_Porcelain._--By this word we distinguish broadly all those pieces of
pottery in which the body of the ware is vitrified and translucent, and
also, broadly speaking, in which the material is white throughout,
unless minute quantities of metallic oxides have been definitely added
to colour it. It is impossible to draw any hard and fast line between
porcelain and stoneware, for both may be thoroughly vitrified and
translucent in thin pieces--but generally the stonewares are drab, red
or brown in the colour of the fired clay, and they seldom exhibit the
precious quality of translucence. If the body of a piece of pottery is
not even vitrified, however hard it may be, it is terra-cotta or
earthenware. The Chinese, accustomed from a very early period to fire
their pottery to a high temperature, produced vitrified stonewares
before any other nation. Moreover, they glazed these stonewares with
fusible mineral substances, and from that stage the natural refinements
of methods must necessarily have produced porcelain. In regions where
beds of primary clay were found, the body of the ware would burn whiter
than elsewhere, and a mixture of limestone or marble with the felspathic
rock would give a glaze of greater purity and brilliance and one that
was more readily fusible and Would spread better over the whole piece.
How many centuries were needed before a ware white enough and
translucent enough to be now classed as porcelain was produced we cannot
know; but the process was certainly one of gradual evolution. Some
Chinese writers in their zeal for ancient things have ascribed to remote
periods the production of wares of this class. Where authentic specimens
are not to be found it is necessary to proceed with caution, and
literary evidence alone cannot be deemed sufficient to settle such a
difficult point. The balance of opinion at the present time is that
something worthy of the name of porcelain was made during the Tang
dynasty (A.D. 618-907), but we have no pieces earlier than the Sung
dynasty (A.D. 960-1259), and the majority of these are perhaps more
fitly described as stoneware than as porcelain.
Under the Sung dynasty China enjoyed great material prosperity, and all
the arts were cultivated assiduously. Pottery of distinguished merit was
made in many districts, and much of it has been classified as porcelain
because the body is whitish and vitrified, though it is much inferior in
finish and in translucence to the perfect white porcelain of later
times. It is necessary to realize, too, that we have no record of any
pottery with painted decoration until perhaps the very end of the 13th
century; such ornament as was used consists entirely of designs incised
or modelled in the clay. But the principal decoration is to be found in
the varied coloured glazes with which the wares, whether stoneware or
porcelain, were covered. The glaze is never clear and white as at later
times; it is generally uneven, imperfectly fused and presents all the
marks of an imperfect technique. The nearest approach to white is found
in an opalescent grey which shades off to greenish and bluish tints. The
glazes of this period which are most highly valued are the _céladons_, a
family of cool bluish or yellowish greens of indescribable depth and
softness. Besides the _céladons_ which are the most uniform in tints of
the Sung glazes, we get many shades of palish lavender, brownish yellow
and brownish black, but these are all subtly or boldly mottled,
splashed, clouded or veined with strange tones of red, blue, purple,
opalescent grey and black. The most famous of these now very rare Sung
wares were the stonewares of Chunchow, remarkable for their rich and
varied glazes, the black variegated glazed wares of Fu-kien province,
"hare's fur cups" and "partridge cups" of collectors, and the four
principal wares that may be called porcelain, viz.--the _Ju-Yao_, made
at Ju-chow in Honan; the _Kuan-Yao_ (Kuan = "official" or "imperial"),
made first at Pien-chow and afterwards at Hang-chow; the _Ko-Yao_, made
at Liu-t'ien; and the _Ting-Yao_, made at Tung-chow in Chih-li.
This was the period when Chinese porcelain became known beyond its
native country, for the first mention of porcelain outside China appears
in the writings of a Mahommedan traveller, Sulaiman, who visited China
in the 9th century and wrote: "They have in China a very fine clay with
which they make vases which are as transparent as glass; water is seen
through them";[31] and its first appearance in the west is always given
as A.D. 1171 (or 1188), when Saladin sent a present of forty pieces to
the sultan of Damascus. From this time onwards an export trade was
developed, particularly in the _céladon_ wares of Lung-chüan, a city in
the south-west of the province of Chehkiang. This famous ware, the
"green porcelain" of the Chinese, probably made as an imitation of jade,
exists mostly in the form of thick heavy dishes, bowls and jars, bearing
incised or fluted patterns, and coated with a remarkable thick green
glaze of indescribable softness of tone. Though the body of the ware is
white when it is broken through, any parts not covered by the glaze have
a reddish-brown colour due to the unrefined paste, and when the ware was
reproduced in later times this reddish-brown tint had to be imitated
artificially. The ware was highly prized both in China and Japan, in the
islands of the East Indies, and in all Mahommedan countries. In Persia
it was largely used, and specimens of it have been recovered during the
last century from the east coast of Africa and as far west as Morocco.
