very small sum by the William
Duesbury already mentioned, who transferred part of the plant and moulds
to his more prosperous works at Derby. It would appear from what we know
of the factory and its productions that the business was conducted on
simpler lines than at the Chelsea works. We have, for instance, no
elaborate vases in imitation of Sèvres, and no important groups of
figures which might challenge rivalry with Meissen. We find, as is
common with all the early porcelain factories of Europe, first the
production of white pieces with modelled reliefs, or of pieces painted
with under-glaze blue in imitation of Chinese porcelain. Then followed
the well-known "Quail," or "Partridge," and "Wheat-sheaf" patterns in
red and green and gold in imitation of the Japanese patterns; and the
manufacture of table ware decorated with these simple yet bright and
pleasant devices seems to have formed the greater part of the work at
the factory. Many figures and statuettes were also produced at Bow, but
they are fewer in number and less cleverly made and decorated than the
contemporary productions of the Chelsea factory. We may surmise that
there was considerable rivalry between these two works situated on the
outskirts of the metropolis, for we find the "anchor" mark, which is the
best recognized mark of Chelsea porcelain, often occurring on specimens
that from internal evidence or from the piece itself we should rather
attribute to Bow. The Bow marks are not very certain, but some of the
likeliest are here given.
[Illustration: Bow Potters' marks.]
_Worcester._--The third of the early English factories, and ultimately
the most important of all, was that founded at Worcester in 1751 by Dr
Wall, a man of unusual attainments, and a number of his friends. How Dr
Wall came to learn the secret of porcelain making is absolutely unknown,
but even assuming that he acquired some information from wandering
workmen it is certain that the Worcester porcelain was soon developed on
original lines. The nature of the paste and the glaze of the early
Worcester productions, as well as the sobriety of their decorations,
stamp this factory as the first where Englishmen really developed a
native porcelain. Between 1751 and 1770, the first period of Worcester
porcelain, the prevalent influence was that of Chinese blue-and-white,
and the pieces of that period are rightly esteemed by collectors for
their artistic quality. Probably nowhere in Europe, certainly nowhere in
England, was oriental blue-and-white more carefully studied, and a
collection of this blue-and-white Worcester is most satisfactory from
the aesthetic point of view. The productions at this time were tea and
coffee services, bowls, dishes, mugs and plates. The cups were usually
made without handles in imitation of the oriental practice, but large,
two-handled covered cups for caudle, broth and chocolate were also made
during the early period. Many of these larger cups bore an embossed
pattern resembling a pine-cone, possibly imitated from a shape produced
at St Cloud; while openwork dishes, plates and fruit baskets were also
made in imitation of a popular Meissen fashion.
The method of decorating porcelain with transfer prints was introduced
at Worcester as early as 1756, when Robert Hancock, an engraver, came
from York House, Battersea, where the process was first employed for the
decoration of the Battersea enamels. The early Worcester prints
comprised portraits of celebrities of the time (the Frederick the Great
mug), or adaptations of the works of great artists such as Gainsborough
and Watteau, or copies of current engravings or sporting prints. The
first printing was done in black or purple, and transferred on to the
fired glaze, and it was not until about 1770 that the process of
printing in blue under the glaze was perfected. It is interesting to
note that for many years this process of transfer printing was developed
side by side with the older method of porcelain painting, and until the
end of the 18th century the processes appear to have been used at
Worcester quite independently. The closing of the Chelsea factory in
1770 led to the migration of some of the Chelsea painters to Worcester,
and from about that date a considerable amount of Worcester porcelain
was decorated on the glaze with enamel colours and gilding after the
styles that had been rendered popular at Chelsea and Bow. It is only
fair to remark, however, that the Worcester patterns are always
distinguished by a certain English character both in the style and the
workmanship (see example, Plate X.). The first and most artistic period
of Worcester porcelain came to an end before 1783, when, after the death
of Dr Wall, the works passed under the control of Thomas Flight and his
two sons, who had been jewellers. The Flight influence was soon
noticeable from the fact that the new shapes were more and more based on
those of Sèvres and Meissen, while the decoration became more mechanical
and precise as befitted the work of jewellers rather than potters. King
George III. and Queen Charlotte visited the works in 1788 and bestowed
upon the firm the privilege of styling themselves "China Manufacturers
to Their Majesties," since when the works has always been known as the
Worcester Royal Porcelain Works. In 1793 Martin Barr was taken into
partnership; the "Flight & Barr" period, so well known to collectors,
lasted until 1807.
