put two books on the desk, with their backs facing her. Under the cover
of the top book she has placed a string long enough to allow her to hold
both ends of it in one hand, in such a way as to hide the two ends of the
cover. She knows that in reality the ends of the cover do not slant; they
are perfectly horizontal. But she finds that to hide the ends of the
cover she must bring the lines made by the string toward each other. This
proves that the ends of the book in this position must be represented by
slanting lines. When the strings hide the ends of the cover, she finds
that they meet directly opposite the eye. Holding the string tight, and
keeping their meeting point exactly opposite the eye, she slips a
horizontal pencil between the two lines, starting near the place where
they meet, and moving down until the pencil hides the further edge of the
cover. The appearance of the cover is shown in the space bounded by the
horizontal pencil, the nearer edge of the cover, and the two slanting
parts of the string seen between them.
Arrange a large book on the desk in front of you. With a string, make the
test that has been explained. Draw in values what you see.
The Study of Perspective.
=What a Picture may Show Us.= The pencil sketch on the next page would be
quite difficult for you to draw, but it is not too difficult for you to
understand and enjoy. It is one that will help you to use your eyes
intelligently, in trying to find out of doors some of the things that are
shown you in pictures. One of the best things that pictures can do for us
is to help us to see in our own surroundings things that are interesting
and beautiful.
=Perspective.= The lessons in this chapter have helped you to see how
surfaces and shapes change in appearance, as they are seen under
different conditions. You have also found that certain edges and outlines
appear to change their direction, when seen in different positions. There
is a name given to the study of these things, which you will often hear
used. It is perspective. Perspective is only another name for the study
of appearances, as differing from facts. You will hear some one say, for
instance, that a certain sketch or picture is good in perspective; you
will understand that the picture shows, in some interesting way, the
effect of distance and position, or how certain appearances differ from
actual facts.
=Perspective of the Railroad.= One of the best places in which to study
perspective is on a bridge over a railroad track. You have noticed, no
doubt, how the rails seem to come together as they stretch into the
distance, and how the telegraph poles seem to grow shorter and shorter,
until they disappear altogether. You know that the rails are just as far
apart a mile away from you as they are at your feet, but a sketch drawn
so would not be correct in perspective, because it would not show how the
track looked.
=Perspective Affecting Apparent Size.= The sketch on page 58 will
interest you. Have you watched an engine grow from a mere speck in the
distance to its full size as it rushes past you, and then grow smaller
and smaller again as it hurries away, and finally disappears in the
far-off horizon?
=Perspective of a Street.= Do you see anything on page 64 that makes you
think of the railroad? If you stand in the middle of the street and look
down its length you will notice that the lines of the sidewalk seem to
run together, that the trees and houses decrease in height as they are
seen farther away, and that people in the distance appear smaller than
people near you. When you can see these effects for yourself, you will
begin to understand what the study of perspective means.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: FONT BAPTISTERY IN PARMA XIII. CENTURY.]
A Beautiful Baptismal Font.
In the fine old city of Parma, in northern Italy, is a beautiful
cathedral, built hundreds of years ago. Near the cathedral is a building
much smaller in size called a baptistery, a place where baptisms are made
in connection with church services. This baptistery is built of red and
gray marble, and is one of the finest in Italy. It contains but one room,
and in the middle of its floor, under the beautiful dome, is a very large
font, carved from one piece of yellowish red marble. In one corner of the
room is a smaller font--the one shown you on this page. It is standing on
a lion whose paws are set upon the head of a ram, and it is richly carved
in foliage and in strange animal forms. To it are still brought for
baptism all the children born in Parma.
MEASURING AND PLANNING
IF WE CARE TO CONTINUE THE SEARCH, WE MAY FIND AN ARC EXTENDED TO A
SEMICIRCLE, A SPIRAL, OR EVEN TO A COMPLETE RING, ALMOST AS TRUE AS
IF STRUCK WITH A COMPASS, AND WITH THE TELLTALE DROOPING OR BROKEN
GRASS-BLADE STILL AT WORK WITH EVERY STIR OF THE BREEZE.
"FAIRY RINGS" THE CHILDREN USED TO CALL THEM.
I HAVE PICTURED BOTH THE RING AND THE FAIRY.
WILLIAM HAMILTON GIBSON
IN SHARP EYES.
Some Tools With Which to Measure and Plan.