"Archbishop Warham's cup" at New College, Oxford, which is the first
specimen of Chinese porcelain to reach England that we can now produce,
is a _céladon_ bowl with a silver-gilt mount of the time of Henry
VIII.[32]
The Sung dynasty was overthrown by the Tatars under Kublai Khan
(grandson of Jenghiz Khan), and the power remained in Tatar hands until
1368, when the great native dynasty of the Mings was established. During
this period (Yuan dynasty), roughly a century, one can say little of
ceramic progress, for the wares of the period are singularly like those
of Sung times. But two important changes took place which had a marked
influence on the subsequent development of Chinese porcelain--(1) the
concentration of the industry at King-tê-chên, which was consummated in
the early years of the Ming dynasty; (2) the introduction of painted
decoration under a white transparent glaze, the idea of which (and
perhaps the necessary cobalt mineral) was brought from Persia.
King-tê-chên was already a pottery centre when its factories were
rebuilt in 1369 by Hung-Wu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, who made it
the imperial factory, so that the best porcelain workers were attracted
thither, and in the other old centres the industry was abandoned or some
earlier manufacture was continued, as in the southern province of
Kiang-su. In the province of Fu-kien a distinct kind of porcelain
manufacture has also continued. We have already mentioned the black
glazed cups, "hare's fur," &c., made in this province in Sung times,
and, while King-tê-chên was to be the scene of the developments of the
coloured and painted porcelains, Te-hwa in Fu-kien perfected the
manufacture of the famous and beautiful white porcelain in bowls,
dishes, cups and statuettes, best known under its French title of _blanc
de Chine_.
The earliest painted Chinese porcelains, which are referred to the
beginning of the Ming period, though some of them may be older, speak
strongly of ideas imported from the west of Asia. The pieces are massive
both in form and substance, and the ornament, consisting of figures
mounted or on foot, animals, bands of diaper or foliage, or pendant
necklaces, is strongly silhouetted by a raised outline recalling the
decorative methods of the Assyrian brickwork. The technical methods also
recall the methods of western Asia, for the ware was fired before it was
glazed, and then yellow, turquoise, green or purple glazes, similar in
nature to the glazes of Egypt, Syria and Persia, and quite unlike the
Chinese Sung glazes, were filled into the outlined spaces and melted at
a lower temperature. The Grandidier collection in the Louvre, the
Franks collection at the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum,
as well as all the great private collections of Chinese porcelain,
contain samples of this primitive and archaic-looking ware.
The great stream of porcelain decoration was, however, to take an
entirely different direction. The Persian pottery with its brilliant
painted decorations in blue, green and purple on a pure white ground,
exercised its natural fascination over men as keen in colour-sense as
the Chinese potters. With the concentration of the industry at
King-tê-chên, and the rapid improvement in technical skill and knowledge
that followed, the production of a fine porcelain with a transparent
white glaze was perfected. Of all the colours used by the Persian
pot-painter the only one that would endure the fierce fire of the
Chinese porcelain was the blue obtained by using the ores of cobalt, and
with this colour, and a wonderful blood-red obtained from copper, the
foundation of Chinese painted porcelain was laid. It would be idle to
try and fix any specific date for this important development, which took
more than a generation to perfect, but it is reasonably accurate to say
that the blue and white painted porcelains were unknown in the 13th
century and were fully developed at the beginning of the 15th century.
Chinese collectors prize most highly the blue and white of the reign of
Suen-tê (A.D. 1426-1435), of Chêng-hwa (1465-1487), and next of Yung-lo
(1403-1424). It is interesting to note that the colour used during these
reigns is spoken of as "Mahommedan" blue, so that it was evidently
brought from some country to the west. This 15th-century blue and white
porcelain is admittedly the finest of its class, and though the Chinese
never abandon an old method and have continued to make blue and white
porcelain, often of very good quality, the later wares, fine as they may
be, rarely equal these.
