Egypt and to the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, restored the semblance
of authority to the ʿAbbasid Khalifate of Baghdad, but the following
period 567-656 (= A.D. 1171-1258) saw no real reconstruction of the
Khalifate: existing conditions were merely bolstered up whilst internal
decay proceeded on its course. In 656 (= A.D. 1258) the Khalif finally
went down before the Mongol invasion which was simply destructive in its
results. It was not until two centuries later that the Ottoman Turks
sweeping westwards evolved a new order from these elements of decay and
founded an empire which has lasted some 500 years, receiving from the
last exiled representative of the ʿAbbasids such title as he could give
to the historic Khalifate, and practically re-organising the Sunni Muslim
world on strictly orthodox and traditional lines so that, in spite of
occasional dissentients, it generally won the esteem and loyalty of the
world of Islam.
XX.
THE LATER HISTORY OF THE ISMAʿILIAN SECT
The Fatimid Khalifate had its origin in a religious sect which professed
to represent the true Islam transmitted through a line of seven Imams
who alone understood the real meaning of the religion proclaimed by the
Prophet Muhammad: the first of these was the Prophet’s son-in-law ʿAli,
and the last Ismaʿil the son of Jaʿfar as-Sadiq or his son Muhammad,
with whom, according to the earlier teaching, the line ended as the Imam
passed into concealment, the leaders of the sect keeping the teaching
alive and preparing the way for his return to the visible world. At a
later date the leaders claimed themselves to be the Imam’s descendants,
the “concealment” being no more than a hiding from the persecuting
Khalifs of Baghdad, and so they were the continuers of the sacred
tradition, and on this claim rested the Khalifate of Kairawan and of
Egypt. It is, of course, extremely difficult to make anything like a
fair estimate of the religious work and influence connected with such
a movement, and especially because it professed to cover its religious
teaching with a veil of secrecy, and also because, during the duration
of the Fatimid Khalifate in Egypt, the historians are almost exclusively
occupied with recording the political activities of the rulers and make
only occasional and allusive references to the sect as a religious body.
It seems possible to distinguish three different elements in the sect,
(i) the philosophical element which is one of the results of Greek
philosophy and especially of the teaching of Aristotle as interpreted by
the neo-Platonists and represented in an oriental dress after passing
through a Syrian and Persian medium. Such teaching is traditionally
associated with Jaʿfar as-Sadiq, and seems to have been the real
doctrine of the sect at its first formation, but that was revealed only
to the initiated, and apparently it was never checked or restated in the
light of the more accurate study of the text of Aristotle which was the
work of the “philosophers” of the fourth century A.H. (ii) The definitely
Shiʿite doctrine of the incarnation of the divine spirit in the Imam
passed on by transmigration from ʿAli to his descendants. And (iii)
the purely political element which cared nothing about philosophical
speculation or Shiʿite doctrine, but saw in the sect promising elements
of a conspiracy against the ʿAbbasid Khalifate. But it does not seem true
to say that the whole movement was wholly political, as though there were
no reality in the attachment to philosophical or Shiʿite ideas.
When the Ismaʿilian sect emerged first into the open arena in the
Qarmatian rising the doctrinal element, especially (i), had effectively
undermined all adherence to orthodox Islam; how long the Qarmatians
remained attached to Shiʿite claims we do not know, but they do not seem
to have attached much importance to them. In history the Qarmatians
appear as simply anti-Muslim and offensively irreligious: they give
evidence of no ideals whatever beyond the ordinary aspirations of
brigands, though we must bear in mind that the only account of them is
such as their enemies have given us. In fact they seem to have been
simply a robber band released from all pretence of religious beliefs and
inspired by a hatred of Islam due, no doubt, to oppression at the hands
of Muslim rulers.
The Khalifate at Kairawan and Cairo presents a much better test of the
religious tendencies of the Ismaʿilian sect. In this case the sectarian
leaders established a strong government and, on the whole, ruled well.
The government was founded by those who seem to have believed sincerely
in the Fatimid claims, but the great majority of the subject population
had no sympathies in that direction: they were quite willing to be
ruled by Shiʿites, but had no inclination to turn Shiʿite themselves.