By the time you have come to this chapter in your book, you will have
drawn a great many pictures of objects. In doing this you have depended
on your eyes and hand alone. You have not used a ruler to measure with,
nor any tool that would tell you the exact length of a line or the exact
size of any shape.
[Illustration: I]
But sometimes it is necessary that a line or shape should be of exact
length or size. On this page are shown some very simple tools which you
can make yourself, and which you will find useful in carrying out the
lessons in this chapter on Measuring and Planning. Figure I is a "circle
maker." It can be used in place of a compass. To make it, take a strip of
cardboard seven inches long and one inch wide. Bisect its short edges and
rule a line connecting these points. Upon this line, mark off, by
measuring with a ruler, inch, half-inch, and quarter-inch spaces. Through
these points draw lines, and pierce holes with a pin where they cross the
center line. A pin placed through the first hole will act as a pivot.
Push a sharp pencil through one of the other holes, just far enough to
allow the lead to make a mark. The pin marks the center, and the pencil
swings around it, as shown in the sketch at the top of page 68. The line
drawn by the pencil is the circumference of the circle. The distance
between the center and the circumference is the radius of a circle. We
speak of one radius and of two or more _radii_ of a circle.
[Illustration: II]
Figure II is a little tool that will help you to draw square corners.
Mark with a ruler upon an end and one side of the back of an envelope,
the spaces for inches, and their divisions into halves and quarters.
"Square corner" is another name for right angle. You will often wish to
use this measure, called a test square, in squaring corners, and in
drawing lines at right angles to each other. A No. 9 envelope will be a
good size to use, as the long edge will serve as a ruler. You can make
the drawings in this chapter with a ruler and compass, or you can use
these simple tools, made by yourself.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: B]
[Illustration: C]
[Illustration: D]
[Illustration: E]
[Illustration: F]
[Illustration: G]
Dividing a Circular Space.
There are many ways in which a circular shape may be divided and
decorated. Sketch B shows two circles drawn around the same center, with
different radii. Such circles are called concentric. Sketch C shows the
circle divided into fourths. To do this, place the angle of your test
square at the center of the circle and rule two radii. Repeat to secure
four right angles at the center of the circle.
Sketches D, F, and G show circles divided into sixths, by setting off the
radius six times on the circumference, and drawing diameters connecting
these points.
Sketch E shows a circle divided into thirds. Set off the radius six times
on the circumference; draw a radius from every other point.
Draw concentric circles, and divide them into halves, fourths, thirds,
and sixths.
[Illustration: A]
[Illustration: B]
[Illustration: C]
Some Divisions of Square Spaces.
A square is said to be on its diameters when one of its diameters is
vertical and the other horizontal; it is said to be on its diagonals when
the diagonals are in this position. Sketch A shows the larger square on
its diameters and the small inner square on its diagonals.
To draw a square on its diameters, place your test square to locate the
lower left corner of the square, and draw the two sides at right angles,
extending the lines to the desired length. Use your test square in
drawing all other corners of your square. For the diameters, bisect each
side and connect the points of bisection. For a design plan like Sketch
A, bisect the semi-diameters and connect these points. Diameters of a
square bisect opposite sides; diagonals bisect opposite angles.
In Sketch B, each side is quadrisected, or divided into fourths, and the
opposite points connected. This division of a square may be used for a
decorative plan in a number of ways, one of which is shown in the sketch.
To draw a square in the position of Sketch C, use your test square, and
draw the diagonals first, dividing them into inch spaces. Connect the
ends of the diagonals to get a square. In the plan for the border design
in Sketch C, connect the outer points on the diagonals to form the space
for a border decoration.
Draw two squares, one on its diameters, and one on its diagonals. Show by
divisions made in each, some plan for a design.
[Illustration: A]
[Illustration: B]
[Illustration: C]
How an Oblong Space May be Divided.
You can draw an oblong with your test square in the same way that you
drew a square, measuring the sides to get the length you wish. In Sketch
A the semi-diameters are bisected and the points connected, forming a
diamond-shaped space, something like a square on its diagonals. In making
the unit used in the upper half of this space, the lines of the triangle
are changed very slightly, but this change makes an interesting
decoration. In Sketch B the sides are quadrisected, and the space is
divided by connecting some of the opposite points, making an oblong on
its diameters for the middle space. In the upper half of this space a
simple shape, very like a square, is used. It can be reversed, as can the
triangular shape in Sketch A, to fill the lower half of the space.