The under-glaze red, an invention of the Chinese, has already been
mentioned, and this most difficult of all ceramic colours was largely
used during the same period. At first it appears as a general ground
colour for the outside of bowls and cups, then vessels were made in
special forms (persimmon fruit, &c.) to display its qualities, finally
it was used either alone or in conjunction with blue in painted designs
under a white glaze of exceptional quality. A Chinese connoisseur of the
15th century describes one of his pieces as being decorated with "three
red fishes on a white ground, pure as driven snow; the fish boldly
outlined and red as fresh blood, all with colour so brilliant as to
dazzle the eye."
Other characteristic wares which made their appearance in Ming times are
the marvellous "eggshell" porcelains, called by the Chinese "bodyless"
from their extreme thinness. As early as the reign of Yung-lo
(1403-1424) these delicate wares were in high repute, and their
manufacture has been continued ever since with varying skill and
success. In spite of their extreme thinness the specimens have designs
of dragons in the midst of clouds and waves, inscriptions, &c., engraved
in the paste before firing. In the fine white specimens the design is so
delicate that it is barely visible until the vessel is filled with
liquid or held to the light. Others were covered with a coloured glaze
which serves to accentuate the design, and the most prized of these are
the yellow pieces made during the reign of Hung-Chi (1488-1505) and
Chêng-tê (1506-1521).
Another wonderful variety of Chinese porcelains which made its
appearance at this period is the well-known perforated ware, commonly
spoken of, from the shape of the perforations, as "grain of rice"
porcelain, though the Chinese have exhibited consummate skill in the
manufacture of perforated pieces of all kinds. Sometimes the
perforations are left clear, but in the rice-grain pattern the incisions
are generally filled up with the melted glaze so that they become like
so many windows in the walls of the piece. We have already seen that the
Persian potters used a similar method of decoration in the 16th century,
but we are unable to say at present whether the device originated in
China or in Persia. Its use in both countries is only an additional
proof of the intercourse between eastern and western Asia.
It is only toward the end of the 16th century that we find the first
examples of porcelain decorated with colours fired over the glaze. It
seems probable that the practice grew out of the use of enamels on
metal, which had spread from Byzantium to China, and which the Chinese
developed with remarkable skill. It is important to remember that the
very nature of the glaze of Chinese porcelain, necessitating such a high
temperature to melt it, severely restricted the under-glaze palette to
cobalt-blue and the glorious but uncertain copper-red. To obtain the
rich polychromatic schemes of the potters of the West some other means
must be found, and so the device was adopted of taking a finished piece
of blue and white and decorating it further by very fusible colours
painted over the fired glaze and then attached to it by refiring at a
lower temperature equal only to that used by the enameller on metals. At
first the on-glaze or enamel colours were applied as thin washes, as in
the Ming (_San ts' ai_) three-colour decoration of green, purple, and
yellow. Then we get the Ming (_Wan-li Wu ts' ai_) five-colour scheme, in
which the same three colours are combined with an over-glaze red and all
are painted over a skeleton pattern in under-glaze blue. This
development, as its name implies, only took place in the reign of Wan-li
(1573-1620).
At this time King-tê-chên must have produced a very large quantity of
porcelain. The requirements of the court were enormous, for in 1583 one
of the supervising censors, remonstrating with the emperor, declared
that one year's demands comprised over 96,000 pieces; and Dr Bushell
writes: "The colossal production of the reign of Wan-li is shown by the
abundance of porcelain of this time to be found in Pekin at the present
day, where a garden of any pretensions must have a large collection of
bowls or cisterns for goldfish, and street-hawkers may be seen with
sweetmeats upheld by dishes a yard in diameter, or ladling syrup out of
large bowls, and there is hardly a butcher's shop without a cracked
Wan-li jar standing on the counter to hold scraps of meat."
Such profuse orders may be accountable for the fact that the wares of
this reign are inferior both in material and workmanship to the wares of
the preceding and also of later periods, but the influence of the
growing export trade doubtless told in the same direction. For several
centuries the native Chinese porcelain had been exported to all the
neighbouring countries, and through Persia and Cairo to the West. No
long time elapsed before the Chinese adopted forms, colours and
decorations for these export wares, not in accordance with Chinese
usage, but presumably more suited to the tastes of the foreigner. Hence
the Persian and Syrian style of the painted blue decoration of the 15th
and 16th century wares found in other Asiatic countries. Now, for the
first time, there came a direct European demand, and cargoes of ware
were brought to Europe by the Portuguese and afterwards by the Dutch,
which were increasingly decorated in fashions foreign to Chinese taste.