The extravagant claims of incarnation etc. which made so strong an
appeal to the Persians found the Berbers and Egyptians irresponsive. The
Ismaʿilians made an attempt to press them into their sect when first the
Mahdi was established at Kairawan, but this policy was soon abandoned
and very rarely tried again, though it seems that the regular meetings
of the sect and the instructions given by the duʿat were continued until
some time after the reign of Hakim. For the most part the Fatimids
were quite content with political power and did not interfere with
the religious convictions of the people. The condition seems to have
been that the Ismaʿilians formed a kind of free-masonry which was, to
some extent, the “power behind the throne,” though it was by no means
necessary for the officers of state to be members of that brotherhood
themselves, and in later times, when the wazirs were practically
independent princes, cases occur in which the official government is
actually unfriendly towards it. In the later part of the Fatimid period
the only mark which distinguished its rule from that of the orthodox
Khalif at Baghdad seems to have been that the _khutba_ before the Friday
sermon was said in the name of the Fatimid, and that of the ʿAbbasid was
not mentioned. The whole sectarian teaching seems to have evaporated
steadily in an Egyptian atmosphere which was one of steady indifference.
The philosophical teaching which had been the first object of the sect,
died away in Asia, and was then transmitted to Spain which formed a kind
of _orbis ulterior_ of Islam, leaping over Egypt altogether, as though
its premature development in the Ismaʿilian sect had inoculated the
Fatimite community against it. The characteristically Persian doctrines
of incarnation and transmigration took no hold in Egypt or Ilfrikiya:
when they were vigorously preached by Persians in Hakim’s time they only
provoked a riot.
We can hardly treat religion as a matter of race, for there seems no good
evidence for extending heredity so as to include matters of cultural
development: culture, which includes religion, is transmitted by contact
not by descent, it is learned not inherited: and it is very doubtful how
far psychological pre-dispositions can be inherited. But culture exists
in different areas with distinctive characteristics so that it is not
easy for persons of one culture-area to appreciate the outlook of those
of another, although there is a constant culture-drift passing between
the two. In North Africa there is a tendency to pay exaggerated honour,
which might be described as actual worship, to the _murabits_ or saints,
but it is quite independent of the incarnation theories which prevail
in Persia and India, and so we may say that this, the characteristic
tenet of the Ismaʿilis as Shiʿites, found itself in Egypt and North
Africa in an unsympathetic atmosphere, and was gradually starved out.
Perhaps we may take the accession of al-Hafiz in A.H. 524 = A.D. 1131,
when the wazir in office was antagonistic to the Ismaʿili doctrines,
as the probable date by which the doctrines of the Ismaʿili sect had
ceased to have any meaning in Egypt, and consequently that in which the
parent Ismaʿili sect was practically obsolete. Whatever may have been the
sincerity of its first founders, of those whom we credit with a desire
to spread the philosophical theories learned from Greek philosophers and
formed into a body of doctrine subversive of the traditional teaching
of Islam, or of those who were attached to the incarnation theories of
the Persians, it is clear that the purely political element finally
gained the upper hand, and in due time discarded all the religious and
philosophical thought which, from their point of view, had outlived its
utility. In Fatimid Egypt the sect was rather like a free-masonry under
royal patronage, and when this patronage came to an end the sect died
a natural death. That the teaching of Duruzi and Hamza in the reign
of Hakim met with such violent opposition is convincing that Shiʿite
teachings were uncongenial to the Egyptians, though it does seem that
under Fatimid rule Cairo was much frequented by Persian visitors and
pilgrims.
The subsequent influence of the Ismaʿili sect shows itself in off-shoots
which do not connect with Egypt or North Africa. So far as we know the
first Ismaʿili propaganda in India took place about A.H. 460 = A.D. 1067,
about the time when the Fatimid Khalifate in Egypt was just coming to the
end of its flourishing period. At that time a missionary named ʿAbdullah
came from Yemen and preached in North-West India, and is claimed as the
founder of a sect known as the Bohras which is found scattered through
many of the trading centres of the Bombay presidency, though some
attribute its foundation to a later teacher, the Mullah ʿAli. Many of the
Bohras, however, have become Sunni (cf. Nur Allah ash-Shushtari, quoted
in Arnold: _Preaching of Islam_, pp. 275-7).