Sketch C shows a plan for dividing the oblong into many small squares. In
each of these, or in every other one, a simple unit could be placed, to
make an "all-over" pattern.
Draw an oblong, and by dividing its sides, make a plan for a decorative
design. Show how a decoration can be made by slightly changing the lines
of an enclosing shape.
[Illustration: A]
[Illustration: C]
[Illustration: B]
[Illustration: D]
The Equilateral Triangle.
With the help of your circle maker or compass you can easily draw an
equilateral triangle.
Rule a horizontal line of any desired length, for the base of your
triangle--that side upon which the triangle seems to rest. Place the
pivot of your circle maker at one end of the line, and take a radius
equal to its length. Draw above this line part of the circumference of a
circle, called an arc. Then take as a center the other end of the
horizontal line, and with the same radius, draw an intersecting arc. Rule
lines from the intersecting arcs to each end of the line. You have drawn
an equilateral triangle.
Sketches A and B show you how an equilateral triangle may be divided.
Sketch C shows how one line may divide the triangle into two shapes,
whose outlines may be slightly changed or modified, to make a decoration.
For a surface covering like Sketch D, construct one equilateral triangle
and carry the base line across the paper. Rule a line parallel to this,
passing through the apex of the triangle. Set off upon these lines
lengths equal to one side of your triangle. Draw lines connecting these
points, as shown in the sketch. Repeat this process for a surface
covering.
[Illustration: A
CASE FOR CLIPPINGS]
[Illustration: B]
A Case for Newspaper Clippings.
When you know how to measure accurately and can plan good proportions,
you can make many simple articles, both useful and beautiful.
To make the case for newspaper clippings shown on this page, cut an
oblong of stiff manila paper, 8-1/2 x 9-1/2 inches. Use your test square
in measuring all corners, to get right angles. Then cut an oblong 9-1/2 x
10-1/2 inches of "cover" paper, of some good color. Fit the manila oblong
within this, in such a way as to leave an inch margin of colored paper
all around it. Fold over this margin, pasting it down neatly. Cut an
oblong 8-1/4 x 9-1/4 inches, of tinted paper of lighter weight. Lay this
oblong as an inside lining to the cover, pasting to leave a narrow margin
of the dark cover paper around the lining. Place the cover on your desk,
with the long edges from left to right. Fold the nearer edge to meet the
farther edge. Crease well. Bisect the crease, and place a point 3/8 of an
inch up from the crease. Measure three inches from each end, and place
points at these distances, 3/8 of an inch up from the crease. Within the
folded cover, place six or eight No. 9 envelopes, the bottom edges of the
envelopes touching the crease. Fit the envelopes within the cover, to
leave an equal margin around the front and ends of the case. Holding the
envelopes firmly within the cover, make holes with an eyelet punch at the
points placed for them. Tie the envelopes in the case with raffia, tape,
or cord.
[Illustration: DESIGN FOR BOX]
[Illustration: DESIGNS FOR ENVELOPES]
[Illustration: DESIGN FOR PORTFOLIO]
How to Draw Letters.
=Before the Days of Printing.= There was once a time when all the books
in the world were lettered by hand. This hand printing was done by men
called monks, who lived in monasteries, away from the noise and bustle of
the world, and who often devoted their whole lives to the lettering of
religious books. They did this lettering on sheepskin or parchment
instead of on paper, and they spared no pains in making these manuscripts
as beautiful as possible. Color was often used for initials and for
capital letters, and sometimes artistically designed borders were placed
around the lettering, making each page in these manuscript books as
beautiful as a picture. The great amount of time that was necessary to
make one of these books made them very expensive, and only people of
great wealth could own them.
=Type and the Printing Press.= When type and the printing press were
invented, the printer at first tried to make his pages look like the
manuscript pages of the monks. For this reason, the earlier printing was
artistic, although the letters were not as clear and perfect as type
letters are now. The first books printed from type were also expensive,
but little by little the process was made cheap, until at last type
letters lost much of their beauty. Lately, however, printers have
realized that single letters are like design units in an all-over
pattern. The size of the letters, their shapes and thickness, the spaces
between them, and the spaces between the lines are all of great
importance.