The production of these export wares slowly modified the taste of the
Chinese themselves and paved the way for the new styles of the late 17th
and early 18th centuries.
The political troubles which marked the downfall of the Ming dynasty
definitely separated the first great period of Chinese porcelain from
its second and culminating period. The works at King-tê-chên were
destroyed more than once in the 17th century, but in spite of these
difficulties the potters must have remained, for the reigns of K'ang-hi
(1662-1722), Yung-chêng (1722-1735), and K'ien-lung (1736-1795) covered
a century and a half, within which the high-water mark of artistic
production was reached and passed. It is only possible here to sketch in
broadest outline the course of this Renaissance, which has formed the
subject of many learned works.
It is characteristic of the Chinese mind that during this period, when a
spirit of eager experiment was abroad, the productions of their ancient
kilns should receive no less attention than the new methods of
decoration in on-glaze colours, while at the same time many of the
discoveries of the later Ming days were carried on to perfection. The
first remarkable productions of the reign of K'ang-hi, the famous green
and blood-red _Lang-yao_ glazes, were made in the attempt to produce
glazes like those of old times. With the more carefully prepared body
and glaze the results are strikingly different and, as we think,
superior, for it is difficult to believe that any example of the
"sacrificial" red of the reign of Suen-tê can have been as glorious as
the red _Lang-Yao_, the crown of all that group of glazes known from
their general colour as _sang de boeuf_ (see example, Plate VII.). In
the same way the traditional blue and white of the Ming period was
continued with the greatest skill, and, if the blue pigment be not so
pure as that of the 15th century, the decorative effect of the blue and
white of the reign of K'ang-hi (see example, Plate VIII.) has never been
equalled in Europe. The subjects of the blue and white pieces of this
period are very varied, including religious, ceremonial, battle and
hunting subjects, homely scenes such as ladies and children amusing
themselves in gardens, or animals, birds, dragons and other fabulous
monsters disporting themselves in clouds or waves. The so-called
"hawthorn ginger jars" form a class by themselves in the opinion of
modern collectors (see the plum-blossom jar, Plate VIII.), a specimen
being sold at the Louis Huth sale (1906) for £5900. The fertility of the
painters was remarkable, and a collection of the blue and white of this
reign offers a fine feast of ceramic colour from the harmonious relation
between the tones of the white and the blue, especially when it is seen
_en masse_, as in the famous Dresden collection.[33]
The practice of painting the ground of a piece in blue so that the
pattern was reserved in white (even artfully heightened by the use of
slip) dates from Ming times, but the grounds of powder-blue appear to
have originated at this time. The cobalt-pigment was not applied by a
brush, but was blown on through a tube, one end of which was covered
with fine muslin, in a rain of minute drops. This ground was either
carried over the whole piece so as to give the effect of a vibrating
blue glaze--in which case it was generally covered with conventional
designs pencilled in ground-up gold-leaf over the glaze--or panels were
reserved in white on which floral designs were afterwards painted in
on-glaze colours.
In the same way the decoration in underglaze red was revived or
re-introduced, and probably the finest pieces of this ware, as of so
many others in our great European collections, date only from the
beginning of the 18th century. Eggshell wares and pierced or reticulated
pieces were made to great perfection, and the coloured glazes in light
green, turquoise, purple and black (see Plate VII.) reached their
height. The early glazes of this type appeared in Sung times (see
above), but on the finely prepared K'ang-hi wares much more striking and
brilliant colour effects were obtained. As in old times, for the
production of some of these glazes a departure was made from the general
Chinese methods. The vessels were first fired to the "biscuit" state,
and then soft alkaline glazes coloured with copper or manganese were
fired over them at a much lower temperature so as to give the
"peacock-blue," "kingfisher-green" and "aubergine-purple" glazes. Many
varieties of single-coloured glazes were made by covering a white glazed
piece with on-glaze colour, and in this way new shades of coloured
glaze, such as the coral-reds (Plate VII.), were obtained. The various
brown or bronze-coloured grounds, so well known in the so-called
"Batavian" porcelain, were obtained by coating the piece with a slip of
some ochreous clay under the usual white glaze. Even these methods do
not exhaust the fertile resources of the potters of this period, for
they carried on concurrently the style of decoration in overglaze
colours, first in the schemes characterized by the predominance of a
vivid green enamel (_famille verte_; see Plate VIII.), and finally, in
the 18th century, in the schemes in which rose, pink and purple colours
predominate (_famille rose_; see Plate VIII.). It is probable that these
latter colours, which owe their tint to gold, were introduced into China
from Europe, but the Chinese employed them whole-heartedly, until in
fact they largely ousted all the earlier types of colour decoration.