[Illustration: Early Worcester Potters' marks.]
Another Worcester porcelain works was in existence after 1784, viz. the
Chamberlain factory, which was working in rivalry with the original
establishment; but its productions are of no particular artistic merit,
and in 1840 the two firms became amalgamated, and so gave rise to the
present Worcester Royal Porcelain Co. The most noteworthy feature of the
productions of both the Worcester works at the end of the 18th century
were the "Armorial" services made for various royal and noble families,
and those adaptations of Imari patterns known as "Old Japan."
_Derby._--Experiments in the manufacture of porcelain appear to have
been made at Derby as early as 1750 by a French refugee, Andrew Planché;
but the business, which was afterwards to attain such a great
development, was only founded in 1756 with William Duesbury as its
manager. Duesbury was originally a decorator of china figures in London,
and his career proves that he was a man of great industry and energy,
for within twenty-five years he not only built up a large business at
Derby, but he absorbed the decadent works at Bow and Chelsea, so that in
the last quarter of the 18th century Derby was the most important china
manufactory in England. As is so often the case, a commercial success
like this implied the absence of any distinct artistic impulse. The
porcelain produced at Derby is for the most part only an echo of the
successes of Meissen, Sèvres, or the earlier English factories. It is
only fair to remark that a very deep and rich under-glaze blue was
attained at the Derby works, and that this was associated with very
mechanical painting of birds and flowers and with gilding of exceptional
quality. At this factory, too, the old Japan patterns were imitated with
exceptional vigour, until "Crown-Derby Japan" became a standard trade
name for this clobbered oriental style.
[Illustration: Derby Potters' marks.]
Mention has already been made of the "biscuit" porcelain figures made at
Derby, which are superior in style to anything else made in-Europe in
the 18th century except the "biscuit" porcelains of Sèvres. The Derby
"biscuits" of the best type range from 1790 to 1810, and the finest
specimens have a "waxy" surface, though there is little or no sheen and
every detail remains as crisp as when the figure left the hand of its
maker. The most famous of these figures are the portrait medallions and
statuettes of British generals and admirals which were modelled by an
artist named Stephan. Spengler, a Swiss, modelled numerous groups
adapted from the drawings of Angelica Kaufmann, while a workman named
Coffee seems to have modelled only rustic figures and animals.
_Plymouth and Bristol._--The porcelain factories at Plymouth and
Bristol are mainly noteworthy because they were the only English
factories in which a true porcelain strictly analogous to the Chinese
was ever manufactured. William Cookworthy, a Quaker druggist of
Plymouth, was greatly interested in attempting to discover in Cornwall
and Devonshire minerals similar to those which were described in the
letters of Père d'Entrecolles as forming the basis of Chinese porcelain.
After many years of travel and research he ascertained the nature of the
Cornish stone and Cornish clay, and in 1768 he founded a works at
Plymouth for the production of a porcelain similar to the Chinese from
these native materials. Readers interested in this abortive enterprise,
from which such great results were afterwards to come, can only be
referred to the general histories of English porcelain, for the factory
was removed to Bristol in 1770 and was shortly afterwards transferred to
Richard Champion, a Bristol merchant, who had already been dabbling in
the fashionable pursuit of porcelain making. Champion's Bristol factory
lasted from 1773 to 1781, when the business had to be sold to a number
of Staffordshire potters owing to the serious losses it had entailed.