=A Simple Alphabet.= On the next page is a simple alphabet, planned on
squared paper. You can print in this style, any title or words you may
wish on a program or book-cover. Plan your printing on a separate piece
of paper, marking the height of the space you intend to fill with the
letters. Quadrisect this height and draw through these points horizontal
lines. Lay off on the lower horizontal, distances equal to the
quadrisection. From these points erect vertical lines, using your test
square. Mark in a sketchy way the width of each letter in the word you
are planning, making the thickness of each letter the width of a square,
and leaving the same distance (the width of a square) between each
letter. Be careful to keep uniform thickness in slanting lines and
curves, as in K and C. Avoid angles in your curves. If you have more than
one word in your line, leave three squares for the space between the
words, and if more than one line of printing is used, guard against too
much space between the lines. The width of two squares would be a safe
distance in a style like this.
[Illustration]
=Transferring the Letters.= When your plan is complete, rub soft lead
pencil evenly over the back of the paper, and place the plan exactly
where you wish the lettering to go, on your book-cover or program, with
the lead painting next to the cover. Then mark over the letters with a
sharp point, and a faint tracing will appear on the under surface. You
can then finish your lettering in ink or color, as you prefer.
All lettering must be done with much care, with exactness, and with the
greatest neatness.
DESIGN
[Illustration:
King of two hands, he does his part
In every useful toil and art;
A heritage, it seems to me
A king might wish to hold in fee.
James Russell Lowell.
]
[Illustration:
WHAT NEED HAD YOU OF
MONEY, MY BOY,
OR THE PRESENTS
MONEY CAN BRING,
WHEN EVERY BREATH
WAS A BREATH OF JOY?
YOU OWNED THE WHOLE WORLD,
WITH ITS HILLS AND TREES,
THE SUN, AND THE CLOUDS,
AND THE BRACING BREEZE,
AND YOUR HANDS TO WORK
WITH; HAVING THESE,
YOU WERE RICHER
THAN ANY KING.
FROM "THE COUNTRY BOY"
BY LUCY LARCOM.
]
[Illustration: CHART-A]
[Illustration: CHART-D]
Colors in Full Intensity and their Neutral Values.
=Light and Dark Colors.= When you painted an autumn scene like the one on
page 2, you found that it could be done with three colors--yellow, red,
and blue. Blue made the sky and water; blue and yellow the grass and the
foliage of the smaller tree; blue and red the distance; yellow, red, and
blue the tree trunks and the autumn colors of the large tree. Look again
at the sketch. Do you see that the two trees are darker than the grass,
that the water and the sky are of nearly the same value, and that the
tree-trunks are the darkest colors in the picture? In the winter scene on
page 8, and in the spring picture of the yellow bush, both dark and light
colors have been used. The colored flower studies all show dark and light
colors. Both light and dark colors are needed to express truth and
beauty, just as in music we need both high and low tones for perfect
melody.
=An Orderly Arrangement of Colors.= In Chart A these colors are arranged
in an orderly way. Yellow (Y) is the lightest color and is placed
directly opposite violet (V), the darkest color in the circle.
Yellow-orange (YO) and yellow-green (YG) come next to yellow on either
side. Then orange (O) and green (G) follow, and next to them are
red-orange (RO) and blue-green (BG). Next in the circle are red (R) and
blue (B), and after them red-violet (RV) and blue-violet (BV). The colors
in the chart are the strongest that your three colors can make. Colors of
this strength are said to be in full intensity.
=Expressing Colors in Neutral Values.= On page 4 are "finder" pictures
taken from the autumn scene on page 2. These are done in gray washes that
correspond to the colors in the autumn sketch. The trees are shown in
grays that make them just as dark as the trees in the colored picture.
When we make gray washes just as light and as dark as colors that we wish
to represent, we say that we express those colors in neutral values.
=The Neutral Value Scale.= In Chart D the scales are arranged to show the
grays or neutral values that correspond to the different colors in their
full intensity. In this chart yellow is as light as the gray wash called
High Light (HL). Yellow-orange and yellow-green are of the same value as
Light (L). Orange and green are of the same value as Low Light (LL).
Red-orange and blue-green are of the same value as Middle (M). Red and
blue equal the neutral value High Dark (HD). Red-violet and blue-violet
are equal to Dark (D), and violet, the darkest color, is expressed by Low
Dark (LD). Low Dark is almost black.
The Neutral Value Scale.