During the reign of Yung-Chêng (1723-1735) the diverse styles seem to
have been finally struggling for mastery. Yung-Cheng was an ardent
collector of ancient Chinese porcelains, and he sent to King-tê-chên
specimens of the most ancient wares, whether of pottery or porcelain, to
be reproduced, while at the same time he and his court patronized the
wares in foreign styles and colours (Japanese and European.)
The struggle continued practically to the end of the 18th century, but
in spite of certain brilliant inventions, such as the "iron-rust" and
"tea-dust" glazes of the reign of K'ien-lung in harmony with old Chinese
effects, what we must regard as the inferior decorative style triumphed,
and we see the gradual disappearance of the ancient methods in favour of
(1) wares of a beautiful white body decorated only with on-glaze
colours, principally those of the _famille rose_, and (2) a very large
production of inferior wares, made in European shapes and decorated with
on-glaze painting and gilding to suit the European taste of the 18th
century.
This "armorial" china, so much of which was once foolishly ascribed to
Lowestoft, has little to commend it. The material is seldom of the best
quality, and the Chinese rendering of European arms and crests, or stiff
copies of European engravings surrounded by quasi-oriental borders of
diaper, &c., does nothing to recommend it. A great deal of this ware,
though manufactured at King-tê-chên, was decorated at Canton, and the
school of pottery decorators founded there by reason of this export
trade also produced a certain number of pieces in pure Chinese taste,
especially some of the ruby-backed plates and dishes and the small cups
and saucers decorated with deftly-painted designs of cocks, peonies, &c.
It must be pointed out that the great change implied in the replacement
of patterns painted in blue under the glaze by those painted in colours
over the glaze profoundly influenced the style of painting. In the
earlier wares the treatment is bold and vigorous as becomes true pottery
colour, and the softening of the colour by the melting glaze adds to the
artistic charm of the result. Painting on a fired glaze is like painting
on glass--fine lines, delicate drawing, and skilful stippling or
cross-hatching are just as natural in this method as they are impossible
or uncertain in the other. Naturalism of rendering takes the place of
conventional decorative treatment, and elaborate minuteness of finish
supplants the broad freedom of direct brushwork. During the 18th century
the same leaven was at work on the porcelains of China and of Europe,
the East influenced the West, and the West in its turn bore down the
East. If Chinese porcelain remained superior to its European
counterfeits, it was because the Chinaman was still the better potter
and had a longer tradition of decorative art behind him.
There is little to be said of Chinese porcelain during the 19th century.
The European demand was practically killed by the growth of porcelain
works at home, and the imperial patronage, so great a factor in the
production of artistic wares, was fitful and uncertain. Tao-Kwang
(1821-1850) gave some attention to porcelain, and the pieces made for
him and marked "_Shen-te-t'ang_" are valued by collectors. The so-called
Peking bowls of his reign (made of course at King-tê-chên) are also of
repute. But the political difficulties of China left little leisure for
the cultivation of the arts; the successive wars with France and England
served only to scatter the splendid wares of the past (see the Musée
Chinoise at Fontainebleau), and during the reign of the next emperor
Hien-fêng (1851-1861) the T'aipings overran the province of Kiang-si and
destroyed King-tê-chên and its factories. Since then the town has been
rebuilt and is once again producing Chinese porcelain. Tempted doubtless
by the high prices now paid in Europe and America for examples of the
Chinese porcelains of the 18th century, modern copies of the
single-coloured, _sang de boeuf_, _flambé_ and other glazes are being
made, while the highly prized "hawthorn" jars and black-ground vases are
receiving the same undesirable attention.
_Materials and, Manufacture of Chinese Porcelain._--For many centuries
after its first appearance Chinese porcelain differed from every other
known species of pottery both in its material and its manufacture.