The Khojah sect proper was founded by a daʿi named Nur ad-Din who was
sent from Alamut about A.H. 495 (= A.D. 1101), or perhaps later, and so
is an off-shoot of the Assassins (cf. p. 214 supra), Nur ad-Din changed
his name to the Hindu Nur Satagar and made many converts from the lower
castes of Gujerat. About A.D. 1430 the head of this Khojah sect was Pir
Sadr ad-Din who adapted its teachings to suit Hindu ideas; according
to him Muhammad was Brahma, ʿAli was Krisna in his tenth incarnation
(avatar), thus accepting the previous nine incarnations of Hindu
mythology and adding this extra one as an adaptation to Shiʿite ideas,
and Adam was Siva. This Hindu rendering of Ismaʿilian ideas was detailed
in a book which he produced and called the _Dasavatar_, which serves as
the sacred book of the modern Khojahs and is read beside any member of
the sect on his death-bed. In this semi-Hindu teaching it is difficult to
trace any real continuity with historic Islam, and it is rather grotesque
to find that the members of the sect, numerous in the chief trading towns
of western India, have in recent years taken a leading part in Islamic
agitations against British rule.
These Indian Khojahs represent the Assassin branch of the Fatimite wing,
but there are other representatives of the same branch scattered all over
the Muslim world, though nowhere forming an established community quite
in the same way as in West India. The Bohras, or such of them as have not
turned Sunni, represent the older parent stock of the Ismaʿilians. The
Druzes of Mount Lebanon maintain the off-shoot formed during the later
years of al-Hakim, and these show a clearer continuity than any other
relic of the sect which set the Fatimid Khalifate upon the throne of
Egypt.
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Noël des Vergers, Hist. de l’Afrique, Paris, 1841.
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subjectas. Upsala. 1840. (Text and Latin trans.)
Ibn Khallikan. Shams ad-Din Abu l-Abbas.
d. 681. Wrote Wafiat ul-Aiyan (Biographical Dictionary), strongly
anti-Fatimid. Ed. Wüstenfeld, Göttingen, 1835. Eng. Trans. (cited in
references) by De Slane, 1835-40.
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Petersburg, 1850.
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(very defective).
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Maqrizi, Ahmah b. ʿAli b. ʿAbdu l-Qadir al-Maqrizi (dz. 845).
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disposed towards the Fatimid Khalifs from whom he claimed descent.
Ed. Bulaq, A.H. 1270. Portions translated in De Sacy’s Chrestomathie.
Part by Bouriant (but nothing relating to the Fatimids as yet reached in
this translation. Pub. 1895, etc. in progress). Ed. Wiet, Cairo, 1911,
etc. (a corrected text).
Wuestenfeld: Macrizi’s Geschichte der Copten. (Text and trans.) 1845.
Nasir-i-Khusraw.
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Schefer, Paris, 1881.
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Dozy, Historia Abbadidarum, ii. 1846.
Dozy, Historia Siciliae, Arabice et Latine, 1790.
Hist. de la Sicilie, trad. par J. J. A. Caussin, Paris, year x (1802).
Osama.
Derenbourg, Vie d’Ousama, Paris, 1886.
(Contains Osama’s own memoirs: invaluable for the reign of az-Zafir and
the history immediately following.)
al-Qalqashandi.
Al-Kalkashandi, tr. Wüstenfeld, Die Geographie, etc. Göttingen, 1879.
(B). Modern Writers.
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1886.
Dozy: Essai sur l’histoire de l’Islamisme. Leide, 1879.
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Guyard: Fragments relatifs à la doctrine des Ismaélis. Paris, 1874.
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” History of Egypt. Middle Ages. Lond. New ed. 1914.
” Moslem Dynasties. 1894.
” Art of the Saracens in Egypt. 1886.
” Coinage of Egypt A.H. 358-922. (Vol. ii. of Catal. of Brit. Mus.
Oriental Coins). 1892.
Mann, J.: The Jews in Egypt and Palestine under the Fatimid Caliphs.
Oxford, 1920.
Quatremère: Sur la dynastie des Khalifes Fatimites. (Journal asiat. for
August, 1836. 3rd series, No. 2.)
Ravaisse: Essai sur l’histoire etc. d’après Makrizi.
Rivoira: Moslem architecture. Eng. trans. Oxford, 1918.