The Bristol porcelain, like that of Plymouth, was always a true
felspathic porcelain resembling the Chinese, but made from the china
clay and china stone of Cornwall. It is, therefore, harder and whiter
than the other English porcelains, and its cold, harsh, glittering glaze
marks it off at once from the wares of Bow, Chelsea, Worcester or Derby.
The Bristol porcelain resembled that of Meissen quite as much in its
style of decoration as in the nature of its materials. One can point to
nothing distinctly English about it, and if specimens now command very
high prices in the salerooms it is on account of their rarity rather
than of any intrinsic quality or beauty that they possess.
Table ware of various kinds formed the greater part of the production of
the Bristol works, but a considerable number of figures are known, in
many cases obviously copied from those of Meissen, and a few large
hexagonal vases similar in style to specimens produced at Chelsea and at
Worcester. The most distinctive pieces made at the Bristol factory are
certain small plaques or slabs in "biscuit" porcelain, usually bearing
in the centre a portrait medallion or armorial bearings surrounded by a
wreath of skilfully modelled flowers. Good examples of these choice
productions are to be seen in the British Museum.
[Illustration: Plymouth, Bristol, Champion and Swansea marks.]
The Plymouth factory is supposed to have adopted as its general mark the
alchemical symbol for tin. This mark was also used to a limited extent
at the Bristol factory, though the general Bristol mark was a cross or a
copy of the crossed swords of Meissen. The Staffordshire potters who
bought the rights of the Bristol porcelain factory from Champion
established a works at Shelton, near Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire,
under the name of New Hall Porcelain Co., but they never manufactured
anything of artistic account.
_Minor English Factories._--A number of other porcelain factories were
founded in England in the latter half of the 18th century, but none of
these produced ware of any particular merit. The porcelain made at
Longton Hall by William Littler (1752-1758), always clumsy and ugly in
form, is interesting for a splendid blue colour characteristic of the
factory. This small venture was ultimately absorbed by William
Duesbury.
The colony of potters established in Liverpool also made a certain
amount of porcelain, as well as "Delft" and other earthenwares, and
the Liverpool Museum contains some good examples of their productions.
A little factory at work at Lowestoft in the last quarter of the 18th
century has attracted much more attention than it deserves, because
certain writers foolishly attributed to it large quantities of
"Armorial" porcelain which had, undoubtedly, been made in China.
Recent excavations have established the fact that this factory was
only of minor importance, and was mainly occupied in producing cheap
wares in rivalry with, and even in imitation of, those of the more
important English factories.
Towards the end of the 18th century the manufacture of English
porcelain spread into the Staffordshire potteries, and the firms of
Spode, Davenport and Minton became the most important English
factories of the early 18th century. For notices of the minor English
factories of the late 18th century and early 19th century, such as
Caughley, Coalport, Swansea and Nantgarw, the student is referred to
the special works dealing with the history of English porcelain.
_Collections._--The British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum
contain the best general collections of English porcelain. The museums
at Bristol and Liverpool contain examples of the local wares; while
the museum at the Worcester Royal Porcelain works has an admirable
collection of the wares of that factory. Many noteworthy private
collections are in existence, of which we may mention those of Mr
Dyson Perrins, Mr Cockshutt and Mr Trapnell.
LITERATURE.--Alex. Brongniart, _Traitié des arts céramiques_ (1844);
Jacquemart, _Histoire de la céramique_ (Eng. ed. 1873); Jännicke,
_Grundriss der Keramik_ (1879); Dr Brinkmann, _Handbook of European
Porcelains in the Hamburg Museum_; Marryat, _History of Pottery and
Porcelain_ (1857); Jewitt, _Ceramic Art of Great Britain_ (1878);
Auscher, _A History and Description of French Porcelain_ (1905);
Burton, _A History and Description of English Porcelain_ (1902);
Dillon, _Porcelain_ (1904); Solon, _Old English Porcelain_ (1903);
Burton, _Porcelain_ (1906); R. Almstrom, _Lervarorna och deras
Tillverkning_ (1903). (W. B.*)