While the pottery of all other countries was generally made of
coloured clays mixed only with sand or broken "shards" and fired at a
comparatively low temperature, Chinese porcelain was compounded from
the purest white clays, sand and fusible rock; it was glazed with
fusible rock, and it was so hard fired that the entire mass became
vitrified and translucent. The germ of the manufacture lay in the
discovery of large masses of primary clay (kaolin) mixed with
finely-ground felspathic rock (petuntse), both of which were carefully
washed, levigated and purified. The body of Chinese porcelain varied
from time to time within wide limits, but, broadly speaking, it always
consists of purified kaolin, petuntse and quartz (sand), mixed in
various proportions, sometimes with additional ingredients, according
to the quality of ware desired. For the glaze the purest and cleanest
portions of the felspathic rock (petuntse) were selected and mixed
with lime--all being ground to fine powder. The lime causes the glaze
to melt at a lower temperature than would be necessary for petuntse
alone. The lime also gives the Chinese glazes their luscious softness
of aspect and the faint greenish or bluish tone, while it enabled them
to receive the later decorations in piled-up enamels, impossible on
the harder European porcelain glazes of the 18th century. The
finely-prepared glaze was applied to the clay vessels, before they had
been fired, either by dipping, by painting, or by insufflation; and
then glaze and body were fired together at a very high temperature.
For certain glazes--turquoise, purple, &c.--which were not of the
felspathic type, the vessels were first fired to the "biscuit" state,
and the glazes were then applied and fired at a much lower
temperature--the usual practice of the potters of other countries.
When painted wares in blue and red were first introduced, the
necessary pigments were painted on the pieces before firing, the glaze
was applied over them, and then all was finished at one and the same
firing. With the later enamel colours the piece was first fired as
above described, and the fusible colours were then painted on the
glaze, which was of course like glass. A second firing at a lower
temperature fused these on-glaze colours to the ware. For information
on Chinese materials and methods the reader is referred to the letters
of Père d'Entrecolles in the collection of Jesuit letters known as
_Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_. The English reader will find
reliable translations of the essential parts in Bushell's _Oriental
Ceramic Art_, Dillon's _Porcelain_, and Burton's _History of
Porcelain_. Later information will be found in Brongniart's _Traité
des arts céramiques_, especially in the 3rd edition, 1877; and in an
article by G. Vogt, _Bulletin de la Société d'encouragement pour
l'industrie nationale_, April 1900, pp. 530-612.
_Collections._--The Franks collection in the British Museum; the
Victoria and Albert Museum, where the famous collection of Mr George
Salting has for years been displayed, together with the collections
belonging to the museum. Paris, the Grandidier collection at the
Louvre; the collection at the Musée Guimet; the Sèvres Museum.
Fontainebleau, the Musée Chinoise. Dresden, the Porcelain
Collection--the oldest in Europe. Boston, the Museum of Fine Arts. New
York, the Metropolitan Museum containing the Garland and other
collections. Washington, the Hippisley collection; as well as
magnificent private collections, at the head of which is that of the
late W.T. Walters of Baltimore.
LITERATURE.--The older European works on Chinese porcelain have been
superseded by the later books. The following list contains the best
recent books:--S.W. Bushell, _Oriental Ceramic Art_ (New York, 1897;
text separately 1899); _Chinese Porcelain before the present Dynasty_
(Pekin, 1886); _Chinese Art_, vol. ii., Victoria and Albert Museum
Handbooks (1906); Brongniart, _Traité des arts céramiques_ (3rd
edition, with valuable supplements by Salvétat, 1877); Dillon,
_Porcelain_ (1900); Sir A.W. Franks, _Catalogue of Oriental Pottery
and Porcelain_ (1878); Grandidier, _La Céramique chinoise_ (1894);
Griggs, _Examples of Armorial China_ (1887); Hippisley, _Ceramic Arts
in China_ (Smithsonian Institute, Washington, 1890); Hirth, _Ancient
Chinese Porcelain_ (Leipzig, 1888); Julien, _Histoire et fabrication
de la porcelaine chinoise_ (Paris, 1856); Meyer, _Lung-chuan Yao, oder
alter Seladon Porzellan_ (Berlin, 1889); Monkhouse, _History of
Chinese Porcelain_ (1901); O. du Sartel, _La Porcelaine de Chine_
(Paris, 1881); Burton, _Porcelain_ (1906); Bushell and Laffan, _The
Garland Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of New York_ (1907).
(W. B.*)