De Sacy: Exposé de la religion des Druzes. Paris, 1838 (2 vols.).
De Sacy: Chrestomathie (vols. i. and ii.).
Wuestenfeld: Geschichte d. Fatimiden Chalifen. Göttingen, 1881. (A series
of extracts, not a connected history.)
Wuestenfeld: El-Macrizi’s Abhandlung. 1847.
Zaydam, G.: Umayyads and Abbasids. Lond., 1907.
INDEX
A
ʿAbbas, 229
—wazir, 230
Abdan, 45
ʿAbdullah, founder (or reformer) of Ismaʿilite sect, 16, 17, 21, 32
ʿAbdullah b. Essaig, minister to the Aghlabids, 66
Abu ʿAbdullah, missionary in N. Africa, 57 sqq.
—suspected, 69
—executed, 71
Abu Khatam’s sect, 48
Abu Najah, the monk and minister of finance, 220
Abu Raqwa, Umayyad claimant in
—invades Egypt, 149 sqq.
—N. Africa, 147 sqq.
—defeated, 151
—death, 152
Aghlabid dynasty in N. Africa, 59, 247
Ahmad, son of Abdullah, 33
Ahmah, wazir to al-Hafiz, 222-223
Al-Adid, 235
Al-Afdal, 216-220
Al-Amir, Khalif, 218
—assassinated, 220-221
Al-ʿAziz, Khalif, 115 sqq.
—death, 121-122
Aleppo, 175, 176, 195
Al-Faʿiz, Khalif, 233
Al-Hafiz, Khalif, 222
Al-Hakim, Khalif, 121, 123 sqq.
—peculiarities, 133
—mosques, 137-8
—disappears, 185 sqq.
—reports that he is still alive, 188
ʿAli, 4, 5
ʿAli Allahi, 16
ʿAlid lines of descent, 5, 11
Al-Jarjarai, 193, 196
Al-Mahadiya founded, 77
Al-Mansur, Khalif, 90, 91
Al-Moʿizz, Khalif, 93 sqq.
—goes to Egypt, 109
—his rule in Egypt, 113
Al-Mustali, Khalif, 210 sqq.
Al-Mustansir, Khalif, 88
Al-Qaʾim, Khalif, 88
Al-Yazuri, 196, 197, 198, 200, 203
Amalric, 239-242
Anushtegin, 191-196
Arab race, 1
Armenians in Egypt, 206, 223-224
As-Salih, 233, 235-236
Assassins, sect of, 209, 210 sqq., 244-245
Az-Zafir, Khalif, 227
Az-Zahir, Khalif, 189
B
Babists, 15
Badr the Armenian, 206, 208
Bahrayn taken by the Qarmatians, 49-50
Baldwin, 218-219
Barjawan, 124, 126, 130
—assassinated, 131
Barqa taken by Abu Raqwa, 148-149
Batinite doctrines, 7, 12, 176
Berbers, 55-56, 74 sqq.
B. Qorra, 147-148
Buraniyya sect, 48
Byzantium, treaty with, 191
C
Cairo founded, 102 sqq., 114
Christians, 2, 116, 141, 143-145, 155-158, 170, 179-180, 197-198, 226
—allowed to emigrate, 171
Cluniac movement, 252-254
“Companions” cursed, 142
—cursing stopped, 154, 169
Crusades, 216-218, 224, 236, 238-239, 241, 255
D
Daʿi or missionary of Shiʿite sect, 6, 7
—arguments used by Ismaʿilian daʿi, 21 sqq.
—Chief Daʿi, 135
Darazi, Persian teacher who visited Egypt, 176
Daylamites, 83
Daysan, 18
Dirgham, 236, 238
Druses, 43, 178-179, 187, 244
E
Egypt attacked, 78, 94
—Shiʿites in, 79
—disorder in Egypt, 97-98
—invaded by the Fatimids, 99 sqq.
F
Fadl, general under al-Hakim, 149, 152-153
Famine in Egypt, 190, 204-205
Fatimid claims, 34 sqq.; cf. ʿAlid lines of descent
—claims ridiculed, 116
—manifesto against, 166
Fatimid architecture, 106
—decline of Fatimids, 254
—end of Fatimid rule, 243-245
Forbidden vegetables, 141-142, 164
Fustat, 102
—fired by al-Hakim, 183
H
Haftakin, 111 sqq.