[Illustration: VALUE SCALE]
A scale of neutral values, larger in size than that on page 78, is
printed on this page. White and black are added. They do not correspond
to any color, but they help us to see the many steps that may be taken
between them. Only seven of these steps from black to white are shown in
our scale. Of course there are other grays, not represented in the scale,
just as there are tones of music not expressed in the musical scale or
octave. The musical scale and this value scale are used to help locate
all other notes and all other degrees of light and dark. You could make,
for instance, other grays between High Light and White. But it is useful
to know that certain grays have definite names, and definite places in
the scale.
With the aid of this larger scale, we can more easily compare the values
of the colors of a landscape, a flower, or a still-life group with the
same values in gray. Turn to pages 8 and 9. On page 8 the winter
landscape is in color, and you see the same scene on page 9 in neutral
values. In it the sky and part of the snow are of the same value, and
they match the gray marked High Light in the scale. The distant hill is
Low Light; the dark band of trees on the horizon is High Dark, and the
tree in the foreground is Dark. In this way you can find in the scale the
neutral values used in a picture.
Name the values of the hyacinth, on page 53. What values were used in the
moonlight picture on page 10? Make a little scale showing these values
and giving their names.
[Illustration: 1]
[Illustration: 2]
[Illustration: 3]
[Illustration: 4]
[Illustration: 5]
[Illustration: 6]
[Illustration: 7]
Dividing a Space into Large and Small Spaces.
Plaids are most attractive when seen in color. Before the color is added,
however, definite spaces must be divided by lines into other spaces,
making an interesting variety. In drawing from flowers, you found that a
spray showing large and small shapes made a more interesting sketch than
one in which leaves and flowers were of uniform shapes and sizes.
Sketches 1 and 2 show how vertical and horizontal lines may divide a
square into a variety of spaces. Either arrangement is more beautiful
than sketch 3, where the spaces are more nearly alike. Look at the
still-life group in sketch 4, where the three objects are so nearly of
the same size. Do you think this group as pleasing as the group shown in
sketch 5? Our designs, as well as our pictures, must show variety and
good arrangement of shapes and spaces, in order to be interesting.
Too much variety in a picture or design is as bad as not enough variety.
Look at the number of lines and spaces in sketch 6. The design is crowded
and "fussy," like an overtrimmed bonnet, or a room in which there is too
much furniture. The still-life group in sketch 7 shows the same effect of
too much variety.
Draw four squares, each four inches on a side. Divide each into large and
small spaces of pleasing variety by using vertical and horizontal lines,
four inches in length.
[Illustration: 1]
[Illustration: 2]
[Illustration]
[Illustration: 3]
[Illustration: 4]
Large and Small Spaces in Two Values.
One way of adding to the interest and beauty of large and small spaces is
to show them in values. Compare Sketches 1 and 2 on this page with
Sketches 1 and 2 on page 81. You will find the plaids which are shown in
values more interesting than those which are made with lines only. The
two values in each sketch on this page are chosen from the neutral value
scale on page 80. In Sketch 1, High Light (HL) and Black (B) are used,
and in Sketch 2, we find Middle (M) and Black (B). You see how different
in effect the two plaids are. The same difference can be shown in
landscape, flowers, or in any other picture or design, by changing the
values. Sketches 3 and 4 show simple groups of still life, first drawn in
outline from the objects, and then painted in values chosen from the
value scale. Sketch 3 is painted in the same values as the plaid in
Sketch 1, and Sketches 2 and 4 are alike in values.
Choose two of your best plaid designs, done in the lesson on page 81, and
paint the spaces in one, HL and B; in the other M and B.
[Illustration: 1]
[Illustration: 2]
[Illustration: 3]
[Illustration: 4]
Pictures in Different Keys.
In your study of music you have learned to sing in different keys. Some
songs are pitched in high keys, and others in low. Or, the same song may
be sung in several different keys. The tune or melody remains the same,
but there is a difference in the sound.
Pictures are sometimes spoken of as being painted in keys. If the darker
values of the scale are used, the picture is said to be in low key. If
the picture is full of light color, it is said to be in a high key.
Sketches 1 and 2 show you how different the same design appears, when
painted in different keys. Sketch 3 is a landscape in the same values
used in Sketch 1. Sketch 4 shows the same scene in a lower key. The soft,
silvery light of early morning has given place to the deeper tones of
dusk.