—prisoner, 119
Hamdan, 39, 40, 43
Hamza, 178, 179, 181
Hasan al Akhram, 178
Hasan b. Mufarraj revolts, 163
Hasan-i-Sabbah visits Egypt, 208 sqq., 212
Hasan Qarmatian leader, 47
Hashimites, 5
Hijaz, recognition of Fatimids in, 202-203
“House of Wisdom,” 139-140
Husayn Ahwazi, 39
Husayn b. Jawhar, 131, 132, 153-160
I
Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ, 18
Ibn ʿAmmar, 124
—downfall, 126-127
Ibn Hawshab, 51 sqq.
Ibn Killis the Jew, 99, 114, 120
Ibn Nestorius, 120
Ibn Sallar wazir, 227
—revolts, 227-229
—murdered, 229-230
Idrisids, 76, 99
Ikhshids, 81, 83, 93, 107
Ikhwanu s-Safa, 139
Ismaʿil, 9
Ismaʿilian sect, 12 sqq., 29
—doctrine, 257-258
—off-shoots, 212, 260 sqq.
J
Jaʿfar as-Sadiq, 16, 37, 45, 161, 257
Jawhar, 98
—invades Egypt, 99 sqq.
Jerusalem, church of the Resurrection destroyed, 157
—city taken by the Turks, 207
—by the Crusaders, 216
—kingdom of, 216, 255
“Jewish legend,” 34, 47, 68
Jews, 2, 155-160, 170, 179-180
K
Kafur, 93 sqq.
—a patron of literature, 95
Kahira, cf. Cairo
Kairawan, 61, 64, 76, 85
—Khalifs of, 74 sqq.
Kasam, 47
Katama tribe, 57
Kaysanite sect, 5
Khalif, title of, 3
Kharijites, 56, 75
—revolt of, 88-89
“King” as title of the wazir, 224
L
Legitimist ideas of the Persians, 3, 14, 15
Licence issued by al-Hakim to non-Muslims, 145
M
Madina officials sent to remove articles from, 161
Maghrab, 55
Mahmud of Ghazna, 168, 249-250
Mani, 19
Mansuri sect, 7
Marcion, 19
Maymun, 18, 20
Muslim expansion, 2
N
Nasir ad-Dawla, 204-205
Nasir ad-Din, 229
—murders az-Zafir, 230-232
Nasir-i-Khusraw visits Egypt, 198 sqq., 209
Nizar’s revolt, 211-212
North Africa, 52 sqq.
—deserts the Fatimids, 200-201
Nuwayri’s account of oath taken by Ismaʿilis, 30
O
Okayl Arabs revolt, 164
Oman resists the Qarmatians, 50
Osama, 225 sqq., 230
P
Patriarch imprisoned by al-Hakim, 158
—released, 180-181
Persians, 3, 7
Princess Royal al-Hakim’s sister, 182-184, 189
Palestine and Syria lost to the Fatimids, 219
Q
Qadi, office of, 134
R
Raqada, 64
—taken by Abu ʿAbdullah, 67, 69
Rudwan, 224-225
S
Sabʿiya, Ismaʿilian sect, 10, 17
—grades, 21 sqq.
Saladin, 238-239, 243, 256
Saljuq Turks, 201, 207, 215, 219, 251, 254
“Seveners,” cf. Sabʿiya
Shawar, 236-243
Shiʿites, 4, 16
—sects, 6; cf. Ismaʿilians
—claims, 42
Shirkuh, 236, 238, 239, 241
Sicily revolts, 77
Syria, 102, 117, 126-127, 129, 136, 163, 174, 175, 191-195, 234
—lost to the Fatimids, 219
T
Tekin, 79 sqq.
Transmigration, 14
Tripoli, 77
Turks, cf. Saljuq
“Twelvers,” 10
U
ʿUbayd Allah, 33, 61 sqq.
—journey to N. Africa, 62
—imprisoned, 62
—liberated, 67 sqq.
W
Wine, laws against, 165
Y
Yahya’s sect, 48
Yemen, Ismaʿilians in, 51 sqq.
Yusuf, 184
Z
Zaqruya, 46
Ziadat Allah, 60, 62 sqq.